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132-690: The Ghislieri College (Italian: Collegio Ghislieri ), founded in 1567 by Pope Pius V , is the second-oldest college in Pavia and co-founder of the IUSS in Pavia as well. Collegio Ghislieri is a 450-year-old Italian institution committed to promote university studies on the basis of merit, hosting around 200 pupils (males and females) who attend all faculties in the University of Pavia , offering them logistic and cultural opportunities such as scholarships, lectures, conferences,

264-669: A 130,000-volume library (the third-largest private library in Northern Italy), and foreign-language courses. Each year about 40 new students from all over the country are selected by public competition. Founded by Pope Pius V (Antonio Ghislieri) in 1567, and secularly managed since the 18th century, the college is now under the High Patronage of the Presidency of the Italian Republic. It is classified among high qualifying institutions by

396-499: A condition for which he was unwilling to have an operation. Additionally, Pius V fasted and served extensively in his last years, leading to "great weakness". After his death, three stones were discovered in his bladder. He was buried in the chapel of S. Andrea which was close to the tomb of Pope Pius III , in the Vatican. Although his will requested he be buried in Bosco, Pope Sixtus V built

528-655: A crushing defeat at the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741. France drew up a plan to partition Austria between Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Spain: Bohemia and Upper Austria would be ceded to Bavaria, whose elector would become emperor, whereas Moravia and Upper Silesia would be granted to the Electorate of Saxony , Lower Silesia and Glatz to Prussia, and the entire Austrian Lombardy to Spain. Marshal Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle joined Frederick at Olmütz . Vienna

660-529: A decree that removed them from all the institutions of the monarchy, and carried it out thoroughly. She forbade the publication of Pope Clement XIII 's Apostolicum pascendi bull, which was in favour of the Jesuits, and promptly confiscated their property when Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order. Maria Theresa regarded both the Jews and Protestants as dangerous to the state and actively tried to suppress them. She

792-734: A defensive structure, became a noble residence in the Visconti - Sforza era. The result of successive building phases, it assumed its present structure in the fourteenth century starting from the original Romanesque nucleus of the chapel. The Ghislieri college has promoted and financed the restoration of the castle as a venue for multiple cultural activities: congresses and conferences, specialization and refresher courses, scientific seminars and exhibitions. Pope Pius V Artists Clergy Monarchs Popes Pope Pius V , OP ( Italian : Pio V ; 17 January 1504 – 1 May 1572), born Antonio Ghislieri (from 1518 called Michele Ghislieri ),

924-554: A diplomatic congress to take advantage of the accession of George III of Great Britain, as he did not really care about Germany. Finally, the war was concluded by the Treaty of Hubertusburg and Paris in 1763. Austria had to leave the Prussian territories that were occupied. Although Silesia remained under the control of Prussia, a new balance of power was created in Europe, and Austrian position

1056-519: A group of Moravians who had assembled for a worship service on the occasion of her birthday were arrested and deported to Hungary. Freedom of religion was granted only in the Patent of Toleration issued by Joseph immediately after Maria Theresa's death. The policies of Maria Theresa's government toward their Eastern Orthodox subjects were marked by special interests, relating not only to complex religious situations in various southern and eastern regions of

1188-438: A monarch and kept Rome at arm's length. She controlled the selection of archbishops, bishops and abbots. Overall, the ecclesiastical policies of Maria Theresa were enacted to ensure the primacy of state control in church-state relations. She was also influenced by Jansenist ideas. One of the most important aspects of Jansenism was the advocacy of maximum freedom of national churches from Rome. Although Austria had always stressed

1320-708: A monument in the chapel of SS. Sacramento in the Liberian basilica . His remains were transferred there on 9 January 1588. In 1696, the process of Pius V's canonisation was started through the efforts of the Master of the Order of Preachers , Antonin Cloche. He also immediately commissioned a representative tomb from the sculptor Pierre Le Gros the Younger to be erected in the Sistine Chapel of

1452-574: A part of Silesia. Francis Stephen was inclined to consider such an arrangement, but the Queen and her advisers were not, fearing that any violation of the Pragmatic Sanction would invalidate the entire document. Maria Theresa's firmness soon assured Francis Stephen that they should fight for Silesia, and she was confident that she would retain "the jewel of the House of Austria". The resulting war with Prussia

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1584-513: A professor of Leuven (1567); reform of the Roman Breviary (July 1568); formal condemnation of homosexual behaviour ( dirum nefas ) by the clergy (1568); the banishment of the Jews from all ecclesiastical dominions except Rome and Ancona (1569); declaring the primacy of the Lateran over St. Peter's (1569); an injunction against use of the reformed missal (July 1570); the confirmation of

1716-586: A radical centralization of state institutions down to the level of the District Office ( Kreisamt ). Thanks to this effort, by 1760 there was a class of government officials numbering around 10,000. However, the Duchy of Milan, the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary were almost completely untouched by this reform. In the case of Hungary, Maria Theresa was particularly mindful of her promise that she would respect

1848-517: A red mozzetta , as can be seen on many paintings where neither they nor Pius is wearing a cassock , but thin, wide, white garments. An article by Agostino Paravicini Bagliani in L'Osservatore Romano of 31 August 2013 states that the earliest document that speaks explicitly of the Pope wearing white is the Ordo XIII , a book of ceremonies compiled in about 1274 under Pope Gregory X . From that date onward,

1980-455: A reprimand from the pope. Under Pope Pius IV (1559–65) he became Bishop of Mondovì in Piedmont . Frequently called to Rome, he displayed his unflinching zeal in all the questions on which he was consulted. Thus he offered opposition to Pius IV when the latter wished to make Ferdinand de' Medici , then only thirteen years old, a Cardinal. His opposition to the pontiff led to his dismissal from

2112-416: A return to Protestant practice was treated harshly, often by exile. Maria Theresa exiled Protestants from Austria to Transylvania , including 2,600 from Upper Austria in the 1750s. Her son and co-ruler Joseph regarded his mother's religious policies as "unjust, impious, impossible, harmful and ridiculous". Despite her policies, practical, demographic and economic considerations prevented her from expelling

