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160-702: The Richard Nixon administration made an unsuccessful effort to dismantle the agency in the 1970s. It was then successfully dismantled in 1981 by the Ronald Reagan administration , as it was moved into the Department of Health and Human Services as the Office of Community Services , with most of its programs continuing to operate. The Office of Economic Opportunity was created through the efforts of President Lyndon Johnson in his War on Poverty campaign, which aimed to tackle economic and racial inequality. In 1964, Johnson signed

320-563: A Confederate alliance by American desertion." Unlike other tribes, Chickasaw tribal leaders never offered freedpeople citizenship. The slaves were freed and they could continue to live within the boundaries of the nation as second-class citizens, or they could move to Union states and no longer be associated with the tribe, which meant they did not participate in the Dawes Rolls of the 1890s, which registered tribal members. The Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen Association of Oklahoma currently represents

480-547: A choice which Nixon believed would unite the party by appealing to both Northern moderates and Southerners disaffected with the Democrats. The choice of Agnew was poorly received by many; a Washington Post editorial described Agnew as "the most eccentric political appointment since the Roman Emperor Caligula named his horse a consul . In his acceptance speech, Nixon articulated a message of hope, stating, "We extend

640-441: A compromise based on Nixon's plan, but gave up when unable to get more than a 13–12 majority of his committee to support his compromise. Environmentalism had emerged as a major movement during the 1960s, especially after the 1962 publication of Silent Spring . Between 1960 and 1969, membership in the twelve largest environmental groups had grown from 124,000 to 819,000, and polling showed that millions of voters shared many of

800-722: A congressional mission statement of "a program which mobilizes and utilizes resources... in an attack on poverty." An unofficial allegiance with the National Congress of American Indians gave the OEO political clout that helped pass the CAPs, despite their hostility with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Tribal CAPs then dedicated much funding to Head Start for preschoolers and home improvement. Other focus areas included educational development, legal services, health centers, and economic development. One of

960-418: A consequence of evolving attitudes toward ethnocentric word usage and more rigorous ethnographical standards, the term "Five Civilized Tribes" is rarely used in contemporary academic publications. George Washington believed that the only way Indians could survive in proximity to White settlers was for them to become civilized. The United States accordingly adopted a policy of civilizing Indians while Washington

1120-676: A doctrine that held that Indian Americans were biologically equals, but that their societies were inferior. He formulated and implemented a policy to encourage civilizing them, which Thomas Jefferson continued and expanded. Historian Robert Remini wrote that the American leaders "presumed that once the Indians adopted the practice of private property , built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity , these Native Americans would win acceptance from Americans of European descent. George Washington's six-point plan included: regulating

1280-551: A free labor market, President Abraham Lincoln created the Freedmen's Bureau , which assigned agents throughout the former Confederate states. The Bureau also founded schools to educate freedmen, both adults and children; helped freedmen negotiate labor contracts; and tried to minimize violence against freedmen. The era of Reconstruction was an attempt to establish new governments in the former Confederacy and to bring freedmen into society as voting citizens. Northern church bodies, such as

1440-502: A loss—only fueled more inflation. Despite their failure to rein in inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed. Between Nixon's accession to office and his resignation in August 1974, unemployment rates had risen from 3.5% to 5.6%, and the rate of inflation had grown from 4.7% to 8.7%. Observers coined a new term for the undesirable combination of unemployment and inflation: " stagflation ",

1600-645: A main crop and instead raise wheat and cotton. The women were to become housekeepers, caring for children and weaving cotton for clothing. The Indians were also expected to acquire slaves and use them like their White plantation neighbors did. The word "civilized" was used by White settlers to refer to the Five Tribes, who, during the 18th and early 19th centuries, actively integrated Anglo-American customs into their own cultures. Sociologists, anthropologists, and interdisciplinary scholars alike are interested in how and why these native peoples assimilated certain features of

1760-779: A mistake. By the end of 1971, 156,000 U.S. soldiers remained in Vietnam; 276 American soldiers serving in Vietnam were killed in the last six months of that year. North Vietnam launched the Easter Offensive in March 1972, overwhelming the South Vietnamese army. In reaction to the Easter Offensive, Nixon ordered a massive bombing campaign in North Vietnam known as Operation Linebacker . As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, conscription

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1920-702: A period, the Five Civilized Tribes tended to maintain stable political relations with the White population. However, White encroachment continued and eventually led to the removal of these tribes from the Southeast, most prominently along the Trail of Tears . In the 21st century, this term has been criticized by some scholars for its ethnocentric assumptions by Anglo-Americans of what they considered civilized , but representatives of these tribes continue to meet regularly on

2080-682: A phenomenon that would worsen after Nixon left office. One of Nixon's major promises in the 1968 campaign was to address what he described as the " welfare mess". The number of individuals enrolled in the Aid to Families with Dependent Children program had risen from 3 million in 1960 to 8.4 million in 1970, contributing to a drop in poverty . However, many Americans, particularly conservatives, believed that welfare programs discouraged individuals from finding employment ; conservatives also derided " welfare queens " who they alleged collected excessive amounts of welfare benefits. On taking office, Nixon established

2240-505: A philosophic mind to reflect that instead of exterminating a part of the human race by our modes of population that we had persevered through all difficulties and at last had imparted our Knowledge of cultivating and the arts, to the Aboriginals of the Country by which the source of future life and happiness had been preserved and extended. But it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize

2400-616: A prominent Democrat like Humphrey or Sargent Shriver into his administration, but was unsuccessful until early 1971, when former governor John Connally of Texas became Secretary of the Treasury. Connally would become one of the most powerful members of the cabinet and coordinated the administration's economic policies. In 1973, as the Watergate scandal came to light, Nixon accepted the resignations of Haldeman, Erlichman, and Mitchell's successor as attorney general, Richard Kleindienst . Haldeman

2560-654: A quarterly basis in their Inter-Tribal Council of the Five Civilized Tribes. The descendants of these tribes, who primarily live in what is now Oklahoma , are sometimes referred to as the Five Tribes of Oklahoma, although several other federally recognized tribes are also located in that state. The term "civilized tribes" was adopted to distinguish the Five Tribes from other Native American tribes that were described as "wild" or "savage". Texts written by non-indigenous scholars and writers have used words like "savage" and "wild" to identify Indian groups that retained their traditional cultural practices after European contact. As

2720-523: A series of city riots in various cities, made 1968 the most tumultuous year of the decade. Throughout the year, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he later called the " silent majority " of socially conservative Americans who disliked the 1960s counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras. He promised " peace with honor " in

2880-455: Is my last press conference ." In the years after his defeat, Nixon established himself as an important party leader who appealed to both moderates and conservatives. Nixon entered the race for the 1968 Republican presidential nomination confident that, with the Democrats torn apart over the war in Vietnam, a Republican had a good chance of winning the presidency in November, although he expected

