67-597: Coprophagia ( / ˌ k ɒ p r ə ˈ f eɪ dʒ i ə / KOP -rə- FAY -jee-ə ) or coprophagy ( / k ə ˈ p r ɒ f ə dʒ i / kə- PROF -ə-jee ) is the consumption of feces . The word is derived from the Ancient Greek κόπρος kópros "feces" and φαγεῖν phageîn "to eat". Coprophagy refers to many kinds of feces-eating, including eating feces of other species (heterospecifics), of other individuals (allocoprophagy), or one's own (autocoprophagy). Feces may be already deposited or taken directly from
134-412: A build-up of gases inside the gut, prompting the sphincter to relieve the pressure and release the feces. After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of that material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy, often 50% of that of the original food. This means that of all food eaten,
201-433: A deterrent for humans, as consuming or touching it may result in sickness or infection. Feces are discharged through the anus or cloaca during defecation . This process requires pressures that may reach 100 millimetres of mercury (3.9 inHg) (13.3 kPa) in humans and 450 millimetres of mercury (18 inHg) (60 kPa) in penguins. The forces required to expel the feces are generated through muscular contractions and
268-563: A level of control over which and how much sperm enters her system, an example of cryptic female choice. Although current results are inconclusive regarding whether or not females are cryptically selecting for a better phenotypic match, a female may benefit from having variable sperm fertilizing her offspring. Such adaptations are advantageous because females benefit from being able to control which sperm are successful in fertilizing eggs. The females may not be aware of which sperm are better suited for her offspring, but simply that being able to control
335-617: A livestock feed. The young of elephants , giant pandas , koalas , and hippos eat the feces of their mothers or other animals in the herd, to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found in their ecosystems. When such animals are born, their intestines are sterile and do not contain these bacteria. Without doing this, they would be unable to obtain any nutritional value from plants. Piglets with access to maternal feces early in life exhibited better performance. Hamsters , guinea pigs , chinchillas , hedgehogs , and pigs eat their own droppings, which are thought to be
402-443: A means of obtaining their hindgut protists . Termites and protists have a symbiotic relationship (e.g. with the protozoan that allows the termites to digest the cellulose in their diet). For example, in one group of termites, a three-way symbiotic relationship exists; termites of the family Rhinotermitidae, cellulolytic protists of the genus Pseudotrichonympha in the guts of these termites, and intracellular bacterial symbionts of
469-409: A plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and unknowingly disperse the seed in doing so. This mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation . Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the digestive system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant, but
536-503: A result of an adaptive response to time constraints on development due to temperature changes. In the fall, as the temperature cools, the flies are able to increase development rate, so they can achieve the necessary, albeit smaller than average, size. Furthermore, S. stercoraria development rate increases with increasing latitude. This is likely an adaptive response to shorter mating seasons. Body size, but not development rate, vary with altitude. Dung flies are larger at higher altitudes as
603-541: A result of colder temperatures. Larger yellow dung flies have a competitive advantage. Therefore, body size plasticity must be a survival mechanism. Offspring of large adults still survive under food limitations, despite needing more nutrients for a longer development. Thus, the observed growth plasticity is a result of altering body chemistry and not differing survival rates of offspring from small and large parents. Plastic development rate and body size are effective at avoiding premature death, meaning S. stercoraria adopts
670-477: A significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles , who can sense odors from long distances. Some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods. Feces serve not only as a basic food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. This process is known as coprophagia , and occurs in various animal species such as young elephants eating
737-426: A source of vitamins B and K , produced by gut bacteria. Sometimes, there is also the aspect of self-anointment while these creatures eat their droppings. On rare occasions gorillas have been observed consuming their feces, possibly out of boredom, a desire for warm food, or to reingest seeds contained in the feces. Some carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes , obtain nutrition from
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#1732876881372804-424: A strategy of being small and alive over large and dead. Smaller flies have an advantage in stressful environmental situations, due to larger dung flies needing more energy. Additionally, low genetic differentiation exists between yellow dung fly populations, likely due to extensive gene flow, as S. stercoraria is able to travel great distances. When species are unable to adapt through genetics, phenotypic plasticity