2244-640: A soldier of Christ in a time of insurrection and rebellion, when in a spiritual sense, martial law was proclaimed." The front of his tomb has a lid of gilded bronze which shows a likeness of the dead pope. Most of the time this is left open to allow the veneration of the saint's relics. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pope St. Pius V". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Maria Theresa Maria Theresa I (Maria Theresia Walburga Amalia Christina; 13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780)

2376-465: A time of great moral laxity, he insisted on discipline, and strove to develop the practice of the monastic virtues. He fasted, did penance, passed long hours of the night in meditation and prayer, traveled on foot without a cloak in deep silence, or only speaking to his companions of the things of God. As his reformist zeal provoked resentment, he was compelled to return to Rome in 1550, where, after having been employed in several inquisitorial missions, he

2508-552: A window, where he stood gazing toward the East. "...[L]ooking at the sky, he cried out, 'A truce to business; our great task at present is to thank God for the victory which He has just given the Christian army'." Antonio Ghislieri was born 17 January 1504 in Bosco in the Duchy of Milan (now Bosco Marengo in the province of Alessandria , Piedmont ), Italy . At the age of fourteen he entered

2640-447: A winter campaign; the same day he was elected emperor, Austrian troops under Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller captured Munich , Charles Albert's capital. She has, as you well know, a terrible hatred for France, with which nation it is most difficult for her to keep on good terms, but she controls this passion except when she thinks to her advantage to display it. She detests Your Majesty, but acknowledges your ability. She cannot forget

2772-488: A woman could not be elected Holy Roman Empress , Maria Theresa wanted to secure the imperial office for her husband, but Francis Stephen did not possess enough land or rank within the Holy Roman Empire. In order to make him eligible for the imperial throne and to enable him to vote in the imperial elections as king of Bohemia (which she could not do because of her sex), Maria Theresa made Francis Stephen co-ruler of

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2904-649: A young man, Michele Ghislieri was eager to join the Inquisition . Under Paul IV , he rose to Grand Inquisitor , and from there ascended to the papacy . Upon election to the papacy as Pius V, Ghislieri immediately started to get rid of many of the extravagant luxuries then prevalent in the court. One of his first acts was to dismiss the papal court jester , and no subsequent pope had one. He forbade horse racing in St. Peter's Square . Severe sanctions were imposed against blasphemy , adultery, and sodomy. These laws quickly made Pius V

3036-567: Is accessed through an atrium dedicated to St. Pius, whose miracles are celebrated in seventeenth-century paintings. The glory of the founder is celebrated, in the College, by numerous portraits (among which the painting by Scipione Pulzone , kept in the premises of the College's Administration and the Rector's apartment) and by sculptural works is noteworthy. Among the latter is the bronze statue signed by Francesco Nuvoloni and dated to 1692 which stands out in

3168-649: Is known as the First Silesian War . The invasion of Silesia by Frederick was the start of a lifelong enmity; she referred to him as "that evil man". As Austria was short of experienced military commanders, Maria Theresa released Marshal Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg , who had been imprisoned by her father for his poor performance in the Turkish War. Neipperg took command of the Austrian troops in March. The Austrians suffered

3300-751: The Austrian Netherlands to Transylvania , and from Silesia to Tuscany. They were also poorly trained and discipline was lacking. Later Maria Theresa even made a remark: "as for the state in which I found the army, I cannot begin to describe it." Maria Theresa found herself in a difficult situation. She did not know enough about matters of state and she was unaware of the weakness of her father's ministers. She decided to rely on her father's advice to retain his counselors and to defer to her husband, whom she considered to be more experienced, on other matters. Both decisions later gave cause for regret. Ten years later, Maria Theresa recalled in her Political Testament

3432-523: The Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore . The pope's body was placed in it in 1698. Pope Pius V was beatified by Pope Clement X in the year 1672, and was later canonized by Pope Clement XI (1700–21) on 22 May 1712. In the following year, 1713, his feast day was inserted in the General Roman Calendar, for celebration on 5 May, with the rank of "Double", the equivalent of "Third-Class Feast" in

3564-516: The Dominican Order , taking the name Michele , passing from the monastery of Voghera to that of Vigevano , and thence to Bologna . Ordained a priest at Genoa in 1528, he was sent by his order to Pavia , where he lectured for sixteen years. At Parma he advanced thirty propositions in support of the papacy and against Protestantism . He became master of novices and was on several occasions elected prior of more than one Dominican priory. During

3696-594: The Electorate of Hanover to be neutral. Therefore, she needed troops from Hungary in order to support the war effort. Although she had already won the admiration of the Hungarians, the number of volunteers was only in the hundreds. Since she required them in thousands or even tens of thousands, she decided to appear before the Hungarian Diet on 11 September 1741 while wearing the Holy Crown of Hungary . She began addressing

3828-464: The General Roman Calendar of 1960 , and of its present rank of " Memorial ". In 1969 the celebration was moved to 30 April, the day before the anniversary of his death (1 May). Cardinal John Henry Newman declared that "St. Pius V was stern and severe, as far as a heart burning and melted with divine love could be so ... Yet such energy and vigour as his were necessary for the times. He was

3960-580: The Grand Duchy of Tuscany upon the death of childless Grand Duke Gian Gastone de' Medici . The couple were married on 12 February 1736 at the Augustinian Church in Vienna . The Duchess of Lorraine's love for her husband was strong and possessive. The letters she sent to him shortly before their marriage expressed her eagerness to see him; his letters, on the other hand, were stereotyped and formal. She

4092-706: The Habsburg monarchy , inhabited by Eastern Orthodox Christians , mainly Serbs and Romanians , but also regarding the political aspirations of the Habsburg court toward several neighbouring lands and regions in Southeastern Europe still held by the declining Ottoman Empire and inhabited by an Eastern Orthodox population. Maria Theresa's government confirmed (1743) and continued to uphold old privileges granted to their Eastern Orthodox subjects by previous Habsburg monarchs (emperors Leopold I, Joseph I and Charles VI), but at

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4224-485: The House of Habsburg , Maria Theresa was a Catholic , and a devout one. She believed that religious unity was necessary for a peaceful public life and explicitly rejected the idea of religious toleration . She even advocated for a state church and contemporary travelers criticized her regime as bigoted, intolerant and superstitious. However, she never allowed the church to interfere with what she considered to be prerogatives of