3040-490: Is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. Agriculture was the primary economic pursuit. The bulk of the tribes lived in towns, some covering hundreds of acres and populated with thousands of people. They were known for building large, complex earthwork mounds. These communities regulated their space with planned streets, subdivided into residential and public areas. Their system of government

3200-644: Is possibly a corruption of the Spanish chato , meaning flattened, in allusion to the tribe's custom of flattening the heads of infants. Noted anthropologist John Swanton , however, suggests that the name belonged to a Choctaw leader. They were descended from people of the Mississippian culture which was located throughout the Mississippi River Valley. Historians such as Walter Lee Williams have documented some early Spanish explorers encountering chiefs of

3360-472: The 1960 presidential election by John F. Kennedy . In 1962 , Nixon ran for governor of California against incumbent Pat Brown , and was defeated handily, leading the media to label him as a "loser". This defeat was widely believed to be the end of his career; in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "you won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this

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3520-410: The 1968 presidential election . Four years later, in the 1972 presidential election , he defeated Democrat nominee George McGovern , to win re-election in a landslide. Although he had built his reputation as a very active Republican campaigner , Nixon downplayed partisanship in his 1972 landslide re-election. Nixon's primary focus while in office was on foreign affairs . He focused on détente with

3680-543: The AFL–CIO and UAW . The following month Nixon proposed the Comprehensive Health Insurance Act, consisting of an employer mandate to offer private health insurance if employees volunteered to pay 25 percent of premiums, replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all with income-based premiums and cost sharing, and replacement of Medicare with a new federal program that eliminated

3840-730: The American Missionary Association and the Freewill Baptists , sent teachers to the South to assist in educating freedmen and their children, and eventually established several colleges for higher education. US Army occupation soldiers were stationed throughout the South via military districts enacted by the Reconstruction Acts ; they tried to protect freedmen in voting polls and public facilities from violence and intimidation by White Southerners, which were common throughout

4000-619: The Clean Water Act . He signed the Endangered Species Act of 1973 , the primary law for protecting imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate concern and conservation". Nixon also pursued environmental diplomacy, and Nixon administration official Russell E. Train opened a dialog on global environmental issues with Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin . Political scientists Byron Daines and Glenn Sussman rate Nixon as

4160-486: The Department of Health and Human Services . Many states have adopted an OEO to increase the self-sufficiency of their citizens, strengthen their communities, and eliminate the causes and symptoms of poverty. Presidency of Richard Nixon Richard Nixon 's tenure as the 37th president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1969, and ended when he resigned on August 9, 1974, in

4320-508: The House of Representatives initiated impeachment proceedings. Facing removal by Congress, Nixon resigned from office. Though some scholars believe that Nixon "has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues", Nixon is generally ranked as a below average president in surveys of historians and political scientists . Richard Nixon had served as vice president from 1953 to 1961, and had been defeated in

4480-608: The Mississippian culture . Prior to the arrival of White settlers, these tribes generally had matrilineal kinship systems, with property and hereditary positions passed through the mother's family. But they were much more egalitarian and decentralized than the Mississippian culture peoples at their height. Based on the development of surplus foods from cultivation, Mississippian towns had more dense populations, and they developed artisan classes, and hereditary religious and political elites. The Mississippian culture flourished in what

4640-864: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Other significant regulatory legislation enacted during Nixon's presidency included the Noise Control Act and the Consumer Product Safety Act . When Congress extended the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in 1970 it included a provision lowering the age qualification to vote in all elections—federal, state, and local—to 18. Later that year, in Oregon v. Mitchell (1970),

4800-593: The Office of Economic Opportunity , the Job Corps , and the Model Cities Program . Nixon advocated a " New Federalism ", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, but Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted only a few of them. During Nixon's tenure, spending on Social Security , Medicare , and Medicaid all increased dramatically. Total spending on social insurance programs grew from $ 27.3 billion in 1969 to $ 67.4 billion in 1975, while

4960-771: The People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union , easing Cold War tensions with both countries. As part of this policy, Nixon signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and SALT I, two landmark arms control treaties with the Soviet Union. Nixon promulgated the Nixon Doctrine , which called for indirect assistance by the United States rather than direct U.S. commitments as seen in the ongoing Vietnam War . After extensive negotiations with North Vietnam , Nixon withdrew

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5120-1022: The Second Continental Congress unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence , which was largely written by Thomas Jefferson . American independence was subsequently achieved by the victory of the Continental Army , led by George Washington , in the American Revolutionary War and codified in the Treaty of Paris in 1784. The Five Tribes generally adopted cultural practices from Americans that they found useful. Tribal groups who had towns or villages closer to European-descendant Americans, or interacted more with them through trading or intermarriage, took up more of such new practices. Those towns that were more isolated tended to maintain their traditional cultures. George Washington promulgated

5280-718: The Union prior to the war, in large part because they were promised their own state if the Confederacy won. During removal to Indian Territory, "the Five Tribes considered enslaved Black people an ideal way of transporting capital to the West" because they were "movable property." After the end of the Civil War, the US required these tribes to make new peace treaties, and to emancipate their slaves, as slaves had been emancipated and were granted citizenship in

5440-706: The United States Courts of Appeals , and 181 judges to the United States district courts . When Nixon took office in January 1969, the inflation rate had reached 4.7%, the highest rate since the Korean War . Johnson's Great Society programs and the Vietnam War effort had resulted in large budget deficits. There was little unemployment, but interest rates were at their highest in a century. Nixon's major economic goal

5600-669: The War on Cancer , resulted in passage that December of the National Cancer Act, which injected nearly $ 1.6 billion (equivalent to $ 9 billion in 2016) in federal funding to cancer research over a three-year period. It also provided for establishment of medical centers dedicated to clinical research and cancer treatment, 15 of them initially, whose work is coordinated by the National Cancer Institute . The second initiative, focused on Sickle-cell disease (SCD), resulted in passage of

5760-420: The " noise-polluting " Supersonic transport (SST), which Congress dropped funding for in 1971. Additionally, he vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972, and after Congress overrode the veto, Nixon impounded the funds Congress had authorized to implement it. While not opposed to the goals of the legislation, Nixon objected to the amount of money to be spent on reaching them, which he deemed excessive. Faced as he

5920-750: The 19th century, historians and ethnographers recorded their oral tradition that told of the tribe having migrated south in ancient times from the Great Lakes region, the base of most other Iroquoian-speaking peoples. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (UKB) have headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma . The UKB are mostly descendants of "Old Settlers", Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to

6080-519: The 20th century in 1971. Bowles points out, "by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself." Nixon's policies dampened inflation in 1972, but their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into

6240-512: The 20th century, the Freedmen have argued that the Dawes Rolls were often inaccurate in terms of recording Cherokee ancestry among persons of mixed race, even if they were considered Cherokee by blood within the tribe. The registrars confused appearance with culture. In addition, the Freedmen have argued that the post-Civil War treaties made between the tribes and the US granted them full citizenship in

