Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy .
75-491: The phrase "contemporary philosophy" is a piece of technical terminology in philosophy that refers to a specific period in the history of Western philosophy (namely the philosophy of the 20th and 21st centuries). However, the phrase is often confused with modern philosophy (which refers to an earlier period in Western philosophy), postmodern philosophy (which refers to some philosophers' criticisms of modern philosophy), and with
150-489: A semantic field . Slang can be either culture-wide or known only within a certain group or subculture. Argot is slang or jargon purposely used to obscure meaning to outsiders. Conversely, a lingua franca is used for the opposite effect, helping communicators to overcome unintelligibility, as are pidgins and creole languages . For example, the Chinook Jargon was a pidgin. Although technical jargon's primary purpose
225-475: A beautiful landscape. Moore argues that such a world would be better than an ugly world, even though no one is there to enjoy it in either case, which is to show that pleasure is not the only thing good in itself. Having answered the second question of ethics, Moore proceeds to the third question: "What is good as a means?". This question is of particular relevance since it includes the domain traditionally associated with ethics: "What ought we to do?". For this it
300-423: A combination of plain language and images. The criticism against jargon can be found in certain fields where professionals communicate with individuals with no industry background. In a study done by analyzing 58 patients and 10 radiation therapists , professionals diagnosed and explained the treatment of a disease to a patient with the use of jargon. It was found that using jargon left patients confused about what
375-502: A convenient way within communities. A subject expert may wish to avoid jargon when explaining something to a layperson. Jargon may help communicate contextual information optimally. For example, a football coach talking to their team or a doctor working with nurses. With the rise of the self-advocacy within the Disability Rights Movement , "jargonized" language has started to face repeated rejection for being language that
450-418: A conversation about or within the context of a certain field or profession will go. For example, a conversation between two professionals in which one person has little previous interaction or knowledge of the other person could go one of at least two possible ways. One of the professionals (who the other professional does not know) does not use, or does not correctly use the jargon of their respective field, and
525-595: A different east coast city each December. The Eastern Division Meeting is also the USA's largest recruitment event for philosophy jobs, with numerous universities sending teams to interview candidates for academic posts. Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors. For example, the Presidency of a Division of the American Philosophical Association
600-488: A label for types of western philosophy rejected or disliked by analytic philosophers. Nonetheless, certain descriptive rather than merely pejorative features have been seen to typically characterize continental philosophy: Another approach to approximating a definition of continental philosophy is by listing some of the philosophical movements that are or have been central in continental philosophy: German idealism , phenomenology , existentialism (and its antecedents, such as
675-589: A morally vicious person and pain inflicted on this person as punishment. But the value on the whole is less negative (or maybe even positive) than the sum of the values of the two parts. Again we have to depend on our intuitions to determine how the intrinsic value of a whole differs from the sum of the values of its parts. The second question of ethics asks about what kinds of things are good in themselves. Moore discusses various traditional answers to this question, especially naturalism, which he contrasts with his own approach. The main problem with naturalism in ethics
750-524: A negative connotation with lacking coherent grammar, or gibberish as it was seen as a "broken" language of many different languages with no full community to call their own. In the 1980s, linguists began restricting this usage of jargon to keep the word to more commonly define a technical or specialized language use. In linguistics, it is used to mean "specialist language", with the term also seen as closely related to slang , argot and cant . Various kinds of language peculiar to ingroups can be named across
825-675: A new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic (hence the term "analytic philosophy"). Analytic philosophy dominates in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and the English speaking world. Continental philosophy prevails in Europe, including Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal and parts of the United States. Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon Glendinning , argue that this "analytic–continental" divide
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#1732883840009900-435: A non-technical use of the phrase referring to any recent philosophic work. ...the day of the philosopher as isolated thinker – the talented amateur with an idiosyncratic message – is effectively gone. Professionalization is the social process by which any trade or occupation establishes the group norms of conduct, acceptable qualifications for membership of the profession , a professional body or association to oversee
975-400: A paper that is widely seen to be the exemplar of the analytic program in philosophy. Although contemporary philosophers who self-identify as "analytic" have widely divergent interests, assumptions, and methods—and have often rejected the fundamental premises that defined the analytic movement between 1900 and 1960—analytic philosophy, in its contemporary state, is usually taken to be defined by