4356-670: The canons and decrees of the Council of Trent had precedence over other considerations. Accordingly, to implement a decision of that council, he standardized the Mass by promulgating the 1570 edition of the Roman Missal . Pius V made this Missal mandatory throughout the Latin Church , except where a Mass liturgy dating from before 1370 AD was in use. This form of the Mass remained essentially unchanged for 400 years until Pope Paul VI's revision of

4488-578: The studium generale of the Dominican Order at Santa Maria sopra Minerva , which would be transformed into the College of Saint Thomas in 1577, and again into the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas , Angelicum in the 20th century. Pius V arranged the forming of the Holy League against the Ottoman Empire , as the result of which the Battle of Lepanto (7 October 1571) was won by

4620-476: The Austrian and Bohemian lands on 21 November 1740. It took more than a year for the Diet of Hungary to accept Francis Stephen as co-ruler, since they asserted that the sovereignty of Hungary could not be shared. Despite her love for him and his position as co-ruler, Maria Theresa never allowed her husband to decide matters of state and often dismissed him from council meetings when they disagreed. The first display of

4752-623: The Bavarian-French occupation during the War of the Austrian Succession. The order was then expanded to all Jews of Bohemia and major cities of Moravia. Her first intention was to deport all Jews by 1 January, but having accepted the advice of her ministers, had the deadline postponed. The expulsion was executed only for Prague and only retracted in 1748 due to economic considerations and pressures from other countries, including Great Britain. In

4884-565: The Bohemian populace would prefer Charles Albert , Elector of Bavaria, to her as sovereign. Maria Theresa, desperate and burdened by pregnancy, wrote plaintively to her sister: "I don't know if a town will remain to me for my delivery." She bitterly vowed to spare nothing and no one to defend her kingdom when she wrote to the Bohemian chancellor , Count Philip Kinsky : "My mind is made up. We must put everything at stake to save Bohemia." On 26 October,

5016-658: The Catholic Church and was desirous of limiting their advancement. In France , where his influence was stronger, he took several measures to oppose the Protestant Huguenots . He directed the dismissal of Cardinal Odet de Coligny and seven bishops, nullified the royal edict tolerating the extramural services of the Reformers, introduced the Roman catechism , restored papal discipline, and strenuously opposed all compromise with

5148-660: The Church . As a cardinal, Ghislieri gained a reputation for putting orthodoxy before personalities, prosecuting eight French bishops for heresy . He also stood firm against nepotism , rebuking his predecessor Pope Pius IV to his face when he wanted to make a 13-year-old member of his family a cardinal and subsidize a nephew from the papal treasury . By means of the papal bull of 1570, Regnans in Excelsis , Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth I of England for heresy and persecution of English Catholics during her reign. He also arranged

5280-415: The College and illustrious historian of Roman law, and Alessandro Pellegrini, Germanist and scholar of languages and European cultures. The library now houses about 130,000 volumes: alongside textbooks freely for students, there are not only works of fiction and non-fiction, but also encyclopedias, repertoires and bibliographic tools for every area of knowledge. In 1569 Pope Pius V ordered the attribution to

5412-553: The Diet in Latin , and she asserted that "the very existence of the Kingdom of Hungary, of our own person and children, and our crown, are at stake. Forsaken by all, we place our sole reliance in the fidelity and long-tried valor of the Hungarians." The response was rather boorish, with the Queen being questioned and even heckled by members of the Diet; someone cried that she "better apply to Satan than

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5544-524: The Elector of Bavaria captured Prague and declared himself king of Bohemia . Maria Theresa, then in Hungary, wept on learning of the loss of Bohemia. Charles Albert was unanimously elected Holy Roman Emperor as Charles VII on 24 January 1742, which made him the only non-Habsburg to be in that position since 1440. The Queen, who regarded the election as a catastrophe, caught her enemies unprepared by insisting on

5676-676: The Habsburgs to win the war, as the French and Habsburg armies were destroyed by Frederick at Rossbach in 1757. After the defeat in Torgau on 3 November 1760, Maria Theresa realised that she could no longer reclaim Silesia without Russian support, which vanished after the death of Empress Elizabeth in early 1762. In the meantime, France was losing badly in America and India, and thus they had reduced their subsidies by 50%. Since 1761, Kaunitz had tried to organise

5808-502: The Huguenot nobility. His response to Queen Elizabeth I of England assuming the position of Supreme Governor of the Church of England included support of the imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots and her supporters in their attempts to rescue England "ex turpissima muliebris libidinis servitute" "from a most sordid slavery to a woman's voracity". A brief English Catholic uprising, the Rising of

5940-408: The Hungarians for help." However, she managed to show her gift for theatrical displays by holding her son and heir, Joseph , while weeping, and she dramatically consigned the future king to the defense of the "brave Hungarians". This act managed to win the sympathy of the members, and they declared that they would die for Maria Theresa. In 1741, the Austrian authorities informed Maria Theresa that

6072-524: The Italian Ministry for Education and University. Student expenses are subsidized by the college as the required fees are proportional to parental income; many places are granted for free. Among its alumni are Carlo Goldoni and several Italian statesmen, scientists, and scholars of the last two centuries. The construction of the building intended to house the Ghislieri college was undertaken in 1571 under

6204-413: The Jesuits did not educate her well. Her spelling and punctuation were unconventional and she lacked the formal manner and speech which had characterised her Habsburg predecessors. Maria Theresa developed a close relationship with Countess Marie Karoline von Fuchs-Mollard , who taught her etiquette. She was educated in drawing, painting, music and dancing – the disciplines which would have prepared her for

6336-610: The Jews are to be kept away and avoided." Her animosity was such that she was willing to tolerate Protestant businessmen and financiers in Vienna, such as the Swiss-born Johann von Fries , since she wanted to break free from the Jewish financiers. In December 1744, she proposed to her ministers the expulsion of around 10,000 Jews from Prague amid accusations that they were disloyal at the time of

6468-445: The North , had just failed. Pius then issued a Papal bull, Regnans in Excelsis ("Reigning on High"), dated 27 April 1570, that declared Elizabeth I a heretic and released her subjects from their allegiance to her. It was the official decree of excommunication on her and it also declared an ipso facto excommunication on anyone who obeyed her. In response, Elizabeth now actively started persecuting English Catholics for treason. As