871-470: A valuable purpose in paleontology because they provide direct evidence of the predation and diet of extinct organisms. Coprolites may range in size from a few millimetres to more than 60 centimetres. Palaeofeces are ancient feces , often found as part of archaeological excavations or surveys. Intact paleofeces of ancient people may be found in caves in arid climates and in other locations with suitable preservation conditions. These are studied to determine
938-452: Is a result of food (dung) availability in the larval stage, which is often mediated by conspecific competition. Less dung results in more competitors, and more drying results in decreased growth rate and adult body size. Additionally, when exposed to constant temperatures in a laboratory setting, higher temperatures during growth yield smaller flies. Egg volume, but not clutch size, also decreases with increasing temperature. Giving merit to
1005-502: Is among the world's most expensive coffees. Paper is also made from elephant dung in Thailand. Haathi Chaap is a brand of paper made from elephant dung. Dog feces was used in the tanning process of leather during the Victorian era . Collected dog feces, known as "pure", "puer", or "pewer", were mixed with water to form a substance known as "bate", because proteolytic enzymes in
1072-536: Is burned as fuel in many countries. Animals such as the giant panda and zebra possess gut bacteria capable of producing biofuel. The bacterium in question, Brocadia anammoxidans , can be used to synthesize the rocket fuel hydrazine . A coprolite is fossilized feces and is classified as a trace fossil . In paleontology they give evidence about the diet of an animal. They were first described by William Buckland in 1829. Prior to this, they were known as "fossil fir cones " and " bezoar stones". They serve
1139-494: Is called constipation . The appearance of human fecal matter varies according to diet and health. Normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating. A combination of bile and bilirubin , which comes from dead red blood cells , gives feces the typical brown color. After the meconium , the first stool expelled, a newborn's feces contains only bile , which gives it a yellow-green color. Breast feeding babies expel soft, pale yellowish, and not quite malodorous matter; but once
1206-427: Is even provided with its own fertilizer. Organisms that subsist on dead organic matter or detritus are known as detritivores , and play an important role in ecosystems by recycling organic matter back into a simpler form that plants and other autotrophs may absorb once again. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle . To maintain nutrients in soil it is therefore important that feces returns to
1273-616: Is experienced primarily in relation to the sense of taste (either perceived or imagined) and, secondarily to anything that causes a similar feeling by sense of smell, touch, or vision. There is a Pile of Poo emoji represented in Unicode as U+1F4A9 💩 PILE OF POO , called unchi or unchi-kun in Japan. Poop is the center of toilet humor , and is commonly an interest of young children and teenagers. Scathophaga stercoraria Scathophaga stercoraria , commonly known as
1340-540: Is gained. After 10–20 days, the larvae burrow into the soil around and beneath the dung and pupate . The time needed for the juvenile flies to emerge can vary from 10 days at 25 °C to 80 days at 10 °C or less. The smaller females typically emerge a few days before the males. The fitness of the resulting juveniles is greatly dependent on the quality of the dung in which they were placed. Factors affecting dung quality include water content, nutritional quality, parasites, and drugs or other chemicals given to
1407-535: Is no singular form, making the word a plurale tantum ; out of various major dictionaries, only one enters variation from plural agreement . "Feces" is used more in biology and medicine than in other fields (reflecting science 's tradition of classical Latin and Neo-Latin ) There are many synonyms in informal registers for feces, just like there are for urine . Many are euphemistic , colloquial , or both; some are profane (such as shit ), whereas most belong chiefly to child-directed speech (such as poo or
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#17328768813721474-466: Is not called coprophagia. Domesticated and wild mammals are sometimes coprophagic. Some dogs may lack critical digestive enzymes when they are only eating processed dried foods, so they gain these from consuming fecal matter. They only consume fecal matter that is less than two days old which supports this theory. Cattle in the United States are often fed chicken litter . Concerns have arisen that
1541-470: Is relatively high in paleofeces, making it more reliable than skeletal DNA retrieval. The reason this analysis is possible at all is due to the digestive system not being entirely efficient, in the sense that not everything that passes through the digestive system is destroyed. Not all of the surviving material is recognizable, but some of it is. Generally, this material is the best indicator archaeologists can use to determine ancient diets, as no other part of