1050-416: A particular communicative context and may not be well understood outside that context. The context is usually a particular occupation (that is, a certain trade, profession, vernacular or academic field), but any ingroup can have jargon. The key characteristic that distinguishes jargon from the rest of a language is its specialized vocabulary, which includes terms and definitions of words that are unique to
1125-406: A particular style characterized by precision and thoroughness about a narrow topic, and resistance to "imprecise or cavalier discussions of broad topics." Some analytic philosophers at the end of the 20th century, such as Richard Rorty , have called for a major overhaul of the analytic philosophic tradition. In particular, Rorty has argued that analytic philosophers must learn important lessons from
1200-483: A person of power's character when speaking with one another. Principia Ethica Principia Ethica is a book written in 1903 by British philosopher, G. E. Moore . Moore questions a fundamental pillar of ethics, specifically what the definition of "good" is. He concludes that "good" is indefinable because any attempts to do so commit the naturalistic fallacy . Principia Ethica was influential, with Moore's arguments being considered ground-breaking advances in
1275-404: A point of departure certain themes shared by notable scholars in each tradition. The professionalization of philosophy The Analytic / Continental divide Analytic Philosophy Continental Philosophy Technical terminology Jargon or technical language is the specialized terminology associated with a particular field or area of activity. Jargon is normally employed in
1350-436: A side effect is that it raises the threshold of comprehensibility for outsiders. This is usually accepted as an unavoidable trade-off , but it may also be used as a means of social exclusion (reinforcing ingroup–outgroup barriers) or social aspiration (when introduced as a way of demonstrating expertise). Some academics promote the use of jargon-free language, or plain language, as an audience may be alienated or confused by
1425-463: A special language because every science has its own ideas". As a rationalist member of the Enlightenment , he continued: "It seems that one ought to begin by composing this language, but people begin by speaking and writing, and the language remains to be composed." An industry word is a specialized kind of technical terminology used in a certain industry. Industry words and phrases are often used in
1500-417: A specific area, and those in that field know and use the terminology. Precise technical terms and their definitions are formally recognized, documented, and taught by educators in the field. Other terms are more colloquial, coined and used by practitioners in the field, and are similar to slang . The boundaries between formal and slang jargon, as in general English, are quite fluid. This is especially true in
1575-571: Is a positive or negative attribute of a patient's experience has evidence to support both sides. On one hand, as mentioned before, these phrases can be overwhelming for some patients who may not understand the terminology. However, with the accessibility of the internet, it has been suggested that these terms can be used and easily researched for clarity. Jargon is commonly found in the field of law. These terms are often used in legal contexts such as legal documents, court proceedings, contracts, and more. Some common terms in this profession include: There
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#17328838400091650-418: Is also often understood in an extended sense to include any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy. The term "continental philosophy", like "analytic philosophy", marks a broad range of philosophical views and approaches not easily captured in a definition. It has even been suggested that the term may be more pejorative than descriptive, functioning as
1725-546: Is considered to be a professional honor and the American Philosophical Association Book Prize is one of the oldest prizes in philosophy. The largest academic organization devoted to specifically furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy . Concerning professional journals today, a 2018 survey of professional philosophers asked them to rank
1800-408: Is good' would be equivalent to 'Pleasure is pleasure'". But Moore argues, it is not a tautology but an open question whether such sentences are true. This is why the definition above and naturalism with it fails. Moore agrees with hedonism that pleasure is good in itself, but it is not the only intrinsically valuable thing. Another important good that is valuable in itself is beauty, for example,
1875-479: Is inimical to the discipline as a whole. Others, such as John Searle , claim that continental philosophy, especially post-structuralist continental philosophy, should be expunged, on grounds that it is "BS". Analytic and continental philosophy share a common Western philosophical tradition up to Immanuel Kant . Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers differ on the importance and influence of subsequent philosophers on their respective traditions. For instance,
1950-409: Is its tendency to identify value with natural properties, like pleasure in hedonism or being more evolved in "Evolutionistic Ethics". He accuses such positions of committing the naturalistic fallacy in trying to define the term "good", an unanalyzable term according to Moore, in terms of natural properties. If such definitions were true, then they would be uninformative tautologies , "'Pleasure