6600-410: The Pragmatic Sanction during her father's lifetime, in November 1740. In December, Frederick II of Prussia invaded the Duchy of Silesia and requested that Maria Theresa cede it, threatening to join her enemies if she refused. Maria Theresa decided to fight for the mineral-rich province. Frederick even offered a compromise: he would defend Maria Theresa's rights if she agreed to cede to him at least

6732-399: The Pragmatic Sanction, left Austria in an impoverished state, bankrupted by the recent Turkish war and the War of the Polish Succession ; the treasury contained only 100,000 florins , which were claimed by his widow. The army had also been weakened due to these wars; instead of the full number of 160,000, the army had been reduced to about 108,000, and they were scattered in small areas from

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6864-410: The Pragmatic Sanction. In total, Great Britain, France , Saxony , United Provinces , Spain , Prussia , Russia , Denmark , Sardinia , Bavaria , and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire recognised the sanction. France, Spain, Saxony, Bavaria, and Prussia later reneged. Little more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a sister, Maria Anna , and another one, named Maria Amalia,

6996-415: The Protestant prince Frederick of Prussia . In 1725, he betrothed her to Charles of Spain and her sister, Maria Anna, to Philip of Spain . However, other European powers compelled him to renounce the pact he had made with the Queen of Spain, Elisabeth Farnese , and the betrothal to Charles was broken off. Maria Theresa, who had become close to Francis Stephen, was relieved. Francis Stephen remained at

7128-400: The Protestants en masse . In 1777, she abandoned the idea of expelling Moravian Protestants after Joseph, who was opposed to her intentions, threatened to abdicate as emperor and co-ruler. In February 1780, after a number of Moravians publicly declared their faith, Joseph demanded a general freedom to worship. However, Maria Theresa refused to grant this for as long as she lived. In May 1780,

7260-514: The Restoration age imposed its own censorship on the library, distrusting ideas that entered the cultural circuit. of the French Revolution. This situation only ceased with the unification of Italy, which allowed the library to continue to enrich itself with works aimed at deepening the topics of university courses, but also of general culture. Among the privileged channels for enriching the book material there were acquisitions through bequests or donations, among which those of Pietro Ciapessoni, rector of

7392-411: The Rhine frontier, and Frederick again invaded Bohemia, beginning a Second Silesian War ; Prussian troops sacked Prague in August 1744. The French plans fell apart when Charles VII died in January 1745. The French overran the Austrian Netherlands in May. Francis Stephen was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 13 September 1745. Prussia recognised Francis as emperor, and Maria Theresa once again recognised

7524-422: The Roman Missal in 1969–70, after which it has become widely known as the Tridentine Mass. This missal continues to be used in about 90 countries and by several religious orders . Pius V, who had declared Thomas Aquinas the fifth Latin Doctor of the Church in 1567, commissioned the first edition of Aquinas' opera omnia , often called the editio Piana in honor of the Pope. This work was produced in 1570 at

7656-464: The age of three. Her third child, the first of three daughters named Maria Carolina , died shortly after her first birthday. The second Maria Carolina was born feet first in 1748. As it became evident that she would not survive, preparations were hastily made to baptize her while still living; according to traditional Catholic belief, unbaptized infants would be condemned to eternity in limbo . Maria Theresa's physician Gerard van Swieten assured her that

7788-413: The architect designed an imposing building yet functional to the community life for which it was intended. From this purpose derives the centrality of the four-sided portico, with columns combined and reinforced at the corners by a pillar, and of the large corridor on the main floor, overlooked by the students' rooms and which receives light from two large loggias. Towards the middle of the eighteenth century

7920-420: The battle was over, he had left the scene. Subsequently, Prussia was defeated at Hochkirch in Saxony on 14 October 1758, at Kunersdorf in Brandenburg on 12 August 1759, and at Landeshut near Glatz in June 1760. Hungarian and Croat light hussars led by Count Hadik raided Berlin in 1757. Austrian and Russian troops even occupied Berlin for several days in August 1760. However, these victories did not enable

8052-424: The books of ceremonies speak ever more explicitly of the Pope as wearing a red mantle, mozzetta, camauro and shoes, and a white cassock and stockings. Pius V canonized one saint during his reign: Ivo of Chartres on 18 December 1570. Pius V created 21 cardinals in three consistories including Felice Piergentile who would become Pope Sixtus V. Pius V died on 1 May 1572. Pius V suffered from bladder stones ,

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8184-423: The building was significantly enlarged with the addition of a new wing to the south, the so-called Crimea. The college chapel was designed by Pellegrino Tibaldi and only finished at the beginning of the seventeenth century, following the intervention of another famous architect of the time, Alessandro Mollo. The atrium, through which you enter the chapel, is dedicated to St. Pius V and preserves numerous paintings of

8316-420: The cardinals conferred with each other more intensely, the number of those who looked to Ghislieri increased, and this led eventually to his election as the new pope on the afternoon of 8 January 1566. Ghislieri took the regnal name Pope Pius V. He was crowned ten days later, on his 62nd birthday by the protodeacon. Six weeks after the conclave, Cardinal Borromeo wrote to Cardinal Henry of Portugal recalling

8448-410: The center of Piazza Ghislieri: the work, cast in Rome by Francesco Ferreri, can be counted among the masterpieces of sculpture of the period and resumes tone and energy the grandeur of Bernini , whose manner Nuvoloni, a native of the Canton of Ticino , had made his own. The constitutive bulls issued by Pius V did not foresee the existence of a library, even if in the College there were books owned by

8580-436: The circumstances under which she had ascended: "I found myself without money, without credit, without army, without experience and knowledge of my own and finally, also without any counsel because each one of them at first wanted to wait and see how things would develop." She dismissed the possibility that other countries might try to seize her territories and immediately started ensuring the imperial dignity for herself; since

8712-402: The college of the fiefdom of Lardirago , with its early medieval castle, and of the fiefdom of Gerenzago , formerly owned by the abbey of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro : the necessary revenues were thus guaranteed to fulfill Ghislieri's institutional tasks, and an autonomy of management that has never ceased over the centuries. The castle of Lardirago, born in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as

8844-442: The combined fleet under Don John of Austria . It is attested in his canonisation that he miraculously knew when the battle was over, himself being in Rome at the time. Pius V also helped financially in the construction of Valletta , Malta 's capital city, by sending his military engineer Francesco Laparelli to design the fortification walls (A bronze bust of Pius V was installed at the Gate of Valletta in 1892.). To commemorate

