The South Central Rockies forests is a temperate coniferous forest ecoregion of the United States located mainly in Wyoming , Idaho , and Montana . It has a considerably drier climate than the North Central Rockies forest .
85-647: The blue spruce ( Picea pungens ), also commonly known as Colorado spruce or Colorado blue spruce , is a species of spruce tree native to North America in Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. It is noted for its blue-green colored needles, and has therefore been used as an ornamental tree in many places far beyond its native range. In the wild, Picea pungens grows to as much as 50 meters (164 ft) in height, but more typically 30 m (98 ft) tall. When planted in parks and gardens it most often grows 9 to 18 m (30 to 60 ft) tall with
170-423: A mutation–selection balance . It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but evolutionarily neutral and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the fitness landscape will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles
255-400: A "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged Drosophila born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies . In the 1970s, Robert R. Sokal , Theodore J. Crovello and Peter Sneath proposed
340-424: A 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept). Mishler and Wilkins and others concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan 's early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species". Wilkins noted that the philosopher Philip Kitcher called this
425-428: A connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow between each "linked" population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may co-exist in the same region thus closing
510-432: A different species from its ancestors. Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral quasispecies is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly mutagenic environment, and hence governed by
595-508: A genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present. DNA barcoding has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for cytochrome c oxidase . A database, Barcode of Life Data System , contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider
680-465: A lineage should be divided into multiple chronospecies , or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as cladistic species. Species and higher taxa were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being . In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time. Charles Darwin 's 1859 book On
765-492: A misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently. Genetic introgression mediated by endosymbionts and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species. A phylogenetic or cladistic species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)". The empirical basis – observed character states – provides
850-449: A particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as
935-400: A perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and conservationists for studying life on Earth, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but evolutionary processes cause species to change. This obliges taxonomists to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that
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#17328988460811020-400: A short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of genera and species are usually printed in italics . However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised. When a species' identity is not clear,
1105-404: A specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after. With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including: The naming of
1190-523: A species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in
1275-400: A species as determined by a taxonomist. A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as
1360-488: A species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes , and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes , including some crustaceans and echinoderms . The evolutionary biologist James Mallet concludes that there
1445-685: A species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most multi-celled organisms , but breaks down in several situations: Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence , cryptic species ) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity , multiple life-cycle stages). In addition, horizontal gene transfer (HGT) makes it difficult to define
1530-759: A spread of 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 ft). It has scaly grey-brown bark with a slight amount of a cinnamon-red undertone on its trunk, not as rough as an Engelmann spruce . On older trees the trunk bark will be deeply furrowed and scaly. The diameter of the trunk may reach as much as 1.5 m (4.9 ft). Blue spruces are conifers with a pyramidal or conical crown when young, but more open and irregular in shape as they become older. The stout branches grow out horizontally in well defined whorls , but lower branches droop downwards as trees age. Young twigs are never hang downwards and are yellow-brown in color. The narrow, needle like, evergreen leaves are quite sharply pointed and may be dull green, blue, or pale white. Each of
1615-519: A taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the PhyloCode , and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited. The nomenclatural codes that guide the naming of species, including
1700-404: A traditional medicinal plant and a ceremonial item, and twigs are given as gifts to bring good fortune. In traditional medicine, an infusion of the needles is used to treat colds and settle the stomach. This liquid is also used externally for rheumatic pains. The blue spruce is the state tree of Colorado . It officially became Colorado's state tree on 7 March 1939 when House Joint Resolution 7