2025-576: Is little regarded or remembered beyond small talk or fairly insignificant in this conversation. Or, if the person does use particular jargon (showing their knowledge in the field to be legitimate, educated, or of particular significance) the other professional then opens the conversation up in an in-depth or professional manner. The use of jargon can create a divide in communication, or strengthen it. Outside of conversation, jargon can become confusing in writing. When used in text, readers can become confused if there are terms used that require outside knowledge on
2100-518: Is more specific than "person" and "people" in their everyday use. The French word is believed to have been derived from the Latin word gaggire , meaning "to chatter", which was used to describe speech that the listener did not understand. The word may also come from Old French jargon meaning "chatter of birds". Middle English also has the verb jargounen meaning "to chatter", or "twittering", deriving from Old French. The first known use of
2175-400: Is necessary to further limit the third question since the main interest is in "actions which it is possible for most men to perform, if only they will them; and with regard to these, it does not ask merely, which among them will have some good or bad result, but which, among all the actions possible to volition at any moment, will produce the best total result". So right acts are those producing
2250-577: Is not inferred from other things, unlike our knowledge of goodness as a means or of duties . Among the things that are good in themselves, there is an important difference between the value of a whole and the values of its parts . It is often assumed that the value of a whole just consists in the sum of the values of its parts. Moore rejects this view and insists that it fails for certain types of wholes: "organic unities" or "organic wholes". Cases of retributive justice are examples of organic wholes . Such cases are wholes comprising two negative things,
2325-452: Is specialized terminology within the field of education. Educators and administrators use these terms to communicate ideas specific to the education system. Common terms and acronyms considered to be jargon that are used within this profession include: Jargon may serve the purpose of a "gatekeeper" in conversation, signaling who is allowed into certain forms of conversation. Jargon may serve this function by dictating to which direction or depth
Contemporary philosophy - Misplaced Pages Continue
2400-571: Is the standard reference work for information about philosophical activity in the United States and Canada. The directory is published every two years, alternating with its companion volume, the International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers (the only edited source for extensive information on philosophical activity in Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, and Latin America). Since the start of
2475-631: Is to aid technical communication , not to exclude outsiders by serving as an argot, it can have both effects at once and can provide a technical ingroup with shibboleths . For example, medieval guilds could use this as one means of informal protectionism . On the other hand, jargon that once was obscure outside a small ingroup can become generally known over time. For example, the terms bit , byte , and hexadecimal (which are terms from computing jargon ) are now recognized by many people outside computer science . The philosopher Étienne Bonnot de Condillac observed in 1782 that "every science requires
2550-401: Is widely inaccessible. However, jargon is largely present in everyday language such as in newspapers, financial statements, and instruction manuals. To combat this, several advocacy organizations are working on influencing public agents to offer accessible information in different formats. One accessible format that offers an alternative to jargonized language is " easy read ", which consists of
2625-465: The 21st century, philosophers have also seen the growing utilization of blogs as a means of professional exchange. A few notable milestones in this development include an informal listing of philosophy blogs begun by philosopher David Chalmers which has since become a widely used resource by the profession, the establishment of a partnership between ethics blog PEA Soup and the prominent journal Ethics to post featured articles for online discussion on
2700-617: The American Philosophical Association to create what is today the main professional organization for philosophers in the United States: the American Philosophical Association . The association has three divisions: Pacific, Central and Eastern. Each division organises a large annual conference. The biggest of these is the Eastern Division Meeting, which usually attracts around 2,000 philosophers and takes place in
2775-537: The German idealism school developed out of the work of Kant in the 1780s and 1790s and culminated in Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , who is viewed highly by many continental philosophers. Conversely, Hegel is viewed as a relatively minor figure for the work of analytic philosophers. The analytic program in philosophy is ordinarily dated to the work of English philosophers Bertrand Russell and G.E. Moore in
2850-652: The Right Thing to Do?" and Harry Frankfurt 's " On Bullshit " are examples of works that hold the uncommon distinction of having been written by professional philosophers but directed at and ultimately popular among a broader audience of non-philosophers. Both works became New York Times best sellers . Not long after their formation, the Western Philosophical Association and portions of the American Psychological Association merged with
