A co-operative federation or secondary co-operative is a co-operative in which all members are, in turn, co-operatives. Historically, co-operative federations have predominantly come in the form of co-operative wholesale societies and co-operative unions . Co-operative federations are a means through which co-operatives can fulfill the sixth Co-operative Principle , co-operation among co-operatives. The International Co-operative Alliance notes that “Co-operatives serve their members most effectively and strengthen the co-operative movement by working together through local, national, regional and international structures.”
40-486: According to co-operative economist Charles Gide , the aim of a co-operative wholesale society , which is owned by retail consumer co-operatives , is to arrange "bulk purchases, and, if possible, organise production". The best historical examples of this were the English and Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Societies , which were the forerunners to the modern Co-operative Group . A second common form of co-operative federation
80-670: A house on Rue du Sauvage, then later in a mansion on Rue de la Sinne, both in Mulhouse. Because of his mother's bedridden illness following his birth, his sister Henriette became like a second mother to him. Alfred was 10 years old when the Franco-Prussian War broke out in the summer of 1870, and following the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany after the war, he and his family moved to Basel , Switzerland , where he attended high school. The family later relocated to Paris . The childhood experience of seeing his family uprooted by
120-705: A minor French military secret, and had obviously been written by a spy in the French military. In 1894, this made the French Army's counter-intelligence section, led by Lieutenant Colonel Jean Sandherr , aware that information regarding new artillery parts was being passed to Maximilian von Schwartzkoppen , the German military attache in Paris, by a highly placed spy most likely on the General Staff. Suspicion quickly fell upon Dreyfus, who
160-551: A museum dedicated to the Dreyfus affair in Médan in the northwestern suburbs of Paris. He said that nothing could repair the humiliations and injustices Dreyfus had suffered, and "let us not aggravate it by forgetting, deepening, or repeating them". The reference to not repeating them follows attempts by the French far right to question Dreyfus' innocence. An army colonel was cashiered in 1994 for publishing an article suggesting that Dreyfus
200-474: A pardon by President Émile Loubet in 1899 and released from prison; this was a compromise that saved face for the military's mistake. Had Dreyfus refused the pardon, he would have been returned to Devil's Island, a fate he could no longer emotionally cope with; so officially Dreyfus remained a traitor to France, and pointedly remarked upon his release: The government of the Republic has given me back my freedom. It
240-479: Is a co-operative union, whose objective (according to Gide) is “to develop the spirit of solidarity among societies and... in a word, to exercise the functions of a government whose authority, it is needless to say, is purely moral.” Co-operatives UK and the International Co-operative Alliance are examples of such arrangements. Regional agricultural co-operatives , such as Land O'Lakes and
280-400: Is an example of such an arrangement. Co-operatives whose member owners are businesses, such as retailers' co-operatives , are sometimes called secondary co-operatives , even when their members are not themselves co-operatives. Charles Gide Charles Gide ( French: [ʒid] ; 1847–1932) was a French economist and historian of economic thought . He was a professor at
320-408: Is nothing for me without my honour. For two years, until July 1906, he lived in a state of house arrest with one of his sisters at Carpentras , and later at Cologny . On 12 July 1906, Dreyfus was officially exonerated by a military commission. The day after his exoneration, he was readmitted into the army with a promotion to the rank of major ( Chef d'Escadron ). A week later, he was made Knight of
360-710: The Chemin des Dames . He was promoted to Officer of the Legion of Honour in November 1918. Dreyfus' son Pierre also served throughout the entire war as an artillery officer, receiving the Croix de guerre . Dreyfus died in Paris aged 75, on 12 July 1935. Two days later, his funeral cortège passed the Place de la Concorde through the ranks of troops assembled for the Bastille Day national holiday. He