8976-413: The cost of the papal court after the manner of the Dominican Order to which he belonged, compel residence among the clergy, regulated inns, and assert the importance of the ceremonial in general and the liturgy of the Mass in particular. In his wider policy, which was characterized throughout by an effective stringency, the maintenance and increase of the efficacy of the Inquisition and the enforcement of

9108-522: The counsel of her advisers. She promulgated institutional, financial, medical, and educational reforms, with the assistance of Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz-Rietberg , Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz , and Gerard van Swieten . She also promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and reorganised Austria's ramshackle military, all of which strengthened Austria's international standing. A pious Catholic, she despised Jews and Protestants , and on certain occasions she ordered their expulsion to remote parts of

9240-495: The course of the war, Maria Theresa successfully defended her rule over most of the Habsburg monarchy, apart from the loss of Silesia and a few minor territories in Italy. Maria Theresa later unsuccessfully tried to recover Silesia during the Seven Years' War . Although she was expected to cede power to her husband, Emperor Francis I , and her eldest son, Emperor Joseph II , who were officially her co-rulers in Austria and Bohemia, Maria Theresa ruled as an autocratic sovereign with

9372-419: The crypt and soon died. Maria Carolina was to replace her as the pre-determined bride of King Ferdinand IV of Naples . Maria Theresa blamed herself for her daughter's death for the rest of her life because, at the time, the concept of an extended incubation period was largely unknown and it was believed that Josepha had caught smallpox from the body of the late empress. The last in the family to be infected with

9504-475: The direction of Pellegrino Tibaldi , one of the greatest architects of the time, who followed the works until 1585, the year in which he was called to Spain by Philip II . The austere spirit of the Counter-Reformation pervades the whole building, starting with the severe façade which has the sumptuous Roman school portal and the lantern tower as the only ornaments. Interpreting the spirit of Pope Pius V ,

9636-498: The disease in May 1767 and died a week later. Maria Theresa ignored the risk of infection and embraced her daughter-in-law before the sick chamber was sealed to outsiders. Maria Theresa in fact contracted smallpox from her daughter-in-law. Throughout the city prayers were made for her recovery, and the sacrament was displayed in all churches. Joseph slept in one of his mother's antechambers and hardly left her bedside. On 1 June, Maria Theresa

9768-449: The eight-year conflict, recognised Prussia's possession of Silesia, and Maria Theresa ceded the Duchy of Parma to Philip of Spain . France had successfully conquered the Austrian Netherlands, but Louis XV , wishing to prevent potential future wars with Austria, returned them to Maria Theresa. Frederick of Prussia's invasion of Saxony in August 1756 began a Third Silesian War and sparked

9900-403: The elder brother. Her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a great disappointment to him and the people of Vienna; Charles never managed to overcome this feeling. Maria Theresa replaced Maria Josepha as heir presumptive to the Habsburg realms

10032-547: The election. He spoke of the new pope, and of his "high esteem for him on account of his singular holiness and zeal", seeing these qualities as a sign that he would make a good pope "to the great satisfaction of all". His pontificate saw him dealing with internal reform of the Church, the spread of Protestant doctrines in the West, and Turkish armies advancing from the East. Aware of the necessity of restoring discipline and morality at Rome to ensure success, he at once proceeded to reduce

10164-504: The empire by creating a standing army of 108,000 men, paid for with 14 million florins extracted from crown lands. The central government was responsible for funding the army, although Haugwitz instituted taxation of the nobility, who had never before had to pay taxes. Moreover, after Haugwitz was appointed the head of the new central administrative agency, dubbed the Directory, ( Directorium in publicis et cameralibus ) in 1749, he initiated

10296-465: The equestrian skills necessary for the ceremony and negotiating with the Hungarian Diet. To appease those who considered her gender to be a serious obstacle, Maria Theresa assumed masculine titles. Thus, in nomenclature, Maria Theresa was archduke and king; normally, however, she was styled as queen. By July, attempts at conciliation had completely collapsed. Maria Theresa's ally, Augustus III of Poland , now became her enemy, and George II declared

10428-484: The first year of his papacy, Pius urged Mary, Queen of Scots to restore Catholicism in her realm, providing funding and sending Jesuit Vincenzo Lauro to Scotland as Nuncio to further this cause. However, with Mary's Protestant half-brother James Stewart, Earl of Moray , back at the heart of government and her Catholic husband Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley , in disfavour, the political circumstances did not prove favourable. Pius V recognized attacks on papal supremacy in

10560-726: The formation of the Holy League , an alliance of Catholic states to combat the advancement of the Ottoman Empire in Eastern Europe. Although outnumbered, the Holy League famously defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Pius V attributed the victory to the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary and instituted the feast of Our Lady of Victory . Biographers report that as the Battle of Lepanto ended, Pius rose and went over to

10692-408: The illness was the twenty-four year old Elisabeth . Although she recovered, she was badly scarred with pock marks from the illness. Maria Theresa's losses to smallpox, especially in the epidemic of 1767, were decisive in her sponsoring trials to prevent the illness through inoculation , and subsequently insisting on members of the imperial family receiving inoculation. Shortly after giving birth to

10824-518: The imperial court until 1729, when he ascended the throne of Lorraine , but was not formally promised Maria Theresa's hand until 31 January 1736, during the War of the Polish Succession . Louis XV of France demanded that Maria Theresa's fiancé surrender his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine to accommodate his father-in-law, Stanisław I , who had been deposed as king of Poland. Francis Stephen was to receive

10956-468: The infant was carried ahead of her cousins, Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia , the daughters of Charles VI's elder brother and predecessor, Joseph I , before the eyes of their mother, Wilhelmine Amalia. It was clear that Maria Theresa would outrank them, even though their grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I , had his sons sign the Mutual Pact of Succession , which gave precedence to the daughters of

11088-470: The infant was still living when baptized, but many at court doubted this. Maria Theresa's mother, Empress Elisabeth Christine, died in 1750. Four years later, Maria Theresa's governess, Marie Karoline von Fuchs-Mollard, died. She showed her gratitude to Countess Fuchs by having her buried in the Imperial Crypt along with the members of the imperial family. Smallpox was a constant threat to members of