2925-413: The beauty of mountains, rivers and sunsets. Moore proposes a thought experiment, the "method of isolation", as a test to determine whether something has intrinsic value. The test is meant to remove any considerations of the thing being good as a means by isolating the intrinsic values. The method consists in imagining a world that contains only the thing in question, for example, a world composed only of
3000-573: The blog, and the role of blogs like What is it Like to be a Woman in Philosophy? in bringing attention to the experience of women in the profession. Contemporary continental philosophy began with the work of Franz Brentano , Edmund Husserl , Adolf Reinach , and Martin Heidegger and the development of the philosophical method of phenomenology . This development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating
3075-784: The business world is a common occurrence. The use of jargon in business correspondence reached a high popularity between the late 1800s into the 1950s. In this context, jargon is most frequently used in modes of communication such as emails, reports, and other forms of documentation. Common phrases used in corporate jargon include: Medicine professionals make extensive use of scientific terminology. Most patients encounter medical jargon when referring to their diagnosis or when receiving or reading their medication. Some commonly used terms in medical jargon are: At first glance, many people do not understand what these terms mean and may panic when they see these scientific names being used in reference to their health. The argument as to whether medical jargon
Contemporary philosophy - Misplaced Pages Continue
3150-402: The care they deserve: crucial claims are vaguely stated, significant different formulations are treated as though they were equivalent, examples are under-described, arguments are gestured at rather than properly made, their form is left unexplained, and so on. [...] Philosophy has never been done for an extended period according to standards as high as those that are now already available, if only
3225-587: The conduct of members of the profession , and some degree of demarcation of the qualified from unqualified amateurs . The transformation into a profession brings about many subtle changes to a field of inquiry, but one more readily identifiable component of professionalization is the increasing irrelevance of "the book" to the field: "research communiqués will begin to change in ways [...] whose modern end products are obvious to all and oppressive to many. No longer will [a member's] researches usually be embodied in books addressed [...] to anyone who might be interested in
3300-435: The consequences of actions is necessary to determine what our duties are, it is not accessible to self-evident intuitive insight. Whether a given rule of action turns out to be a duty depends to some extent on the conditions of the corresponding society but duties agree mostly with what common-sense recommends. Virtues , like honesty, can in turn be defined as permanent dispositions to perform duties. Principia Ethica
3375-636: The contenders for that honour. [...] Yet there can be no doubt that between the death of Mill (1873) and the publication of G.E.Moore's Principia Ethica (1903), the British philosophical profession was transformed, and that Green was partly responsible for the transformation. [...] Bentham, the Mills, Carlyle, Coleridge, Spencer, as well as many other serious philosophical thinkers of the nineteenth century were men of letters, administrators, active politicians, clergy with livings, but not academics. [...] Green helped separate
3450-408: The context, and terms used in a narrower and more exact sense than when used in colloquial language. This can lead outgroups to misunderstand communication attempts. Jargon is sometimes understood as a form of technical slang and then distinguished from the official terminology used in a particular field of activity. The terms jargon , slang, and argot are not consistently differentiated in
3525-515: The critical stereotype of continental philosophers by moving "too fast" to reach substantial results via poor arguments. The history of continental philosophy is taken to begin in the early 1900s because its institutional roots descend directly from those of phenomenology. As a result, Edmund Husserl has often been credited as the founding figure in continental philosophy. Although, since analytic and continental philosophy have such starkly different views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy
3600-422: The crude stereotypes, analytic philosophers use arguments while "continental" philosophers do not. But within the analytic tradition many philosophers use arguments only to the extent that most "continental" philosophers do [...] How can we do better? We can make a useful start by getting the simple things right. Much even of analytic philosophy moves too fast in its haste to reach the sexy bits. Details are not given
3675-436: The early 20th century, building on the work of the German philosopher and mathematician Gottlob Frege . They turned away from then-dominant forms of Hegelianism (objecting in particular to its idealism and purported obscurity) and began to develop a new sort of conceptual analysis based on recent developments in logic. The most prominent example of this new method of conceptual analysis is Russell's 1905 paper " On Denoting ",
3750-435: The effect of excluding those who are unfamiliar with the particular specialized language of the group. This can cause difficulties, for example, when a patient is unable to follow the discussions of medical practitioners, and thus cannot understand his own condition and treatment. Differences in jargon also cause difficulties where professionals in related fields use different terms for the same phenomena. The use of jargon in