400-625: The Collège libre de science sociales initiated in 1895. Gide endorsed the Union pour la Verite (League for Truth) created by philosopher Paul Desjardins in 1892 promoting the cause of the Jewish army officer Alfred Dreyfus during the political scandal involving him. Gide was interested in reform projects as well, such as the Alliance d'Hygiène Sociale (Alliance of Social Hygiene, created in 1905), and reported on
440-556: The Dreyfus Affair (1894–1906), when he was wrongfully accused and convicted, due to antisemitism , of being a spy for the German Empire . Upon his arrest, he was sentenced to degradation and deported to the penal colony on Devil's Island to be imprisoned until his death. However, evidence emerged showing that Dreyfus was innocent and that the true culprit was a Catholic officer named Esterhazy . Gradual revelations indicated that
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#1732884544398480-477: The Legion of Honour , and subsequently assigned to command an artillery unit at Vincennes . On 15 October 1906, he was placed in command of another artillery unit at Saint-Denis . While attending a ceremony relocating Zola's ashes to the Panthéon on 4 June 1908, Dreyfus was wounded in the arm by a gunshot from a right-wing journalist, Louis Grégori [ fr ] , who was trying to assassinate him. Grégori
520-470: The University of Bordeaux , at Montpellier , at Université de Paris and finally at Collège de France . His nephew was the author André Gide . A founder of Revue d'économie politique in 1887, Gide was a proponent of the French historical school of economics . Gide supported economist Léon Walras , as they shared a social philosophy, social activism, and disdain for the "Manchester-style" economics of
560-437: The journalistes . During the early 1880s Gide worked with Édouard de Boyve, founder in 1884 of the cooperative Abeille Nîmoise , and with the former manufacturer Auguste Marie Fabre . These three men founded the French cooperative philosophy that came to be known as the École de Nîmes . The Sociétés Coopératives de Consommation de France had its first national congress in Paris on 27 July 1885. The journal l'Émancipation
600-406: The French military of antisemitism and calling for a retrial for Dreyfus. In France there was a passionate campaign by Dreyfus' supporters, including leading artists and intellectuals such as Émile Zola , following which he was given a second trial in 1899, but again declared guilty of treason despite the evidence of his innocence. However, due to public opinion, Dreyfus was offered and accepted
640-558: The army in October 1907 at the age of 48. As a reserve officer, he re-entered the army as a major of artillery at the outbreak of World War I . Serving throughout the war, Dreyfus was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel . By then in his mid-50s, Dreyfus served mostly behind the lines of the Western Front , in part as commander of an artillery supply column. However, he also performed front-line duties in 1917, notably at Verdun and on
680-474: The courtyard of the École Militaire before silent ranks of soldiers, while a large crowd of onlookers shouted abuse from behind railings. Dreyfus cried out: "I swear that I am innocent. I remain worthy of serving in the Army. Long live France! Long live the Army!" In August 1896, the new chief of French military intelligence, Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart , reported to his superiors that he had found evidence to
720-570: The effect that the real traitor was the Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy . Picquart was silenced by being transferred to command a tirailleur regiment based in Sousse , Tunisia, in November 1896. When reports of an army cover-up and Dreyfus' possible innocence were leaked to the press, a heated debate ensued about antisemitism and France's identity as a Catholic nation or a republic founded on equal rights for all citizens. Esterhazy
760-689: The fight to exonerate her husband, was hidden in a convent in Valence. Their son, Pierre Léon Dreyfus (1891–1946), escaped to the United States in 1943. Their daughter, Jeanne Dreyfus Lévy (1893–1981), also survived, but granddaughter Madeleine Levy, arrested by French police in Toulouse , was deported and died of typhus in Auschwitz in January 1944, aged 25. Dreyfus' grandchildren donated over three thousand documents to
800-515: The former Farmland Industries , are co-operative federations owned by local farmers' co-operatives. Like the Co-operative Group (above), Land O'Lakes is actually a hybrid of a primary and secondary co-operative. In some countries with strong co-operative sectors, such as the UK, co-operatives have organized parliamentary political parties to represent their interests. The British Co-operative Party