6400-558: The American government in the early 19th century. Mvskoke is their name in the Muskogee language. The Muscogee Creek were not one tribe but a confederacy of several, each of which had their own distinct land and sometimes dialects or languages in the Muskogean family. Starting in 1836, the US government forced them to remove west of the Mississippi along with the other Southeast tribes to what

6560-698: The Anglo-American culture. Conventionally, the descriptor 'civilized' is seldom utilized nowadays due to its derogatory nature, and the historical usage of the term as an obscuration for cultural imperialism . Therewith, the grouping of these aforementioned nations is referred to as The Five Tribes or simply Five Tribes . Examples of such colonial attributes adopted by these five tribes included Christianity , centralized governments , literacy , market participation, written constitutions , intermarriage with White Americans, and chattel slavery practices, including purchase of enslaved Black Americans. For

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6720-525: The Cambodian government of Lon Nol , which was then battling a Khmer Rouge insurgency in the Cambodian Civil War , as part of Operation Freedom Deal . In 1971, Nixon ordered incursions into Laos to attack North Vietnamese bases, provoking further domestic unrest. That same year, excerpts from the " Pentagon Papers " were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post . When news of

6880-516: The Cherokee Nation voted to restrict membership to only those descendants of persons listed as "Cherokee by blood" on the Dawes Rolls of the early 20th century. This decision excluded most Cherokee Freedmen ; by this time, this term referred to descendants of the original group. At the time, registrars tended to classify any person with visible African American features as a Freedman, not inquiring or allowing them to document Indian descent. Since

7040-657: The Cherokee who were forcibly relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, and are descendants of those who resisted or avoided relocation. Although the Cherokee Nation sponsors some satellite communities, it does not recognize Cherokee heritage groups that are seeking federal recognition. The Cherokee tribe has 729,533 enrolled members. The Chickasaw are Indian people of

7200-552: The Chickasaw Nation at that time was to have one or more Chickasaw parents, or to petition for citizenship and go through the process available to other non-Natives, even if they were known to have been of partial Chickasaw descent in an earlier generation. Because the Chickasaw Nation did not provide citizenship to their freedmen after the American Civil War, which they felt would be akin to formal adoption of individuals into

7360-649: The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. The Chickasaw Nation is the thirteenth largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. The Chickasaw built some of the first banks, schools, and businesses in Indian Territory. They also signed a treaty with the Southern United States during the Civil War and brought troops to fight for

7520-601: The Confederates. The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States , including present-day Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana. There were about 20,000 members of this tribe when they were forced to move to Indian Territory. Many of them did not survive. They are of the Muskogean linguistic group. The word Choctaw (also rendered as Chahta , Chato , Tchakta , and Chocktaw )

7680-418: The Council of Urban Affairs, under the leadership of Daniel Patrick Moynihan, to develop a welfare reform proposal. Moynihan's proposed plan centered on replacing welfare programs with a negative income tax , which would provide a guaranteed minimum income to all Americans. Nixon became closely involved in the proposal and, despite opposition from Arthur Burns and other conservatives, adopted Moynihan's plan as

7840-427: The District of Columbia Crime Control Bill, which included no-knock warrants and other provisions that concerned many civil libertarians. In response to growing drug-related crime, Nixon became the first president to emphasize drug control, and he presided over the establishment of the Drug Enforcement Administration . After a nearly decade-long national effort , the United States won the race to land astronauts on

8000-477: The ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had. Upon taking office, Nixon pronounced the " Nixon Doctrine ", a general statement of foreign policy under which the United States would not "undertake all the defense of the free nations." While existing commitments would be upheld, potential new commitments would be sharply scrutinized. Rather than becoming directly involved in conflicts,

8160-406: The Economic Opportunity Act, the legislative keystone for this campaign that provided funding for the OEO as a new agency within the Office of the President. R. Sargent Shriver served as its first director. The Office administered antipoverty programs such as VISTA , Job Corps , Community Action Program , and Head Start , and it quickly became a target of both left-wing and right-wing critics of

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8320-521: The Five Tribes have participated in shaping the current BIA Federal Acknowledgment Process for tribes under consideration for such recognition. They are suspicious of groups that claim Indian identity but appear to have no history of culture and community. The Cherokee , ( / ˈ tʃ ɛ r ə k iː / ; Cherokee : ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ , romanized:  Aniyvwiyaʔi ) are people of the Southeastern United States, principally upland Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. They speak an Iroquoian language . In

8480-487: The Ford administration. As Nixon began his second term, the economy was plagued by a stock market crash , a surge in inflation, and the 1973 oil crisis . With the legislation authorizing price controls set to expire on April 30, the Senate Democratic Caucus recommended a 90-day freeze on all profits, interest rates, and prices. Nixon re-imposed price controls in June 1973, echoing his 1971 plan, as food prices rose; this time, he focused on agricultural exports and limited

8640-613: The House or the Senate in the concurrent congressional elections . For the major decisions of his presidency, Nixon relied on the Executive Office of the President rather than his Cabinet. Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman and adviser John Ehrlichman emerged as his two most influential staffers regarding domestic affairs, and much of Nixon's interaction with other staff members was conducted through Haldeman. Early in Nixon's tenure, conservative economist Arthur F. Burns and liberal former Johnson administration official Daniel Patrick Moynihan served as important advisers, but both had left

8800-445: The Indians of North America – This opinion is probably more convenient than just. Following the establishment of independence following the American Revolutionary War, Americans pushed into the interior and into the Deep South, areas that were still largely dominated by Native Americans. The invention of the cotton gin made cultivation of short-staple cotton profitable in the interior, and settlers encroached on Native American lands in

8960-483: The Medicare Part A payroll tax. In December 1973, he signed the Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973 , establishing a trial federal program to promote and encourage the development of HMOs. There was a renewed push for health insurance reform in 1974. In January, representatives Martha Griffiths and James C. Corman introduced the Health Security Act, a universal national health insurance program providing comprehensive benefits without any cost sharing backed by

9120-411: The Mississippian culture, ancestors of some of the Five Tribes. Although smaller Choctaw groups are located in the southern region, the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma and the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians are the two primary federally recognized tribes. This people historically cultivated beans, maize, and squash, like other settled Indians. They also hunted and fished for some of their diet. Since

9280-445: The Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11 . Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk, calling the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House". Nixon, however, was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at the high level seen through the 1960s, and rejected NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine 's ambitious plans for

9440-458: The National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act in May 1972. Long ignored, the lifting of SCD from obscurity to high visibility reflected the changing dynamics of electoral politics and race relations in America during the early 1970s. Under this legislation, the National Institutes of Health established several sickle cell research and treatment centers and the Health Services Administration established sickle cell screening and education clinics around

9600-453: The Nixon campaign interfered with any ongoing negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging Anna Chennault , a prominent Chinese-American fundraiser for the Republican party. Whether or not Nixon had any involvement, the peace talks collapsed shortly before the election, blunting Humphrey's momentum. On election day, Nixon defeated Humphrey by about 500,000 votes, 43.4% to 42.7%; Wallace received 13.5% of