1608-425: Is the most viable option to adjust to changing environments. Yellow dung flies develop in extremely variable environments, with pat drying, dung availability, and larval competition hindering survival. Therefore, phenotypic plasticity allows S. stercoraria to adjust development according to unpredictable ecological situations without genetic adaptation. Since S. stercoraria is a synanthropic fly, it does carry
1675-517: Is the scientific terminology, while the term stool is also commonly used in medical contexts. Outside of scientific contexts, these terms are less common, with the most common layman's term being poop or poo . The term shit is also in common use, although it is widely considered vulgar or offensive. There are many other terms, see below. The word faeces is the plural of the Latin word faex meaning "dregs". In most English-language usage , there
1742-562: Is used as a cement to make adobe ( mudbrick ) huts, or even in throwing sports, especially with cow and camel dung. Kopi luwak , or civet coffee, is coffee made from coffee beans that have been eaten and excreted by Asian palm civets ( Paradoxurus hermaphroditus ). Giant pandas provide fertilizer for the world's most expensive green tea . In Malaysia , tea is made from the droppings of stick insects fed on guava leaves. In northern Thailand , elephants are used to digest coffee beans in order to make Black Ivory coffee , which
1809-465: Is very male-biased and competition is high. Females are small and have limited precopulatory choice. Copulation lasts 20–50 minutes, after which the male attempts to guard the female from other males. Both males and females often mate with multiple partners. Reproductive success depends on a variety of factors, including sperm competition, nutrition, and environmental temperature. Females have paired accessory glands , which supply lubricants to
1876-532: The Pyrenees and Swiss Alps . The adults mainly prey on smaller insects , mostly other Diptera . They can also consume nectar and dung as additional sources of energy. In a laboratory setting, adult S. stercoraria can live solely on Drosophila and water. Females spend most of their time foraging in vegetation and only visit dung pats to mate and oviposit on the dung surface. Both males and females are attracted to dung by scent, and approach dung pats against
1943-493: The anus . In humans, coprophagia has been described since the late 19th century in individuals with mental illnesses and in some sexual acts, such as the practices of anilingus and felching where sex partners insert their tongue into each other's anus and ingest biologically significant amounts of feces. Some animal species eat feces as a normal behavior, in particular lagomorphs , which do so to allow tough plant materials to be digested more thoroughly by passing twice through
2010-441: The diet and health of the people who produced them through the analysis of seeds, small bones, and parasite eggs found inside. Feces may contain information about the person excreting the material as well as information about the material. They also may be analyzed chemically for more in-depth information on the individual who excreted them, using lipid analysis and ancient DNA analysis. The success rate of usable DNA extraction
2077-453: The large intestine . Feces contain a relatively small amount of metabolic waste products such as bacterially altered bilirubin , and dead epithelial cells from the lining of the gut. Feces are discharged through the anus or cloaca during defecation . Feces can be used as fertilizer or soil conditioner in agriculture. They can also be burned as fuel or dried and used for construction . Some medicinal uses have been found. In
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2144-504: The palindromic word poop ) or to crude humor (such as crap , dump , load and turd .). The feces of animals often have special names (some of them are slang), for example: In all human cultures, feces elicit varying degrees of disgust in adults. Children under two years typically have no disgust response to it, suggesting it is culturally derived. Disgust toward feces appears to be strongest in cultures where flush toilets make olfactory contact with human feces minimal. Disgust
2211-446: The shock video 2 Girls 1 Cup . The 120 Days of Sodom , a 1785 novel by Marquis de Sade , prominently features depictions of erotic sadomasochistic coprophagia. The 1975 film of the same name also contains scenes of coprophilia and coprophagia. Ayurveda and Siddha medicine use animal excreta in various forms, with the most important being the dung and urine of the Zebu . During
2278-535: The yellow dung fly or the golden dung fly , is one of the most familiar and abundant flies in many parts of the Northern Hemisphere . As its common name suggests, it is often found on the feces of large mammals , such as horses , cattle , sheep , deer , and wild boar , where it goes to breed. The distribution of S. stercoraria is likely influenced by human agriculture, especially in northern Europe and North America. The Scathophaga are integral in