11220-569: The institution, both bought directly from the founding pope, and forfeited when the abbey table of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro was suppressed. They are mostly works of religious and philosophical content or of theology, but there are some very precious incunabula, including the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili . The oldest works still kept in the Library should date back to this original nucleus, even if it

11352-584: The loss of Silesia (with the exception of Austrian Silesia by the Treaty of Dresden in December 1745, ending the Second Silesian War). The wider war dragged on for another three years, with fighting in northern Italy and the Austrian Netherlands; however, the core Habsburg domains of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia remained in Maria Theresa's possession. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) , which concluded

11484-531: The loss of Silesia, nor her grief over the soldiers she lost in wars with you. The Treaty of Breslau of June 1742 ended hostilities between Austria and Prussia. With the First Silesian War at an end, the Queen soon made the recovery of Bohemia her priority. French troops fled Bohemia in the winter of the same year. On 12 May 1743, Maria Theresa was crowned Queen of Bohemia in St. Vitus Cathedral suo jure . Prussia became anxious at Austrian advances on

11616-517: The moment she was born; Charles VI had issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had placed his nieces behind his own daughters in the line of succession. Charles sought the other European powers' approval for disinheriting his nieces. They exacted harsh terms: in the Treaty of Vienna (1731) , Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of

11748-983: The new queen's authority was the formal act of homage of the Lower Austrian Estates to her on 22 November 1740. It was an elaborate public event which served as a formal recognition and legitimation of her accession. The oath of fealty to Maria Theresa was taken on the same day in the Ritterstube of the Hofburg . Immediately after her accession, a number of European sovereigns who had recognised Maria Theresa as heir broke their promises. Queen Elisabeth of Spain and Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria, married to Maria Theresa's deprived cousin Maria Amalia and supported by Empress Wilhelmine Amalia, coveted portions of her inheritance. Maria Theresa did secure recognition from King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia , who had not accepted

11880-517: The number of religious holidays and monastic orders. Her relationship with the Jesuits was complex. Members of this order educated her, served as her confessors, and supervised the religious education of her eldest son. The Jesuits were powerful and influential in the early years of Maria Theresa's reign. However, the Queen's ministers convinced her that the order posed a danger to her monarchical authority. Not without much hesitation and regret, she issued

12012-423: The palace and limits being placed on his authority as inquisitor. Before Michele Ghislieri could return to his diocese, Pope Pius IV died. On 4 January, a courier from Spain arrived, prompting rumors that King Philip II favoured the election of Cardinal Ghislieri. This in turn gave additional momentum to the efforts of Cardinal Charles Borromeo and his allies, who already supported the candidacy of Ghislieri. As

12144-625: The peace between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War : Maria Johanna , Maria Josepha , (the third) Maria Carolina , Ferdinand and Maria Antonia . She delivered her last child, Maximilian Francis , during the Seven Years' War, aged 39. Maria Theresa asserted that, had she not been almost always pregnant, she would have gone into battle herself. Four of Maria Theresa's children died before reaching adolescence. Her eldest daughter Maria Elisabeth died from stomach cramps at

12276-683: The poor, gratis, and sold the rest to the public below cost." Katherine Rinne writes in Waters of Rome that Pius V ordered the construction of public works to improve the water supply and sewer system of the city—a welcome step, particularly in low-lying areas, where typhoid and malaria were inevitable summer visitors. In 1567, he issued Super prohibitione agitationis Taurorum & Ferarum prohibiting bull-fighting. Besides In Coena Domini (1568), there are several others of note, including his prohibition of quaestuary (February 1567 and January 1570); condemnation of ideas associated with Michael Baius ,

12408-811: The privileges of the Society of Crusaders for the protection of the Inquisition (October 1570); the suppression of the Fratres Humiliati (February 1571); the approbation of the new office of the Blessed Virgin (March 1571); and the enforcement of the daily recitation of the Canonical Hours (September 1571). Pius V is often credited with the origin of the Pope's white garments, supposedly because after his election Pius continued to wear his white Dominican habit . However, many of his predecessors also wore white with

12540-560: The realm where the Jews were treated better, such as Trieste , Gorizia and Vorarlberg . In contrast to Maria Theresa's efforts to expel the Jews, she aimed to convert the Protestants (whom she regarded as heretics) to Catholicism. Commissions were formed to seek out secret Protestants and intern them in workhouses, where they would be given the chance to subscribe to approved statements of Catholic faith. If they accepted, they were to be allowed to return to their homes. However, any sign of

12672-552: The realm. She also advocated for the state church . The second and eldest surviving child of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , Archduchess Maria Theresa was born on 13 May 1717 in Vienna , six months after the death of her elder brother, Archduke Leopold Johann , and was baptised on that same evening. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg , were her godmothers. Most descriptions of her baptism stress that

12804-497: The religious life of their Eastern Orthodox subjects and the administration of the Serbian Metropolitanate of Karlovci. Maria Theresa's rescript of 1779 was kept in force until 1868. Maria Theresa was as conservative in matters of state as in those of religion, but she implemented significant reforms to strengthen Austria's military and bureaucratic efficiency. She employed Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz , who modernised

12936-474: The result was the First Treaty of Versailles of 1 May 1756. Thus, the efforts of Kaunitz and Starhemberg managed to pave a way for a Diplomatic Revolution ; previously, France was one of Austria's archenemies together with Russia and the Ottoman Empire , but after the agreement, they were united by a common cause against Prussia. However, historians have blamed this treaty for France's devastating defeats in

13068-549: The rights of the state in relation to the church, Jansenism provided new theoretical justification for this. Maria Theresa promoted the Greek Catholics and emphasized their equal status with Latin Church Catholics. Although Maria Theresa was a very pious person, she also enacted policies that suppressed exaggerated display of piety, such as the prohibition of public flagellantism . Furthermore, she significantly reduced

13200-427: The role of queen consort . Her father allowed her to attend meetings of the council from the age of 14 but never discussed the affairs of state with her. Even though he had spent the last decades of his life securing Maria Theresa's inheritance, Charles never prepared his daughter for her future role as sovereign. The question of Maria Theresa's marriage was raised early in her childhood. Leopold Clement of Lorraine