9760-413: The North Vietnamese, but negotiators were unable to reach an agreement. With the failure of the peace talks, Nixon implemented a strategy of " Vietnamization ," which consisted of increased U.S. aid and Vietnamese troops taking on a greater combat role in the war. To great public approval, he began phased troop withdrawals by the end of 1969, sapping the strength of the domestic anti-war movement. Despite

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9920-430: The Office of Community Services became one of ACF's programs. Native Americans in the United States were among the main beneficiaries of the Office of Economic Opportunity when it was first established. R. Sargent Shriver , then director of the OEO, contacted Dr. James Wilson in 1964 and asked if he would lead a department that solely concentrated on poverty within Indian Country. Dr. Wilson accepted, and after taking

10080-451: The Omnibus Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1981, legislation that significantly reduced the federal deficit and funding to antipoverty agencies. On September 30, 1981, OBRA transferred functions via the Community Services Block Grant to the states and a small staff in the Office of Community Services in the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) in Washington, D.C., abolishing the regional offices and approximately 1000 jobs. Although CSA

10240-675: The Senate had rejected President Johnson's nomination of Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren . Months after taking office, Nixon nominated federal appellate judge Warren E. Burger to succeed Warren, and the U.S. Senate quickly confirmed him. Another vacancy arose in 1969 after Fortas resigned from the Court, partially due to pressure from Attorney General Mitchell and other Republicans who criticized him for accepting compensation from financier Louis Wolfson . To replace Fortas, Nixon successively nominated two Southern federal appellate judges, Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell , but both were rejected by

10400-468: The Senate. Nixon then nominated federal appellate judge Harry Blackmun , who was confirmed by the Senate in 1970. The retirements of Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II created two Supreme Court vacancies in late 1971. One of Nixon's nominees, corporate attorney Lewis F. Powell Jr. , was easily confirmed. Nixon's other 1971 Supreme Court nominee, Assistant Attorney General William Rehnquist , faced significant resistance from liberal senators, but he

10560-416: The Supreme Court handed down its decision in the 1971 case of Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education , cross-district school busing it emerged as a major issue in both the North and the South. Swann permitted lower federal courts to mandate busing in order to remedy racial imbalance in schools. Though he enforced the court orders, Nixon believed that "forced integration of housing or education"

10720-440: The Supreme Court held that Congress had the authority to lower the voting age qualification in federal elections, but not the authority to do so in state and local elections. Nixon sent a letter to Congress supporting a constitutional amendment to lower the voting age, and Congress quickly moved forward with a proposed constitutional amendment guaranteeing the 18 year-old vote. Sent to the states for ratification on March 23, 1971,

10880-429: The US government formally initiated Indian removal , forcing those tribes still living east of the Mississippi River , including the Five Tribes, to lands west of the river. Congress passed authorizing legislation in 1830, to fund such moves and arrange for new lands in what became known as Indian Territory to the west. Most members of the Five Tribes were forced to Indian Territory before 1840, many to what later became

11040-399: The US government promised that their lands would be free of American settlers. But settlers soon began to violate that, and enforcement was difficult in the western frontier. The Five Tribes participated in Native American slave ownership that had enslaved Black people before and during the American Civil War . The Five Tribes largely supported the Confederacy , which had severed ties with

11200-471: The US, as well as Nixon's Vietnamization policy retrospectively. Five Civilized Tribes The term Five Civilized Tribes was applied by the United States government in the early federal period of the history of the United States to the five major Native American nations in the Southeast: the Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Muscogee (Creek), and Seminoles . White Americans classified them as "civilized" because they had adopted attributes of

11360-467: The US. All Five Tribes acknowledged "in writing that, because of the agreements they had made with the Confederate States during the Civil War, previous treaties made with the United States would no longer be upheld, thus prompting the need for a new treaty and an opportunity for the United States to fulfill its goal of wrenching more land" from their grasp. They were required to offer full citizenship in their tribes to those freedmen who wanted to stay with

11520-630: The Union, but slavery everywhere in the nation was abolished with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in December 1865. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 , passed over the veto of President Andrew Johnson , gave ex-slaves full citizenship , except for voting, in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified to make clear that Congress had

11680-537: The United States became an English-speaking nation. Originating further west, the Chickasaw moved east of the Mississippi River long before European contact. All historical records indicate the Chickasaw lived in northeastern Mississippi from the first European contact until they were forced to remove to Oklahoma, where most now live. The Chickasaw are related to the Choctaw , who speak a similar language, both forming

11840-565: The United States who originally resided along the Tennessee River and other parts of present-day Tennessee , in the southwest side of present-day Kentucky , west of present-day Huntsville, Alabama , and in parts of Mississippi. They spoke some French and some English. Some historians credit the Chickasaw intervention in the French and Indian War on the side of the British as decisive in ensuring that

12000-609: The United States would provide military and economic aid to nations that were subject to insurgency or aggression, or that were otherwise vital to U.S. strategic interests. As part of the Nixon Doctrine, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East , especially Israel , Iran , and Saudi Arabia . Another major beneficiary of aid was Pakistan , which the U.S. backed during the Bangladesh Liberation War . At

12160-554: The Upper South, including western Georgia , and the future states of Alabama , Louisiana , and Mississippi . They demanded the chance to cultivate these lands for agriculture. Armed conflicts occurred between some of the tribes and the settlers, who kept pushing west and acquired additional territories through negotiated treaties with European colonial powers and sometimes by force. In the early 19th century, under such leaders as Andrew Jackson , elected president in 1828, and others,

12320-644: The Vietnam War clashed violently with police. The mayhem, which had been broadcast to the world in television, crippled the Humphrey campaign. Post-convention Labor Day surveys had Humphrey trailing Nixon by more than 20 percentage points. In addition to Nixon and Humphrey, the race was joined by former Democratic governor George Wallace of Alabama, a vocal segregationist who ran on the American Independent Party ticket. Wallace held little hope of winning

12480-414: The Vietnam War but did not release specifics of how he would accomplish this goal, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan". Humphrey's polling position improved in the final weeks of the campaign as he distanced himself from Johnson's Vietnam policies. Johnson sought to conclude a peace agreement with North Vietnam in the week before the election; controversy remains over whether

12640-660: The Vietnam War could not be won and he was determined to end the war quickly. Conversely, Black argues that Nixon sincerely believed he could intimidate North Vietnam through the Madman theory . Regardless of his opinion of the war, Nixon wanted to end the American role in it without the appearance of an American defeat, which he feared would badly damage his presidency and precipitate a return to isolationism . He sought some arrangement which would permit American forces to withdraw, while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack. In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with