2345-459: The animal kingdom due to their role in the natural decomposition of dung in fields. They are also very important in the scientific world due to their short life cycles and susceptibility to experimental manipulations; thus, they have contributed significant knowledge about animal behavior. Scathophaga stercoraria is sexually dimorphic , with an average lifespan of one to two months. The adult males are bright golden-yellow with orange-yellow fur on
2412-428: The animal. Yellow dung flies are anautogenous . To become sexually mature and produce viable eggs or sperm, they must feed on prey to acquire sufficient proteins and lipids. Females under nutritional stress will have higher rates of egg mortality and less survival of offspring to adult emergence. S. stercoraria females can then produce four to 10 clutches in their lifetimes. The adults are active throughout much of
2479-523: The antibiotic subtilisin from Bacillus subtilis ) was anecdotally confirmed by German soldiers in Africa during World War II". However, this story is likely a myth, and independent research has been unable to verify these claims. Coprophagia has also been observed in some people with schizophrenia and pica . Coprophagous insects consume and redigest the feces of large animals. These feces contain substantial amounts of semidigested food , particularly in
2546-463: The archaeological record is so direct an indicator. A process that preserves feces in a way that they may be analyzed later is the Maillard reaction . This reaction creates a casing of sugar that preserves the feces from the elements. To extract and analyze the information contained within, researchers generally have to freeze the feces and grind it up into powder for analysis. Animal dung occasionally
2613-423: The area from which they came, which is not always the case in human society where food may be transported from rural areas to urban populations and then feces disposed of into a river or sea. Depending on the individual and the circumstances, human beings may defecate several times a day, every day, or once every two or three days. Extensive hardening of the feces that interrupts this routine for several days or more
2680-514: The baby begins to eat, and the body starts expelling bilirubin from dead red blood cells, its matter acquires the familiar brown color. At different times in their life, human beings will expel feces of different colors and textures. A stool that passes rapidly through the intestines will look greenish; lack of bilirubin will make the stool look like clay. The feces of animals, e.g. guano and manure , often are used as fertilizer . Dry animal dung , such as that of camel , bison and cattle ,
2747-526: The beneficial traits of the other, resulting in the coevolution of male and female reproductive systems of S. stercoraria. The eggs that the female lays on the dung hatch into larvae after 1–2 days, depending on temperature. The larvae quickly burrow into the dung for protection and feed on it. At 20 °C, larvae undergo three molts over five days, during which they grow exponentially. After growth, larvae spend another five days emptying their stomachs before pupation , where no additional body mass
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2814-474: The case of herbivores , owing to the inefficiency of the large animals' digestive systems . Thousands of species of coprophagous insects are known, especially among the orders Diptera and Coleoptera . Examples of such flies are Scathophaga stercoraria and Sepsis cynipsea , dung flies commonly found in Europe around cattle droppings. Among beetles, dung beetles are a diverse lineage, many of which feed on
2881-431: The case of human feces , fecal transplants or fecal bacteriotherapy are in use. Urine and feces together are called excreta . The distinctive odor of feces is due to skatole , and thiols ( sulfur -containing compounds), as well as amines and carboxylic acids. Skatole is produced from tryptophan via indoleacetic acid. Decarboxylation gives skatole. The perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be
2948-472: The cheese's fats. Members of a religious cult in Thailand routinely ate the feces and dead skin of their leader, whom they considered to be a holy man with healing powers. According to the DSM-5 , coprophilia is a paraphilia where the object of sexual interest is feces. This can involve coprophagia. Coprophagia is sometimes depicted in pornography , typically under the term "scat" (from scatology ), such as in
3015-473: The digestive tract. Other species may eat feces under certain conditions . The feces of the rock ptarmigan is used in Urumiit , which is a delicacy in some Inuit cuisine . Several beverages are made using the feces of animals, including but not limited to Kopi luwak , insect tea , and Black Ivory Coffee . Casu martzu is a cheese that uses the digestive processes of live maggots to help ferment and break down
3082-508: The dog feces helped to relax the fibrous structure of the hide before the final stages of tanning. Dog feces collectors were known as pure finders . Elephants, hippos , koalas and pandas are born with sterile intestines, and require bacteria obtained from eating the feces of their mothers to digest vegetation. In India, cow dung and cow urine are major ingredients of the traditional Hindu drink Panchagavya . Politician Shankarbhai Vegad stated that they can cure cancer . Feces