3825-450: The field of moral philosophy. Principia Ethica was first published in October 1903 by Cambridge University Press . It was reprinted in 1922 and 1929. An Italian translation by Gianni Vattimo , with a preface by Nicola Abbagnano , was published by Bompiani in 1964. Moore suggests that ethics is about three basic questions: (1) "what is good?" (which is noted as the most important of
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#17328838400093900-429: The highest quality "general" philosophy journals in English, yielding the following top 20: Concerning continental philosophy specifically, a 2012 survey of mostly professional philosophers asked them to rank the highest quality "continental tradition" philosophy journals in English. Listing the survey's top 6 results: The Philosophy Documentation Center publishes a well-known Directory of American Philosophers which
3975-494: The literature; different authors interpret these concepts in varying ways. According to one definition, jargon differs from slang in being secretive in nature; according to another understanding, it is specifically associated with professional and technical circles. Some sources, however, treat these terms as synonymous. The use of jargon became more popular around the sixteenth century attracting persons from different career paths. This led to there being printed copies available on
4050-429: The most good. The difficulty with this is that the consequences of most actions are too vast for us to properly take into account, especially the long-term consequences. Because of this, Moore suggests that the definition of duty is limited to what generally produces better results than probable alternatives in a comparatively near future. As the reference to causal means suggests, a detailed empirical investigation into
4125-415: The now specializing and restricted field of academic philosophy. These new philosophers functioned in independent departments of philosophy [...] They were making real gains in their research, creating a body of philosophic work that remains central to our study even now. These new philosophers also set their own standards for success, publishing in the recognized organs of philosophy that were being founded at
4200-585: The profession will take them seriously to heart. The "crude stereotypes" that Williamson refers to in the above passage are these: that analytic philosophers produce carefully argued and rigorous analyses of trivially small philosophic puzzles, while continental philosophers produce profound and substantial results but only by deducing them from broad philosophical systems which themselves lack supporting arguments or clarity in their expression. Williamson himself seems to here distance himself from these stereotypes, but does accuse analytic philosophers of too often fitting
4275-466: The professionalisation of philosophy in America as follows: The list of specific changes [during the late 19th-century professionalization of philosophy] is fairly brief, but the resultant shift is almost total. [...] No longer could the [philosophy] professor function as a defender of the faith or an expounder of Truth. The new philosopher had to be a leader of inquires and a publicizer of results. This shift
4350-432: The rapidly developing world of computers and networking. For instance, the term firewall (in the sense of a device used to filter network traffic) was at first technical slang. As these devices became more widespread and the term became widely understood, the word was adopted as formal terminology. Technical terminology evolves due to the need for experts in a field to communicate with precision and brevity but often has
4425-490: The results of scholarly research. The result of professionalization for philosophy has meant that work being done in the field is now almost exclusively done by university professors holding a doctorate in the field publishing in highly technical, peer-reviewed journals . While it remains common among the population at large for a person to have a set of religious, political or philosophical views that they consider their "philosophy", these views are rarely informed or connected to
4500-533: The study of philosophical from that of literary and historical texts; and by creating a philosophy curriculum at Oxford he also established a rationale for trained teachers of philosophy. When Green began his academic career much of the serious writing on philosophical topic was published in journals of opinion devoted to a broad range of [topics] (rarely to 'pure' philosophy). He helped professionalize philosophical writing by encouraging specialized periodicals, such as 'Academy' and 'Mind', which were to serve as venues for
4575-450: The subject matter of the field. Instead they will usually appear as brief articles addressed only to professional colleagues, the men whose knowledge of a shared paradigm can be assumed and who prove to be the only one able to read the papers addressed to them." Philosophy underwent this process toward the end of the 19th century, and it is one of the key distinguishing features of the contemporary philosophy era in Western philosophy. Germany
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#17328838400094650-437: The subject. Ethos is used to create an appeal to authority. It is one of three pillars of persuasion created by Aristotle to create a logical argument. Ethos uses credibility to back up arguments. It can indicate to the audience that a speaker is an insider with using specialized terms in the field to make an argument based on authority and credibility. Jargon can be used to convey meaningful information and discourse in
4725-476: The technical terminology, and thus lose track of a speaker or writer's broader and more important arguments. Some words with both a technical and a non-technical meaning are referred to as semi-technical vocabulary: for example, Chinh Ngan Nguyen Le and Julia Miller refer to colon as an anatomical term and also a punctuation mark ; and Derek Matravers refers to person and its plural form persons as technical language used in philosophy , where their meaning