12800-553: The Western Group of the Muskogean languages . "Chickasaw" is the English spelling of Chikasha ( Creek pronunciation: [tʃikaʃːa] ), that either means "rebel" or "comes from Chicsa". The Chickasaw are divided in two groups: the "Impsaktea" and the "Intcutwalipa". The Chickasaw were one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" who went to the Indian Territory during the era of Indian removal. Unlike other tribes, who exchanged land grants,

12960-545: The White House by the end of 1970. Conservative attorney Charles Colson also emerged as an important adviser after he joined the administration in late 1969. Unlike many of his fellow Cabinet members, Attorney General John N. Mitchell held sway within the White House, and Mitchell led the search for Supreme Court nominees. In foreign affairs, Nixon enhanced the importance of the National Security Council , which

13120-507: The White House. He also created the Domestic Council , an organization charged with coordinating and formulating domestic policy. Nixon attempted to centralize control over the intelligence agencies, but he was generally unsuccessful, in part due to pushback from FBI director J. Edgar Hoover . Despite his centralization of power in the White House, Nixon allowed his cabinet officials great leeway in setting domestic policy in subjects he

13280-520: The alien culture of the White settlers who were encroaching on their lands. Historian Steve Brandon asserts that this "adaptation and incorporation of aspects of white culture" was a tactic employed by the Five Nations peoples to resist removal from their lands. While the term "Five Civilized Tribes" has been institutionalized in federal government policy to the point that the US Congress passed laws using

13440-496: The army to keep the postal system going. In the end, the government met the postal workers' wage demands, undoing some of the desired budget-balancing. In December 1969, Nixon somewhat reluctantly signed the Tax Reform Act of 1969 despite its inflationary provisions; the act established the alternative minimum tax , which applied to wealthy individuals who used deductions to limit their tax liabilities. In 1970, Congress granted

13600-562: The blood quantum requirement for land allotment for the Five Tribes, though it had not been a tribal citizenship requirement. Historian Mark Miller noted: Even so-called purely 'descendancy' tribes such as the Five Tribes with no blood quantum requirement jealously guard some proven, documentary link by blood to distant ancestors. More than any single BIA [ Bureau of Indian Affairs ] requirement, however, this criterion has proven troublesome for southeastern groups [seeking federal recognition] because of its reliance on non-Indian records and

13760-472: The budgets of their respective departments. Nixon did not appoint any female or African American cabinet officials, although Nixon did offer a cabinet position to civil rights leader Whitney Young . Nixon's initial cabinet also contained an unusually small number of Ivy League graduates, with the notable exceptions of George P. Shultz and Elliot Richardson , who each held three different cabinet positions during Nixon's presidency. Nixon attempted to recruit

13920-538: The buying of Indian lands, promoting commerce with the tribes, promoting experiments to civilize or improve Indian society, authorizing presidential authority to bestow presents on the tribes, and punish those who violated Indian rights. The US government appointed Indian agents, such as Benjamin Hawkins in the Southeast , to live among Indians and to encourage them, through example and instruction, to assimilate and adopt

14080-563: The central legislative proposal of his first year in office. In an August 1969 televised address, Nixon proposed the Family Assistance Plan (FAP), which would establish a national income floor of $ 1600 per year for a family of four. Public response to the FAP was highly favorable, but it faced strong opposition in Congress, partly due to the lack of congressional involvement in the drafting of

14240-554: The confused (and confusing) nature of surviving documents. In July 2021, the Cherokee Freedmen asked Congress to withhold housing assistance money until the Five Civilized Tribes addressed the citizenship status of freedmen's descendants. They took this action although the Cherokee Nation had already updated its constitution to end their exclusion of the Cherokee Freedmen as members. Like other federally-recognized tribes,

14400-418: The country. Nixon proposed reducing the number of government departments to eight. Under his plan, the existing departments of State , Justice , Treasury , and Defense would be retained, while the remaining departments would be folded into the new departments of Economic Affairs, Natural Resources, Human Resources, and Community Development. Although Nixon did not succeed in this major reorganization, he

14560-490: The dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold. Nixon's monetary policies effectively took the United States off the gold standard and brought an end to the Bretton Woods system , a post-war international fixed exchange-rate system . Nixon believed that this system negatively affected the U.S. balance of trade ; the U.S. had experienced its first negative balance of trade of

14720-558: The draft between 1970 and 1973. A wave of protests swept the country in reaction to the invasion of Cambodia. In what is known as the Kent State shootings , a protest at Kent State University ended in the deaths of four students after the Ohio Army National Guard opened fire on an unarmed crowd. The shootings increased tensions on other college campuses, and more than 75 colleges and universities were forced to shut down until

14880-652: The early nineteenth century, the tribe has recovered and increased in number. The federally recognized tribes have about 231,000 members in total, making the Choctaw the third-largest Native American population in the United States. The capital of the Choctaw Nation is in Tuskahoma, Oklahoma . The Muscogee , or Creek, are originally from present-day Alabama, Florida , Georgia, and South Carolina . They resided there from approximately 1500 AD until they were forcibly displaced by

15040-550: The election outright, but he hoped to deny either major party candidate a majority of the electoral vote , thus sending the election to the House of Representatives , where segregationist congressmen could extract concessions for their support. The assassinations of Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. , combined with disaffection towards the Vietnam War, the disturbances at the Democratic National Convention, and

15200-462: The election to be as close as in 1960. One year prior to the 1968 Republican National Convention the early favorite for the party's presidential nomination was Michigan governor George Romney , but Romney's campaign foundered on the issue of the Vietnam War . Nixon established himself as the clear front-runner after a series of early primary victories. His chief rivals for the nomination were Governor Ronald Reagan of California, who commanded

15360-718: The establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars in the 1980s. On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program , culminating in the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project , a joint mission of an American Apollo and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in 1975. Nixon submitted two significant medical research initiatives to Congress in February 1971. The first, popularly referred to as

15520-677: The face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office, the only U.S. president ever to do so. He was succeeded by Gerald Ford , whom he had appointed vice president after Spiro Agnew became embroiled in a separate corruption scandal and was forced to resign. Nixon, a prominent member of the Republican Party from California who previously served as vice president for two terms under president Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961, took office following his narrow victory over Democrat incumbent vice president Hubert Humphrey and American Independent Party nominee George Wallace in

15680-467: The failure of Operation Lam Son 719 , which was designed to be the first major test of the South Vietnamese Army since the implementation of Vietnamization , the drawdown of American soldiers in Vietnam continued throughout Nixon's tenure. In early 1970, Nixon sent U.S. and South Vietnamese soldiers into Cambodia to attack North Vietnamese bases, expanding the ground war out of Vietnam for

15840-694: The federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations (HMOs). This market-based system would, Nixon argued, "build on the strengths of the private system." Both the House and Senate held hearings on national health insurance in 1971, but no legislation emerged from either committee. In October 1972, Nixon signed the Social Security Amendments of 1972, extending Medicare to those under 65 who had been severely disabled for over two years or had end stage renal disease and gradually raising