1785-506: A traditional biological species. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy. Most modern textbooks make use of Ernst Mayr 's 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines
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#17328988460811870-447: A variation on the morphological species concept, a phenetic species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar phenotype to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits. A mate-recognition species
1955-515: A variety of reasons. Viruses are a special case, driven by a balance of mutation and selection , and can be treated as quasispecies . Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from morphology and moving towards genetics . Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept. Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts,
2040-438: Is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies". This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to Willi Hennig 's species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that
2125-400: Is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if
2210-452: Is a population of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring , typically by sexual reproduction . It is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity . Other ways of defining species include their karyotype , DNA sequence, morphology , behaviour, or ecological niche . In addition, paleontologists use
2295-458: Is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters. A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This
2380-502: Is also applied to Abies magnifica especially when sold as Christmas trees. In addition it is sometimes labeled as "Colorado green spruce" or "green spruce" by plant nurseries or tree farms. Similar to the meaning of the scientific name, the Navajo name for this species is a compound c’ó deniní with c’ó meaning spruce and deniní meaning "it is sharp". Blue Spruce occurs at high elevations, 1,830 to 2,740 meters (6,000 to 8,990 ft) in
2465-1154: Is an important species at the upper tree line / krummholz zone. In addition, this ecoregion contains foothill grasslands and shrub steppes dominated by big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata ), similar to the surrounding Montana valley and foothill grasslands , Wyoming Basin shrub steppe , and Snake–Columbia shrub steppe . There also are mountain meadows , riparian woodlands, and alpine tundra . In some areas, geothermal activity creates distinct, warm habitats with unique floral communities. Mammals of this ecoregion include elk ( Cervus canadensis ), mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ), bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis ), plains bison ( Bison bison bison ), Shiras moose ( Alces alces shirasi ), cougar ( Puma concolor ), grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ), northwestern wolf ( Canis lupus occidentalis ), black bear ( Ursus americanus cinnamomum ), bobcat ( Lynx rufus ) and Canada lynx ( Lynx canadensis ), coyote ( Canis latrans ), North American beaver ( Castor canadensis ), North American river otter ( Lontra canadensis ), and snowshoe hare ( Lepus americanus ). Birds are typical of
2550-414: Is called speciation . Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book The Origin of Species . Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation , a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in allopatric speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation
2635-412: Is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature , also sometimes in zoological nomenclature ). For example, Boa constrictor is one of the species of the genus Boa , with constrictor being the species' epithet. While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example,
Blue spruce - Misplaced Pages Continue
2720-403: Is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology (see cryptic species ), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a validly published name (in botany) or an available name (in zoology) when
2805-671: Is further weakened by the existence of microspecies , groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming species aggregates . For example, the dandelion Taraxacum officinale and the blackberry Rubus fruticosus are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by hybridisation , apomixis and polyploidy , making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as Heliconius butterflies, vertebrates such as Hypsiboas treefrogs, and fungi such as
2890-726: Is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1) agamospecies for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3) ecospecies based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species,
2975-545: Is located in eastern and central Idaho , south-western and south-central Montana , western and northeastern Wyoming, and southwestern South Dakota . It is centered on the Yellowstone Plateau , extending outward on connected mountain ranges, but the ecoregion also includes the isolated Bighorn Mountains and Black Hills , as well as smaller isolated ranges in central Montana. The area has a dry continental climate, with brief summers and long, cold winters. The ecoregion
3060-553: Is most common in Colorado and the Southwest. The annual average temperature ranges from 3.9 to 6.1 degrees C (39 to 43 degrees F). And ranges from - 3.9 to - 2.8 degrees C (25 to 27 degrees F) in January. In July, the average temperature ranges from 13.9 to 15.0 degrees C (57 to 59 degrees F). The average minimum temperature in January ranges from - 11.1 to 8.9 degrees C (12 to 16 degrees F), and
3145-403: Is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced over large geographic ranges and time periods. The botanist Brent Mishler argued that the species concept