13332-515: The royal family. In July 1749, Maria Christina survived a bout of the disease, followed in January 1757 by Maria Theresa's eldest son Joseph . In January 1761, the disease killed her second son Charles at the age of fifteen. In December 1762, her twelve-year-old daughter Johanna likewise died in agony from the disease. In November 1763, Joseph's first wife Isabella died from the disease. Joseph's second wife Empress Maria Josepha likewise caught

13464-615: The same time, new reforms were enforced, establishing much firmer state control over the Serbian Orthodox Metropolitanate of Karlovci . Those reforms were initiated by royal patents, known as Regulamentum privilegiorum (1770) and Regulamentum Illyricae Nationis (1777), and finalized in 1779 by the Declaratory Rescript of the Illyrian Nation , a comprehensive document that regulated all major issues relating to

13596-410: The sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Frederick II of Prussia (who became Maria Theresa's greatest rival for most of her reign) promptly invaded and took the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia in the eight-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession . In defiance of the grave situation, she managed to secure the vital support of the Hungarians for the war effort. During

13728-503: The sixteenth century and in particular: The miracles of St. Pius V by Luigi Pellegrini Scaramuccia , San Pio frees the possessed by Giovanni Peruzzini and vision of the battle of Lepanto by Giovanni Battista del Sole. The oratory, with a central plan, is surmounted by a dome with eight segments with a lantern; on the altar, the altarpiece of the Nativity, Saint Jerome and Pius V (about 1620), by Guglielmo Caccia , stands out. The chapel

13860-486: The subject of Roman hatred; he was accused of trying to turn the city into a vast monastery. He was not a hypocrite: in day-to-day life Pius V was highly ascetic. He wore a hair shirt beneath the simple habit of a Dominican friar and was often seen in bare feet. It is said that in "the time of a great famine in Rome, he imported grain at his own expense from Sicily and France [...]; a considerable part of which he distributed among

13992-481: The task of reconstituting a library inside the boarding school, with sums allocated in Ghislieri's budget. A privileged channel of access was that followed by the works owned by the suppressed Society of Jesus and in particular by the Braidense library. But the Austrian monarchy, which in the mid-eighteenth century had taken control of the College showing considerable openness towards European culture in every branch, during

14124-618: The third decade of her reign, Maria Theresa issued edicts that offered some state protection to her Jewish subjects. She forbade the forcible conversion of Jewish children to Christianity in 1762, and in 1763 she forbade Catholic clergy from extracting surplice fees from her Jewish subjects. In 1764, she ordered the release of those Jews who had been jailed for a blood libel in the village of Orkuta. Notwithstanding her continuing strong dislike of Jews, Maria Theresa supported Jewish commercial and industrial activity in Austria. There were also parts of

14256-571: The victory, he instituted the Feast of Our Lady of Victory . By the time Pius V ascended the throne, Protestantism had swept over all of England and Scotland, as well as half of Germany, the Netherlands, and parts of France; only Spain, Ireland, Portugal and Italy remained unswervingly Catholic. Pius V was thus determined to prevent its insurgency into Italy—which he believed would come via the Alps and Milan. In

14388-564: The war , since Louis XV was required to deploy troops in Germany and to provide subsidies of 25–30 million pounds a year to Maria Theresa that were vital for the Austrian war effort in Bohemia and Silesia. On 1 May 1757, the Second Treaty of Versailles was signed, whereby Louis XV promised to provide Austria with 130,000 men in addition to 12 million florins yearly. They would also continue

14520-554: The war in Continental Europe until Prussia could be compelled to abandon Silesia and Glatz. In return, Austria would cede several towns in the Austrian Netherlands to the son-in-law of Louis XV, Philip of Parma , who in turn would grant his Italian duchies to Maria Theresa. Maximilian von Browne commanded the Austrian troops. Following the indecisive Battle of Lobositz in 1756, he was replaced by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine , Maria Theresa's brother-in-law. However, he

14652-475: The war. Francis Stephen was popularly despised, as he was thought to be a cowardly French spy. The war was concluded the next year with the Treaty of Belgrade . Charles VI died on 20 October 1740, probably of mushroom poisoning. He had ignored the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy who had urged him to concentrate on filling the treasury and equipping the army rather than on acquiring signatures of fellow monarchs. The Emperor, who spent his entire reign securing

14784-565: The way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. He neglected the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy , who believed that a strong military and a rich treasury were more important than mere signatures. Eventually, Charles VI left behind a weakened and impoverished state, particularly due to the War of the Polish Succession and the Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739) . Moreover, upon his death, Saxony , Prussia , Bavaria , and France all repudiated

14916-583: The wider Seven Years' War . Maria Theresa and Prince Kaunitz wished to exit the war with possession of Silesia. Before the war started, Kaunitz had been sent as an ambassador to Versailles from 1750 to 1753 to win over the French. Meanwhile, the British rebuffed requests from Maria Theresa to aid her in reclaiming Silesia, and Frederick II himself managed to secure the Treaty of Westminster (1756) with them. Subsequently, Maria Theresa sent Georg Adam, Prince of Starhemberg , to negotiate an agreement with France, and

15048-644: The younger children, Maria Theresa was confronted with the task of marrying off the elder ones. She led the marriage negotiations along with the campaigns of her wars and the duties of state. She used them as pawns in dynastic games and sacrificed their happiness for the benefit of the state. A devoted but self-conscious mother, she wrote to all of her children at least once a week and believed herself entitled to exercise authority over her children regardless of their age and rank. In April 1770, Maria Theresa's youngest daughter, Maria Antonia, married Louis , Dauphin of France , by proxy in Vienna. Maria Antonia's education

15180-497: Was Maria Christina, who enjoyed her mother's complete confidence, though she failed to please her mother in one aspect – she did not produce any surviving children. One of Maria Theresa's greatest wishes was to have as many grandchildren as possible, but she had only about two dozen at the time of her death, of which all the eldest surviving daughters were named after her, with the exception of Princess Carolina of Parma , her eldest granddaughter by Maria Amalia. Like all members of

15312-428: Was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery. She was barred from horse riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony . The imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI, in which she relished participating. Her education was overseen by Jesuits . Contemporaries thought her Latin to be quite good, but in all else,