16000-640: The first Democratic Party primary on March 12 in New Hampshire, and the closeness of the results startled the party establishment and spurred Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York to enter the race. Two weeks later, Johnson told a stunned nation that he would not seek a second term. In the weeks that followed, much of the momentum that had been moving the McCarthy campaign forward shifted toward Kennedy. Vice President Hubert Humphrey declared his own candidacy, drawing support from many of Johnson's supporters. Kennedy

16160-542: The first time that an intra-term vacancy in the office of vice president was filled. The Speaker of the House , Carl Albert from Oklahoma, was next in line to the presidency during the 57-day vacancy. Nixon made four successful appointments to the Supreme Court while in office, shifting the Court in a more conservative direction following the era of the liberal Warren Court . Nixon took office with one pending vacancy, as

16320-467: The first time. He had previously approved a secret B-52 carpet bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia in March 1969 (code-named Operation Menu ), without the consent of Cambodian leader Norodom Sihanouk . Even within the administration, many disapproved of the incursions into Cambodia, and anti-war protesters were irate. The bombing of Cambodia continued into the 1970s in support of

16480-477: The form of Supplemental Security Income , which provides aid to low-income individuals who are aged or disabled. The Nixon administration adopted a "low profile" on school desegregation, but the administration enforced court desegregation orders and implemented the first affirmative action plan in the United States. Nixon also presided over the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency and

16640-461: The freeze to 60 days. The price controls became unpopular with the public and business people, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy. Business owners, however, now saw the controls as permanent rather than temporary, and voluntary compliance among small businesses decreased. The controls and the accompanying food shortages —as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at

16800-549: The goals of environmentalists. Nixon was largely uninterested in environmental policy, but he did not oppose the goals of the environmental movement. In 1970, he signed the National Environmental Policy Act and established the Environmental Protection Agency , which was charged with coordinating and enforcing federal environmental policy. During his presidency, Nixon also signed the Clean Air Act of 1970, and

16960-440: The hand of friendship to all people... And we work toward the goal of an open world, open sky, open cities, open hearts, open minds." At the start of 1967, most Democrats expected that President Lyndon B. Johnson would be re-nominated. Those expectations were shattered by Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, who centered his campaign on opposition to Johnson's policies on the Vietnam War . McCarthy narrowly lost to Johnson in

17120-607: The interests of freedmen descendants in both of these tribes. The freed people of the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole nations were able to enjoy most citizenship rights immediately after emancipation. But the Chickasaw Nation and Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma never granted citizenship to their Freedmen. They enacted legislation similar to the US Black Codes , which set certain wages for ex-slaves and attempted to force freed people to find employment under Indian tribal members. The only way that African Americans could become citizens of

17280-695: The last U.S. soldiers from South Vietnam in 1973, ending the military draft that same year. To prevent the possibility of further U.S. intervention in Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution over Nixon's veto. In domestic affairs, Nixon advocated a policy of " New Federalism ", in which federal powers and responsibilities would be shifted to state governments. However, he faced a Democratic Congress that did not share his goals and, in some cases, enacted legislation over his veto. Nixon's proposed reform of federal welfare programs did not pass Congress, but Congress did adopt one aspect of his proposal in

17440-543: The late 19th century. Rough Rock's success led to the creation of the Navajo Community College (now Diné College), the first modern tribal college, and a movement that later expanded to over thirty higher education institutions. Although the Office of Economic Opportunity was abolished in 1981, its legacy persists today. Its programs still exists, although in modified form, among other federal agencies, particularly

17600-426: The leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing, but Kissinger persuaded him to try to prevent their publication. The Supreme Court ruled for the newspapers in the 1971 case of New York Times Co. v. United States , thereby allowing for the publication of the excerpts. By mid-1971, disillusionment with the war had reached a new high, as 71 percent of Americans believed that sending soldiers to Vietnam had been

17760-434: The legal authority to do so. The Fifteenth Amendment extended the franchise to all adult males; only adult males among Whites had previously had the franchise, and it was sometimes limited by certain requirements. The 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments are known as the "civil rights amendments", the "post-Civil War amendments", and the " Reconstruction Amendments ". To help freedmen transition from slavery to freedom, including

17920-611: The legislation in July 1974. The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale efforts to desegregate the nation's public schools. Seeking to avoid alienating Southern whites, whom Nixon hoped would form part of a durable Republican coalition, the president adopted a "low profile" on school desegregation. He pursued this policy by allowing the courts to receive the criticism for desegregation orders, which Nixon's Justice Department would then enforce. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. After

18080-405: The lifestyle of White settlers. The tribes of the Southeast adopted Washington's policy as they established schools, took up yeoman farming practices, converted to Christianity , and built homes similar to those of their colonial neighbors. These five tribes also adopted the practice of chattel slavery: holding enslaved African Americans as forced workers. How different would be the sensation of

18240-721: The limit on hospital days, added income-based out-of-pocket limits, and added outpatient prescription drug coverage. In April, Kennedy and House Ways and Means committee chairman Wilbur Mills introduced the National Health Insurance Act, a bill to provide near-universal national health insurance with benefits identical to the expanded Nixon plan—but with mandatory participation by employers and employees through payroll taxes and with lower cost sharing. Both plans were criticized by labor, consumer, and senior citizens organizations, and neither gained traction. In mid-1974, shortly after Nixon's resignation, Mills tried to advance

18400-577: The loyalty of many conservatives , and Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York, who had a strong following among party moderates . At the August Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida , Reagan and Rockefeller discussed joining forces in a stop-Nixon movement, but the coalition never materialized and Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot. He selected Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his running mate,

18560-604: The name, the Five Nations themselves have been less accepting of it in formal matters, and some members have declared that grouping the different peoples under this label is effectively another form of colonization and control by White society. Other modern scholars have suggested that the very concept of "civilization" was internalized by individuals who belonged to the Five Nations, but because much of Native North American history has been communicated by oral tradition , little scholarly research has been done to substantiate this. In present-day commentary on Native American cultures,

18720-627: The notable outcomes of the OEO Indian initiative occurred in Navajo country. The Rough Rock Demonstration School was established to provide education that incorporated Navajo culture while also preparing students for interactions with the broader society. Run by Navajo, the school became the first wholly Native American–controlled school since the federal government took over the schools of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) in

18880-525: The number of racial minorities hired across the nation in various construction trades, implementing the first affirmative action plan in the United States. The Philadelphia Plan required government contractors in Philadelphia to hire a minimum number of minority workers. In 1970, Nixon extended the Philadelphia Plan to encompass all federal contracts worth more than $ 50,000, and in 1971 he expanded

19040-435: The only Republican president since World War II to have a positive impact on the environment, asserting that "Nixon did not have to be personally committed to the environment to become one of the most successful presidents in promoting environmental priorities." While applauding Nixon's progressive policy agenda, environmentalists found much to criticize in his record. The administration strongly supported continued funding of