3149-499: The feces of commensal animals. Notable examples include Nepenthes jamban , whose specific name is the Indonesian word for toilet . Manure is organic matter, mostly animal feces, that is used as organic fertilizer for plants in agriculture . Feces Feces ( or faeces ; sg. : faex ) are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine , and has been broken down by bacteria in
3216-425: The feces of their mothers to gain essential gut flora , or by other animals such as dogs, rabbits, and monkeys. Feces and urine, which reflect ultraviolet light, are important to raptors such as kestrels , who can see the near ultraviolet and thus find their prey by their middens and territorial markers. Seeds also may be found in feces. Animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores . An advantage for
3283-501: The first emergence in March, and the overwinter generations are produced in the fall. In northern Europe, where the mating season is shorter, only one or two generations can be expected. Yellow dung flies have extremely variable phenotypes – body size and development rate in particular. Proximate causes of variation include juvenile nutrition, temperature, predation , and genetic variation . Much phenotypic plasticity in yellow dung flies
3350-419: The first male increased. Traits such as body size, testis size, and sperm length are variable, as well as heritable in S. stercoraria males. Larger sperm may be advantageous if they have greater propulsion along the female's spermathecal duct, resulting in higher fertilization success rates. When competition among males is high and females are mating with multiple males, those with the largest testes also have
3417-536: The front legs. Females are a little duller in color, with pronounced green-brown tinges, and no brightly colored fur on the front legs. The adults range from 5 to 11 mm in length, and the males are generally larger than the females. The physical features of separate S. stercoraria populations can vary greatly, due in part to the range of locations in which the species is found. Generally, they are located in cooler temperate regions, including North America, Asia, and Europe. They may also favor higher altitudes, such as
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#17328768813723484-637: The greatest chance of surviving. Many studies have studied the many manifestations of sexual conflict, including post-mating sexual selection, in the yellow dung fly. Sperm competition occurs when a female mates with multiple males. Each male's sperm is then in direct competition to fertilize the eggs. Sperm mix quickly once they reach the female's stores. The goal of males is to displace the sperm of other males as much as possible. Larger males tend to have longer copulation times and greater rates of sperm displacement. The fertilization success of males that were secondary mates increased as their body size relative to
3551-627: The host fly. As well as being an easy meal for a great many bird and bat species, these flies are also preyed upon by other insects. Much competition exists between larvae of different species within a dung pat. Other insect species may also use the pats as hunting grounds. These include robber flies and clown beetles . Like Drosophila melanogaster , the yellow dung fly is an ideal model organism due to its short lifespan and susceptibility to various experimental manipulations. Initial interest in yellow dung flies came from their potential as biocontrol agents against pest flies around livestock. In
3618-453: The hypothesis that constraints on physiological processes at the cellular level account for temperature-mediated body size, studies have also shown that S. stercoraria body size varies via gene-by-environment interactions. Different cell lines vary significantly in growth, development, and adult body size in response to food limitation. Scathophaga stercoraria's phenotype has been shown to vary seasonally, latitudinally, and altitudinally as
3685-434: The microorganism-rich liquid component of mammals' dung, and lay their eggs in balls composed mainly of the remaining fibrous material. Group living and aggregation among common earwigs promotes allo-coprophagy (consuming the feces of other members of one's own species) to promote the growth of helpful gut bacteria and provide a food source when food is scarce. Through proctodeal feeding, termites eat one another's feces as
3752-445: The mid 16th century, physicians tasted their patients' feces to better judge their state and condition, according to François Rabelais. Rubelais studied medicine, but was also a writer of satirical and grotesque fiction, so the truth of this statement is unclear. Lewin reported "... consumption of fresh, warm camel feces has been recommended by Bedouins as a remedy for bacterial dysentery ; its efficacy (probably attributable to