4800-575: The thought of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche ), hermeneutics , structuralism , post-structuralism , deconstruction , French feminism , and the critical theory of the Frankfurt School and some other branches of Western Marxism . An increasing number of contemporary philosophers have contested the value and plausibility of distinguishing analytic and continental philosophy. Some philosophers, like Richard J. Bernstein and A. W. Moore have explicitly attempted to reconcile these traditions, taking as
4875-487: The three), (2) "what things are good or bad in themselves?", and (3) "what is good as a means?". The first question is concerned with the nature and definition of the term "good". Moore insists that this term is simple and indefinable. But two forms of goodness have to be distinguished: things that are good in themselves or intrinsically good and things that are good as causal means to other things. Our knowledge of value in itself comes from self-evident intuitions and
4950-556: The time: The Monist (1890), The International Journal of Ethics (1890), The Philosophical Review (1892), and The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods (1904). And, of course, these philosophers were banding together into societies – the American Psychological Association (1892), the Western Philosophical Association (1900), and the American Philosophical Association (1900) – to consolidate their academic positions and advance their philosophic work. Professionalization in England
5025-449: The treatments and risks were, suggesting that jargon in the medical field is not the best in communicating the terminology and concepts. Many examples of jargon exist because of its use among specialists and subcultures alike. In the professional world, those who are in the business of filmmaking may use words like "vorkapich" to refer to a montage when talking to colleagues. In rhetoric , rhetoricians use words like "arete" to refer to
5100-675: The various forms of jargon. Jargon, also referred to as "technical language", is "the technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity or group". Most jargon is technical terminology ( technical terms ), involving terms of art or industry terms , with particular meaning within a specific industry. The primary driving forces in the creation of technical jargon are precision, efficiency of communication, and professionalism. Terms and phrases that are considered jargon have meaningful definitions, and through frequency of use, can become catchwords . While jargon allows greater efficiency in communication among those familiar with it,
5175-472: The word in English is found within The Canterbury Tales , written by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400. Chaucer related "jargon" to the vocalizations of birds. In colonial history, jargon was seen as a device of communication to bridge the gap between two speakers who did not speak the same tongue. Jargon was synonymous with pidgin in naming specific language usages. Jargon then began to have
5250-449: The work being done in professional philosophy today. Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare. Philosopher Michael Sandel's book "Justice: What's
5325-472: The work of continental philosophers. Some authors, such as Paul M. Livingston and Shaun Gallagher contend that there exist valuable insights common to both traditions while others, such as Timothy Williamson , have called for even stricter adherence to the methodological ideals of analytic philosophy: We who classify ourselves as "analytic" philosophers tend to fall into the assumption that our allegiance automatically grants us methodological virtue. According to
5400-625: Was influential. Clive Bell considered that through his opposition to Spencer and Mill, Moore had freed his generation from utilitarianism . Principia Ethica was the bible of the Bloomsbury Group , and the philosophical foundation of their aesthetic values. Leonard Woolf considered that it offered a way of continuing living in a meaningless world. Moore's aesthetic idea of the organic whole provided artistic guidance for modernists like Virginia Woolf , and informed Bell's aesthetics. Moore's ethical intuitionism has been seen as opening
5475-452: Was made obvious when certified (often German-certified) philosophy Ph.D.'s replaced theology graduates and ministers in the philosophy classroom. The period between the time when almost no one had a Ph.D. to when almost everyone did was very brief. [...] The doctorate, moreover, was more than a license to teach: it was a certificate that the prospective philosophy instructor was well, if narrowly, trained and ready to undertake independent work in
5550-459: Was similarly tied to developments in higher-education. In his work on T.H. Green , Denys Leighton discusses these changes in British philosophy and Green's claim to the title of Britain's first professional academic philosopher: Henry Sidgwick, in a generous gesture, identified [T.H.] Green as Britain's first professional academic philosopher. Sidgwick's opinion can certainly be questioned: William Hamilton, J.F. Ferrier and Sidgwick himself are among
5625-615: Was the first country to professionalize philosophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the first philosopher to be appointed professor by the State, namely by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an effect of Napoleonic reform in Prussia . In the United States, the professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German model. James Campbell describes
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