19200-571: The operation convinced Nixon of the necessity to quickly reach a final agreement with North Vietnam. After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops; however, it did not require the 160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South to withdraw. By March 1973, U.S. military forces had been withdrawn from Vietnam. Once American combat support ended, there

19360-559: The opposition. They were exposed when the break-in of the Democratic National Committee Headquarters ended in the arrest of five burglars. This kicked off the Watergate Scandal and gave rise to a congressional investigation. Nixon denied any involvement in the break-in. However, after a tape emerged revealing that Nixon had known about the White House connection to the burglaries shortly after they occurred,

19520-459: The passage of major environmental laws like the Clean Water Act , although that law was vetoed by Nixon and passed by override. Economically, the Nixon years saw the start of a period of " stagflation " that would continue into the 1970s. Nixon was far ahead in the polls in the 1972 presidential election, but during the campaign, Nixon operatives conducted several illegal operations designed to undermine

19680-539: The passage of the Community Service Act (CSA) in 1975, Congressional reauthorization replaced the OEO with the Community Services Administration (CSA). The new agency retained its independent status as a smaller operating agency. President Ronald Reagan took office in 1981 with campaign promises to shrink social programs and return power to the states. Reagan acted on these promises by signing

19840-633: The plan to encompass women and racial minorities. Nixon and Attorney General Mitchell also helped enact an extension of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that expanded federal supervision of voting rights to all jurisdictions in which less than 50 percent of the minority population was registered to vote. Dean J. Kotlowski states that: Over the course of the Vietnam War, a large segment of the American population came to be opposed to U.S. involvement in South Vietnam. Public opinion steadily turned against

20000-406: The position, began to act as a "small 'a' activist" and a "big 'M' Manipulator" to "manipulate the system" of federal government dealings with Native Americans to lead to an increase in their political power. Consequently, they excelled at flexibility and creativity to allow Native American tribes to receive direct funding. The key OEO institution was the community action program (CAP), bestowed with

20160-463: The poverty rate dropped from 12.8 percent in 1968 to 11.1 percent in 1973. In August 1970, Democratic senator Ted Kennedy introduced legislation to establish a single-payer universal health care system financed by taxes and with no cost sharing . In February 1971, Nixon proposed a more limited package of health care reform, consisting of an employee mandate to offer private health insurance if employees volunteered to pay 25 percent of premiums,

20320-475: The president the power to impose wage and price controls , though the Democratic congressional leadership, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls through his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority. With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David . He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed

20480-732: The proposal became the Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution on July 1, 1971, after being ratified by the requisite number of states (38). Nixon also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. The amendment failed to be ratified by 38 states within the period set by Congress for ratification. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help

20640-802: The proposal. Many conservatives opposed the establishment of the national income floor, while many liberals believed that the floor was too low. Though the FAP passed the House, the bill died in the Senate Finance Committee in May 1970. Though Nixon's overall proposal failed, Congress did adopt one aspect of the FAP, as it voted to establish the Supplemental Security Income program, which provides aid to low-income individuals who are aged or disabled. Determined to dismantle much of Johnson's Great Society and its accompanying federal bureaucracy, Nixon defunded or abolished several programs, including

20800-405: The question of just what qualities define "civilization". Consequently, it is considered a judgmental term whose meaning is dependent on the user's perspective, and thus best avoided. The Five Civilized Tribes is a term used by some Americans for five major indigenous tribes who lived in the Southeastern United States . They coalesced historically in an area that had been strongly influenced by

20960-472: The region. The Chickasaw were allied with the Confederacy. After the Civil War, the US government required the nation also to make a new peace treaty in 1866. It included the provision that they emancipate the enslaved African Americans and provide full citizenship to those who wanted to stay in the Chickasaw Nation. The Chickasaw and Choctaw negotiated new treaties "without a clause accepting their guilt, allowing them to declare that they had been forced into

21120-463: The right to determine their rules. But descendants of freedmen believe their long standing as citizens since the post-Civil War treaties should be continued. In 2017, the Cherokee Freedmen were granted citizenship again in the tribe. The Cherokee Nation was the first among the five tribes to update its constitution to include the Cherokee Freedmen as full citizens. In 2018, the US Congress removed

21280-564: The start of the next academic year. As the U.S. continually drew down the number of troops in Vietnam, the number of protests declined, especially after 1970. The Nixon administration vigorously prosecuted anti-war protesters like the " Chicago Seven ", and ordered the FBI, CIA, NSA, and other intelligence agencies to monitor radical groups. Nixon also introduced anti-crime measures like the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act and

21440-596: The states of Kansas and Oklahoma . The Cherokee Nation resisted removal until 1838 and lost thousands of members in removal, along what they called the Cherokee Trail of Tears . President Martin Van Buren had enforced the Treaty of New Echota , although the Senate had not ratified it, and a majority of the tribe said they had not agreed to its cessions of communal land. Once the tribes had been relocated to Indian Territory,

21600-500: The statutory circumstances enabling the appointment of an interim director without Senate confirmation as required by the U.S. Constitution. This judgment was upheld on appeal. President Nixon's attempt to impound appropriated funds for OEO was ruled unconstitutional by Judge William B. Jones on April 11, 1973, in a case brought by Local 2677, AFGE; West Central Missouri Rural Dev. Corp.; and the National Council of OEO Locals. With

21760-604: The term "civilized" is contentious and not commonly used in academic literature. Some commentators, including the Indian activist Vine Deloria Jr. , have declared that it is demeaning and implies that the indigenous peoples of the North American continent were "uncivilized" before their contact with the habits, customs, and beliefs of Anglo-American settlers. The term is based on the assumption that different peoples possess objective "degrees" of civilization that may be assessed and raises

21920-520: The territories and admit Oklahoma as a state. In 1893, the government opened the " Cherokee Strip " to outside settlement in the Oklahoma Land Run . In 1907, the Oklahoma Territory and the Indian Territory were merged to form the state of Oklahoma. Relative to other states, all Five Tribes are represented in significant numbers in the population of Oklahoma today. In the late 20th century,

22080-661: The time Nixon took office, there were over 500,000 American soldiers in Southeast Asia . Over 30,000 U.S. military personnel serving in the Vietnam War had been killed since 1961, with approximately half of those deaths occurring in 1968. The war was broadly unpopular in the United States with widespread and sometimes violent protests taking place on a regular basis. The Johnson administration agreed to suspend bombing in exchange for negotiations without preconditions, but this agreement never fully took force. According to Walter Isaacson , soon after taking office, Nixon concluded that

22240-494: The tribe, they were penalized by the US government. It took more than half of their territory, with no compensation. They lost territory that had been negotiated in treaties in exchange for their use after removal from the Southeast. In the late 19th century, under the Dawes Act and related legislation, the US government decided to break up communal tribal lands, allocating 160-acre plots to heads of households of enrolled members of