3230-468: Is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species. Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in cichlid teleosts of the East African Great Lakes . Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with
3315-484: Is predominantly coniferous forest , dominated by lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta latifolia ) due to relatively recent major fires in the area. Other trees include Engelmann spruce ( Picea engelmanni ), Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii glauca ), Ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ), subalpine fir ( Abies lasiocarpa ) and trembling aspen ( Populus tremuloides ). Whitebark pine ( Pinus albicaulis )
3400-586: Is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing karyotypes (sets of chromosomes ) and allozymes ( enzyme variants). An evolutionarily significant unit (ESU) or "wildlife species" is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation. In palaeontology , with only comparative anatomy (morphology) and histology from fossils as evidence,
3485-407: Is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains , making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species. South Central Rockies forests This ecoregion
Blue spruce - Misplaced Pages Continue
3570-486: Is the most common name, in the wild only part of the population has the waxy blue-gray coating for which the tree is named. Less frequently, but still common, is Colorado blue spruce , a name first used in 1912. The usage of Colorado spruce dates to 1881, but is less frequent than the longer alternate. Occasionally encountered are the names Parry's spruce , prickly spruce , silver spruce , and white spruce . Blue spruces are also rarely called silvertip fir , but this name
3655-594: Is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible alleles of the same gene, as described in the Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model . A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a chronospecies ), without increasing the number of resultant species. Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through hybridisation , antigenic shift , or reassortment ,
3740-523: The ICZN for animals and the ICN for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with sensu stricto ("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as
3825-399: The fly agaric . Natural hybridisation presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the carrion crow Corvus corone and the hooded crow Corvus cornix appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap. A ring species is
3910-542: The forests of the South Central Rockies and 2,130 to 3,050 meters (6,990 to 10,010 ft) in the Southern Rocky Mountains . It grows in mesic montane conifer forests, often associating with Douglas-fir , ponderosa pine , or white fir . It has a riparian affinity. Blue spruce usually grows in cool and humid climatic zones where the annual precipitation mainly occurs in the summer. Blue spruce
3995-498: The jaguar ( Panthera onca ) of Latin America or the leopard ( Panthera pardus ) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code homonyms ); they are in two parts used together : the genus as in Puma , and the specific epithet as in concolor . A species is given a taxonomic name when a type specimen
4080-473: The pineapple gall adelgid form galls at the base of twigs which resemble miniature pineapples and those of the Cooley's spruce gall adelgid cause cone-shaped galls at the tips of branches. The larva of the spruce budworm eat the buds and growing shoots while the spruce needle miner hollows out the needles and makes them coalesce in a webbed mass. An elongated white scale insect , the pine needle scale feeds on
4165-406: The "cynical species concept", and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience. Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs), a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory. The species concept
4250-622: The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection . That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology . Genetic variability arises from mutations and recombination , while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to geographical isolation and genetic drift with varying selection pressures . Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal gene transfer ; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and polyploidy ; and species may become extinct for
4335-743: The United Kingdom, France, and Belgium. In middle and southern Europe it is found in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, the former Czechoslovakia, and mainland Italy. To the east it grows in European portions of Russia, the Caucasus, and Bulgaria. The tallest known blue spruce tree is an individual in the San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado in the Hermosa Creek area. When measured by Matt Markworth in 2015 it
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#17328988460814420-405: The abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for species pluralis , Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g. Canis sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in paleontology . Authors may also use "spp." as
4505-570: The amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective gene pools . A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species. In microbiology , genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA–DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to
4590-631: The annual precipitation occurs during the growing season of the plants. Blue spruce is generally considered to grow best with abundant moisture. Nevertheless, this species can withstand drought better than any other spruce. It can withstand extremely low temperatures (-40 degrees C) as well. Furthermore, this species is more resistant to high insolation and frost damage compared to other associated species. Blue spruce generally exists on gentle uplands and sub irrigated slopes, in well-watered tributary drainage, extending down intermittent streams, and on lower northerly slopes. Blue spruce always grow naturally in