15444-483: Was appointed only because of his familial relations; he turned out to be an incompetent military leader, and he was replaced by Leopold Joseph von Daun , Franz Moritz von Lacy and Ernst Gideon von Laudon . Frederick himself was startled by Lobositz; he eventually re-grouped for another attack in June 1757. The Battle of Kolín that followed was a decisive victory for Austria. Frederick lost one third of his troops, and before

15576-561: Was appointed to the commissariat of the Holy Office . In 1556 he was made Bishop of Sutri by Pope Paul IV and was selected as inquisitor of the faith in Milan and Lombardy. In 1557 he was made a cardinal and named inquisitor general for all Christendom. His defense of Bartolomé Carranza , Archbishop of Toledo , who had been suspected of heresy by the Spanish Inquisition , earned him

15708-442: Was born a little less than a year after the wedding. The child's sex caused great disappointment and so would the births of Maria Anna , the eldest surviving child, and Maria Carolina (1740–1741). While fighting to preserve her inheritance, Maria Theresa gave birth to a son, Joseph , named after Saint Joseph , to whom she had repeatedly prayed for a male child during the pregnancy. Maria Theresa's favourite child, Maria Christina ,

15840-423: Was born in 1724. The portraits of the imperial family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine and Maria Anna. The Prussian ambassador noted that she had large blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth and a notably strong body. Unlike many other members of the House of Habsburg, neither Maria Theresa's parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other. Maria Theresa

15972-454: Was born on her 25th birthday, four days before the defeat of the Austrian army at Chotusitz . Five more children were born during the war: (the second) Maria Elisabeth , Charles , Maria Amalia , Leopold and (the second) Maria Carolina (b. & d. 1748). During this period, there was no rest for Maria Theresa during pregnancies or around the births; the war and child-bearing were carried on simultaneously. Five children were born during

16104-608: Was erected at the Porta Galla in celebration, where it remains today. Their stay in Florence was brief. Charles VI soon recalled them, as he feared he might die while his heiress was miles away in Tuscany. In the summer of 1738, Austria suffered defeats during the ongoing Russo-Turkish War . The Turks reversed Austrian gains in Serbia , Wallachia , and Bosnia . The Viennese rioted at the cost of

16236-578: Was first considered to be the appropriate suitor, and he was supposed to visit Vienna and meet the Archduchess in 1723. These plans were forestalled by his death from smallpox that year. Leopold Clement's younger brother, Francis Stephen , was invited to Vienna. Even though Francis Stephen was his favourite candidate for Maria Theresa's hand, the Emperor considered other possibilities. Religious differences prevented him from arranging his daughter's marriage to

16368-527: Was given the last rites . When the news came in early June that she had survived the crisis, there was huge rejoicing at the court and amongst the populace of Vienna. In October 1767, Maria Theresa's sixteen-year-old daughter Josepha also showed signs of the disease. It was assumed that she had caught the infection when she went with her mother to pray in the Imperial Crypt next to the unsealed tomb of Empress Maria Josepha (Joseph's wife). Archduchess Josepha started showing smallpox rash two days after visiting

16500-621: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 7 January 1566 to his death, in May 1572. He is venerated as a saint of the Catholic Church . He is chiefly notable for his role in the Council of Trent , the Counter-Reformation , and the standardization of the Roman Rite within the Latin Church , known as the Tridentine mass . Pius V declared Thomas Aquinas a Doctor of

16632-495: Was in a panic, as none of Maria Theresa's advisors had expected France to betray them. Francis Stephen urged Maria Theresa to reach a rapprochement with Prussia, as did Great Britain. Maria Theresa reluctantly agreed to negotiations. Contrary to all expectations, the young Queen gained significant support from Hungary. Her coronation as queen of Hungary suo jure took place in St. Martin's Cathedral , Pressburg (today's Bratislava), on 25 June 1741. She had spent months honing

16764-703: Was neglected, and when the French showed an interest in her, her mother went about educating her as best she could about the court of Versailles and the French. Maria Theresa kept up a fortnightly correspondence with Maria Antonia, now called Marie Antoinette , in which she often reproached her for laziness and frivolity and scolded her for failing to conceive a child. Maria Theresa was not just critical of Marie Antoinette. She disliked Leopold's reserve and often blamed him for being cold. She criticized Maria Carolina for her political activities, Ferdinand for his lack of organization, and Maria Amalia for her poor French and haughtiness. The only child she did not constantly scold

16896-549: Was partly lost in the 18th century when, by the will of Maria Theresa of Austria , the "library" of the College was first moved to the Palazzo Malaspina (1771) and then merged with the university one and transferred there. After the transfer of the book material from Ghislieri to the University, Abbot Gregorio Fontana , professor of Mathematics at the University of Pavia , and after him the various spiritual directors were given

17028-463: Was probably the most anti-Jewish monarch of her time, having inherited the traditional prejudices of her ancestors and acquired new ones. This was a product of commonplace antisemitism and was not kept secret in her time. In 1777, she wrote of the Jews: "I know of no greater plague than this race, which on account of its deceit, usury and avarice is driving my subjects into beggary. Therefore as far as possible,

17160-571: Was ruler of the Habsburg dominions from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position suo jure (in her own right). She was the sovereign of Austria , Hungary , Croatia , Bohemia , Transylvania , Slavonia , Mantua , Milan , Moravia , Galicia and Lodomeria , Dalmatia , the Austrian Netherlands , and Parma . By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine , Grand Duchess of Tuscany , and Holy Roman Empress . Maria Theresa started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI , died on 20 October 1740. Charles VI paved

17292-514: Was strengthened by it thanks to its alliance with the Bourbons in Madrid, Parma and Naples . Maria Theresa herself decided to focus on domestic reforms and refrain from undertaking any further military operations. Maria Theresa gave birth to sixteen children in nineteen years from 1737 to 1756. Thirteen survived infancy, but only ten survived into adulthood. The first child, Maria Elisabeth (1737–1740),

17424-451: Was very jealous of her husband and his infidelity was the greatest problem of their marriage, with Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg , as his best-known mistress. Upon Gian Gastone's death on 9 July 1737, Francis Stephen ceded Lorraine and became grand duke of Tuscany. In 1738, Charles VI sent the young couple to make their formal entry into Tuscany. The Triumphal Arch of the Lorraine

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