22400-469: The tribes. It determined that land left over was "surplus" and could be sold, including to non-Native Americans. Allotment was also a means to extinguish Indian title to these lands, and the US government required the dissolution of tribal governments prior to admission of the territories as the US state of Oklahoma. As American settlement increased in the Oklahoma Territory , pressure built to combine

22560-429: The tribes. The Choctaw Freedmen and Creek Freedmen have similarly struggled with their respective tribes over the terms of citizenship in contemporary times. The tribes have wanted to limit those who can benefit from tribal citizenship, in an era in which gaming casinos are yielding considerable revenues for members. The majority of members of the tribes have voted to limit membership, and as sovereign nations, they have

22720-468: The tribes. Those who wanted to leave could become US citizens. By that time, numerous families had intermarried or had other personal ties with African Americans. The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 declared all slaves in the Confederacy , which were states that had separated from the Union , to be permanently free. The proclamation did not fully end slavery in the five border states that remained in

22880-504: The vote. Nixon secured 301 electoral votes to Humphrey's 191 and 46 for Wallace. Nixon gained the support of many white ethnic and Southern white voters who traditionally had supported the Democratic Party, but he lost ground among African American voters. In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together . Despite Nixon's victory, Republicans failed to win control of either

23040-481: The war following 1967, and by 1970 only a third of Americans believed that the U.S. had not made a mistake by sending troops to fight in Vietnam. Anti-war activists organized massive protests like the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam , which attracted over 600,000 protesters in various cities. Opinions concerning the war grew more polarized after the Selective Service System instituted a draft lottery in December 1969 . Some 30,000 young men fled to Canada to evade

23200-432: The war on poverty legislation. President Richard Nixon 's appointment of Howard Phillips as Acting Director of OEO in January 1973 touched off a national controversy culminating in a court case in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ( Williams v. Phillips , 482 F.2d 669) challenging the legality of Phillips' appointment. The Court found Phillips's appointment illegal because it failed to meet

23360-405: Was Governor of Maryland and vice president. On October 10, 1973, Agnew pleaded no contest to tax evasion and became the second vice president after John C. Calhoun to resign from office. Nixon used his authority under the 25th Amendment to nominate Gerald Ford for vice president. The well-respected Ford was confirmed by Congress and took office on December 6, 1973. This represented

23520-401: Was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan in June 1968, leaving Humphrey and McCarthy as the two remaining major candidates in the race. Humphrey won the presidential nomination at the August Democratic National Convention in Chicago , and Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine was selected as his running mate. Outside the convention hall, thousands of young antiwar activists who had gathered to protest

23680-410: Was a brief truce, but fighting quickly broke out again, as both South Vietnam and North Vietnam violated the truce. Congress effectively ended any possibility of another American military intervention by passing the War Powers Resolution over Nixon's veto. The war concluded with the Fall of Saigon the year after Nixon's resignation, resulting in a unified communist Vietnam and a costly failure for

23840-431: Was able to convince Congress to eliminate one cabinet-level department, the United States Post Office Department . In July 1971, after passage of the Postal Reorganization Act , the Post Office Department was transformed into the United States Postal Service , an independent entity within the executive branch of the federal government. Nixon supported passage of the Occupational Safety and Health Act , which established

24000-414: Was dismantled, most of the agency's programs continued to be operated either by HHS or by other federal agencies. In 1986, the Office of Community Service was housed within the HHS Family Support Administration. In 1991, the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) was created by merging two HHS agencies: the Office of Human Development Services and the Family Support Administration. With this union,

24160-432: Was hereditary. Chiefdoms were of varying size and complexity, with high levels of military organization. President George Washington and Henry Knox , the first Secretary of War , implemented a policy of cultural transformation in relation to Native Americans. The Cherokee and Choctaw tended, in turn, to adopt and appropriate certain cultural aspects of the federation of colonies. In 1776, assembled in Philadelphia ,

24320-485: Was just as improper as legal segregation, and he took a strong public stance against its continuation. The issue of cross-district busing faded from the fore of national politics after the Supreme Court placed limits on the use of cross-district busing with its decision in the 1974 case of Milliken v. Bradley . Nixon established the Office of Minority Business Enterprise to promote the establishment of minority-owned businesses. The administration also worked to increase

24480-438: Was led by National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger . Nixon's first secretary of state, William P. Rogers , was largely sidelined during his tenure, and in 1973, Kissinger succeeded Rogers as secretary of state while continuing to serve as National Security Advisor. Nixon presided over the reorganization of the Bureau of the Budget into the more powerful Office of Management and Budget , further concentrating executive power in

24640-513: Was not strongly interested in, such as environmental policy. In a 1970 memo to top aides, he stated that in domestic areas other than crime, school integration, and economic issues, "I am only interested when we make a major breakthrough or have a major failure. Otherwise don't bother me." Nixon recruited former campaign rival George Romney to serve as the secretary of housing and urban development, but Romney and Secretary of Transportation John Volpe quickly fell out of favor as Nixon attempted to cut

24800-410: Was president. The policy assumed that civilized Indians would require less land, and would need money, so that they would be willing to sell the excess land to White settlers. In White American terms, Indians became civilized by the men giving up hunting and becoming farmers, displacing the women who traditionally had been the primary farmers. They were expected to use draft animals and to give up maize as

24960-478: Was reduced and in 1973 ended; the armed forces became all-volunteer. In the aftermath of the Easter Offensive, peace talks between the United States and North Vietnam resumed, and by October 1972 a framework for a settlement had been reached. Objections from South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu derailed this agreement, and the peace talks broke down. In December 1972, Nixon ordered another massive bombing campaign, Operation Linebacker II ; domestic criticism of

25120-503: Was succeeded by Alexander Haig , who became the dominant figure in the White House during the last months of Nixon's presidency. As the Watergate scandal heated up in mid-1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew became a target in an unrelated investigation of corruption in Baltimore County, Maryland of public officials and architects, engineering, and paving contractors. He was accused of accepting kickbacks in exchange for contracts while serving as Baltimore County Executive , then when he

25280-411: Was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war. As the war continued, the administration adopted a policy of restricting the growth of the money supply to address the inflation problem. In February 1970, as a part of the effort to keep federal spending down, Nixon delayed pay raises to federal employees by six months. When the nation's postal workers went on strike, he used

25440-426: Was ultimately confirmed. Burger, Powell, and Rehnquist all compiled a conservative voting record on the Court, while Blackmun moved to the left during his tenure. Rehnquist would later succeed Burger as chief justice in 1986. Nixon appointed a total of 231 federal judges, surpassing the previous record of 193 set by Franklin D. Roosevelt . In addition to his four Supreme Court appointments, Nixon appointed 46 judges to

25600-406: Was with a generally liberal Democratic Congress, Nixon used his veto power on multiple occasions during his presidency. Congress's response came in the form of the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 , which established a new budget process, and included a procedure providing congressional control over the impoundment of funds by the president. Nixon, mired in Watergate, signed

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