4675-455: The average maximum temperature in July ranges from 21.1 to 22.2 C (70 to 72 degrees F). There is a frost-free period of about 55 to 60 days from June to August. Annual mean precipitation generally vary from 460 to 610 mm (18 to 24 in). Winter is the season with the poorest rainfall, the precipitation is usually less than 20 percent of the annual moisture falling from December to March. Fifty percent of
4760-474: The biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species. A version of the concept is Kevin de Queiroz 's "General Lineage Concept of Species". An ecological species
4845-505: The biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages. However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results. An evolutionary species, suggested by George Gaylord Simpson in 1951,
4930-428: The boundaries between closely related species become unclear with hybridisation , in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies , and in a ring species . Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually , the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be
5015-433: The concept of a chronospecies can be applied. During anagenesis (evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the phyletically extinct one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered
5100-416: The concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotes is between 8 and 8.7 million. About 14% of these had been described by 2011. All species (except viruses ) are given a two-part name , called a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part
5185-659: The crown of blue spruce trees, but are more common in the upper half of the crown. Pollen cones are mainly yellow with a touch of red and average 1.5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 in) long. The seed cones begin growing in May or June and release their mature seeds in the autumn of the same year in which they start to grow. When young they are purple-brown in color. When fully mature they are light brown with thin, papery scales and are often curved. Overall they are longer than they are wide, between 8 and 15 cm (3 and 6 in) long, and circular in cross section. The seed cones are only found at
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#17328988460815270-435: The evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space. Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or mitochondrial DNA of various species. For example, in a study done on fungi , studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising
5355-566: The forested portions of the northern Rocky Mountains, including Steller's jay , black-capped chickadee , and pine siskin . This ecoregion boasts a very rich avifauna , including such specialists as white pelican , trumpeter swan , and (black) rosy finch . Other typical species include harlequin duck , Barrow's goldeneye , Swainson's hawk , bald eagle , osprey , sage grouse , sandhill crane , Franklin's gull , American dipper , Townsend's solitaire , yellow-rumped warbler , and Brewer's sparrow . Herpetofauna typical of this ecoregion are
5440-566: The genus name, is thought to come from the Latin word pix meaning "pitch", a reference to the typical sticky resin in spruce bark. The specific epithet pungens means "sharply pointed", referring to the leaves. The most frequently used common name in English is blue spruce . It was first used for other trees in 1817 and is still used for any spruce tree with a glaucous blue color to their needles, but most frequently meaning Picea pungens . Though this
5525-407: The lower branches first and progressively makes its way higher up the tree. The first symptom is the needles turning reddish-brown and falling off. Meanwhile, patches of white resin appear on the bark and the branch eventually dies. It is also relatively intolerant of light populution and when planted near street lights or other outdoor lighting its preparation for winter can be delayed and parts of
5610-405: The needles causing fluffy white patches on the twigs and aphids also suck sap from the needles and may cause them to fall and possibly dieback. Mites can also infest the blue spruce, especially in a dry summer, causing yellowing of the oldest needles. Another insect pest is the spruce beetle ( Dendroctonus rufipennis ) which bores under the bark. It often first attacks trees which have blown over by
5695-462: The needles is four sided with stomata on every side, stiff, and 1.6–3 centimeters ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 in) long. The needles are attached radially to their shoots, but curve upward. The leaf buds are golden brown and cone shaped. The buds may be 6 to 12 millimeters ( 1 ⁄ 4 to 1 ⁄ 2 in) in size and the tip may either be blunt or pointed. The pollen producing cones, more properly strobili , develop throughout
5780-478: The numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in Bovidae , by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically. Others have called this approach taxonomic inflation , diluting
5865-585: The paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence". Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using
5950-674: The person who named the species, while the antonym sensu lato ("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species. Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct. The evolutionary process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species