3819-662: The most success in terms of proportion of sperm that fertilize a female's eggs. The resulting male offspring would then have a similar advantage. A positive correlation was found between sperm length of males and spermathecal duct length of females. The size of male testis was also positively correlated with female spermathecae size. Additionally, females with larger spermathecae are better able to produce spermicidal secretion. This cryptic female choice betters their ability to influence paternity over their offspring. These covariances are an example of an " evolutionary arms race ". This suggests that each sex evolves certain traits to undermine
3886-475: The paralobes, which are used to hold onto a female during copulation. Between the paralobes is the intromittent organ , the aedeagus , which transfers sperm into the female's bursa copulatrix. During copulation, sperm is not directly deposited into sperm-storing organs. Ejaculation occurs in the bursa copulatrix, and then females actively move sperm into the spermathecae using their muscular spermathecal invagination to pump sperm into transit. This gives females
3953-474: The past 40 years alone, many studies have used S. stercoraria to research topics such as sperm competition, mating behavior, sexual conflict, reproductive physiology, thermal biology, and genetics. In particular, research on yellow dung flies has contributed greatly to understanding of multiple mating systems and sperm competition. Recently, S. stercoraria was approved as a standard required test species for ecotoxicological testing. This includes evaluating
4020-448: The practice of feeding chicken litter to cattle could lead to bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad-cow disease) because of the crushed bone meal in chicken feed. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates this practice by attempting to prevent the introduction of any part of cattle brain or spinal cord into livestock feed. Chickens also eat their own feces. Other countries, such as Canada, have banned chicken litter for use as
4087-431: The proportion of sperm from multiple mates can maximize the possibility of an optimal phenotypic match. It is to her advantage to have multiple males' sperm reach her eggs, rather than just one. After copulation, females prefer to lay their eggs on the small hills of the dung surface, avoiding depressions and pointed areas. This survival strategy aims to prevent desiccation and drowning so the eggs are placed where they have
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#17328768813724154-419: The protists. Lagomorphs ( rabbits , hares , pikas ) and some other mammals ferment fiber in their cecums, which is then expelled as cecotropes and eaten from the anus, a process called " cecotrophy ". Then their food is processed through the gastrointestinal tract a second time, which allows them to absorb more nutrition. While cecotropes are expelled from the anus, they are not feces and thus eating them
4221-479: The reproductive system and secrete protein-rich egg shells. Sperm is received in a large structure called the bursa copulatrix, and is stored in a structure called the spermatheca . Scathophaga species have three spermathecae, (one pair and one singlet), each with its own narrow duct that connects it to the bursa. Sperm can be stored in the spermathecae for days, weeks, or even years, and sperm from several males can be stored simultaneously. Males have two projections,
4288-623: The residues of veterinary drugs in livestock dung. Yellow dung flies are a key part of decomposing waste in pastures, which is key to preventing the spread of endoparasites and returning nutrients to the soil. The species’ diet also serves to reduce the abundance of pest flies. To test a chemical's toxicity, the chemical is mixed with bovine faeces, to which yellow dung fly eggs are added. Then, endpoints, such as sex and number of emerged adult flies, retardation of emergence, morphological change, and developmental rate, are measured and analyzed to determine toxicity. A great deal of research has been done on
4355-510: The risk of passively contaminating human food with various pathogens, molds, or yeasts. Some sexually transmitted diseases of insects are known, particularly in Coleoptera . Similar diseases have also been studied in S. stercoraria . Many of these sexually transmitted diseases are from multicellular ectoparasites (mites), protists , or the fungus Entomophthora muscae . These are frequently responsible for either sterilizing or killing
4422-439: The wind. Males spend most of their time on the dung, waiting for females and feeding on other insects that visit the dung, such as blow flies. In the absence of other prey, the yellow dung fly may turn to cannibalism . The larvae are coprophagous , relying on dung for nutrition. Scathophaga stercoraria breeds on the dung of many large mammals, but generally prefers fresh cattle dung. The operational sex ratio on these pats
4489-538: The year in most moderate climates. Yellow dung fly viability depends strongly on the environment. In warmer climates, a sharp population decline often occurs in the summer, when the temperatures increase above 25 °C. Meanwhile, no population decline is seen in colder climates, such as Iceland , Finland , and northern England , and high elevations. Additionally, the number of generations per year varies with altitude and latitude , typically between two and four overlapping generations. The end of winter synchronizes
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