6035-583: The range is even more limited, growing in just Coconio and Apache counties. In Apache County it is found in the White Mountains in central eastern Arizona and the Lukachukai Mountains in the northeastern corner of the state. In Coconino County they only grow on the Kaibab Plateau . The blue spruce grows in every county in the western two-thirds of Colorado; approximately half of natural range of
6120-487: The result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species. The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat, Felis catus , or the cat family, Felidae . Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean Puma concolor in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean
6205-573: The ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the herring gull – lesser black-backed gull complex around the North pole, the Ensatina eschscholtzii group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the greenish warbler in Asia, but many so-called ring species have turned out to be
6290-508: The same species. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%. The average nucleotide identity (ANI) method quantifies genetic distance between entire genomes , using regions of about 10,000 base pairs . With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for Pseudomonas avellanae in 2013, and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020. Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that
6375-529: The same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given priority and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called synonymy . Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting . Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms. The circumscription of taxa, considered
6460-446: The shallow roots, blue spruce is able to resist strong winds. Five years before transplanting, the total root surface area of 2-meter-high trees was doubled by pruning the roots of blue spruce. It also increases the root concentration in drip irrigation pipeline from 40% to 60%, which is an advantage in landscape greening. The blue spruce is attacked by two species of Adelges , an aphid-like insect that causes galls to form. Nymphs of
6545-576: The soils which are in the order Mollisols, and the soil will also be in the orders histosols and inceptisols in a lesser extent. Blue spruce is considered as a pioneer tree species in moist soil in Utah. Blue spruce seedlings have shallow roots that penetrate approximately 6 centimeters (2.5 in) into the soil during the first year of growth. Although freezing can't damage much in blue spruce, frost heaving will cause seedling loss. Shadows in late spring and early autumn minimize this frost heaving loss. Despite
6630-502: The species concept and making taxonomy unstable. Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding. Unlike
6715-650: The species is in the Mountain of Colorado. In Utah they are a locally common part of forests in the Uinta Mountains . West of the Uintas blue spruces are less frequent in canyons south of Salt Lake City. The blue spruce has become naturalized outside of its native range. In North America has escaped from cultivation in the states of Minnesota and New York. It has also become established to some extent in many western and northern European countries including Iceland, Norway, Sweden,
6800-483: The top of the tree. This helps to facilitate cross-pollination . The seeds are dark brown. They average 4 mm in length with the papery wing extending beyond the tip almost twice this length. Picea pungens was given its first valid scientific description by George Engelmann in 1879. He had previously named it Abies menziesii in 1862 and then as Picea menziesii in 1863 after, but both those names had already been used making them illegitimate names . Picea ,
6885-525: The tree may be damaged. The native range of the blue spruce is largely in the Central and Southern Rocky Mountains and moist mountain valleys and canyons to the west. In New Mexico it only grows naturally in the higher mountain ranges of the state such as the Sandia–Manzano Mountains , Sangre de Cristo Mountains , and San Juan Mountains , as well as on Sierra Blanca Peak to the south. In Arizona
6970-537: The wild. It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species concepts is called the species problem. The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in On the Origin of Species : I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. He went on to write: No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of
7055-434: The wind and when the larvae mature two years afterwards, a major outbreak occurs and vast numbers of beetles attack nearby standing trees. The blue spruce is susceptible to several needle casting diseases which cause the needles to turn yellow, mottled or brown before they fall off. Various rust diseases also affect the tree causing yellowing of the needles as well as needle fall. Canker caused by Cytospora attacks one of
7140-685: Was 54.9 meters (180 ft) tall. Picea pungens and its many cultivars are often grown as ornamental trees in gardens and parks. It is also grown for the Christmas tree industry. It grows best in USDA growing zones 1 through 7, though it also does well in zones warmer than 7 where summer heat is moderate, as at San Francisco . Common cultivars (those marked agm have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit ): The Navajo and Keres Native Americans use this tree as
7225-459: Was enacted by the legislature. Previously a vote of the state's school children was taken on Arbor Day in 1892 expressing their preference for the blue spruce as the state tree. From 1933 until 2014 the blue spruce was also the state tree of Utah. It was replaced by the quaking aspen because the aspen is a great deal more common than the blue spruce in Utah, making up 10% of the state's tree cover. Species A species ( pl. : species)
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