840-459: The internal investigation conducted by the army was biased; Dreyfus was an ideal scapegoat because he was Jewish, and the army's high command was aware of his innocence but preferred to cover up the affair and leave him in the penal colony rather than lose face. The scandal erupted, shaking French political life; it highlighted the connections between the French army and the political circles of
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#1732884544398880-401: The members of the panel, General Bonnefond, felt that "Jews were not desired" on the staff, and gave Dreyfus poor marks for cote d'amour ( French slang: attraction ; translatable as likability ). Bonnefond's assessment lowered Dreyfus' overall grade; he did the same to another Jewish candidate, Lieutenant Picard. Learning of this injustice, the two officers lodged a protest with the director of
920-610: The new trainee's superiors. The personal assessments received by Dreyfus during 1893/94 acknowledged his high intelligence, but were critical of aspects of his personality. A torn-up handwritten note, referred to throughout the affair as the bordereau , was found by a French housekeeper, a woman named Marie Bastian, in a wastebasket at the German Embassy. Bastian, whose job was to burn the waste of Maximilian von Schwartzkoppen , instead sent it to Hubert-Joseph Henry for potential interest to French intelligence. The bordereau described
960-685: The persecutions he endured because he was Jewish left a significant mark on French political consciousness; the true culprit, Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy , remained unpunished. Among Dreyfus’s defenders were writers such as Émile Zola , Charles Péguy , and Anatole France , politicians like Georges Clemenceau and Jean Jaurès , and the founders of the Human Rights League (LDH) Francis de Pressensé and Pierre Quillard . Born in Mulhouse , Alsace in 1859, to Raphaël and Jeannette Dreyfus (née Libmann),
1000-527: The school, General Lebelin de Dionne, who expressed his regret for what had occurred, but said he was powerless to take any steps in the matter. The protest would later count against Dreyfus. The French army of the period was relatively open to entry and advancement by talent, with an estimated 300 Jewish officers, of whom ten were generals. However, within the Fourth Bureau of the General Staff, General Bonnefond's prejudices appear to have been shared by some of
1040-470: The social economy exhibition at the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1900. Gide was a champion of the cooperative philosophy, including both agricultural and consumers' cooperatives , during the first third of the 20th century. His book, Consumers' Co-operative Societies , which was published first in French in 1904, and in English in 1921, is a classic of co-operative economics , in
1080-537: The time with antisemitism. After numerous judicial and political twists, the publication of Émile Zola 's manifesto, J'accuse... ! , in 1898 brought new momentum to Dreyfus's cause. Zola accused the army and French political leaders of covering up the affair. Dreyfus was eventually exonerated, rehabilitated, and reinstated in the French army, although at a lower rank than his seniority would have warranted. The anti-Dreyfusard and antisemitic factions, however, viewed this rehabilitation unfavorably, and while attending
1120-479: The tradition of Co-operative Federalism . Alfred Dreyfus Alfred Dreyfus ( French: [alfʁɛd dʁɛfys] , German: [ˈalfʁeːt ˈdʁaɪfuːs] ; 9 October 1859 – 12 July 1935) was a French artillery officer of Alsatian origin and Jewish ethnicity and faith. In 1894, he fell victim to a judicial conspiracy that sparked a major political crisis during the Third Republic , known as
1160-560: The transfer of Émile Zola's remains to the Panthéon , Dreyfus was targeted in an attack by an antisemitic militarist activist, who was later acquitted in trial, but Dreyfus survived. He fought in World War I , notably at Verdun and the Chemin des Dames , then retired and led a quiet life. He died in 1935 in Paris and was buried in the Montparnasse Cemetery . Alfred Dreyfus's life and
1200-506: The war with Germany prompted Dreyfus to decide on a career in the military. Following his 18th birthday in October 1877, he enrolled in the elite École Polytechnique military school in Paris , where he received military training and an education in the sciences. In 1880, he graduated and was commissioned as a sub-lieutenant in the French army. From 1880 to 1882, he attended the artillery school at Fontainebleau to receive more specialized training as an artillery officer. On graduation, he
1240-513: The wedding, Dreyfus learned that he had been admitted to the École Supérieure de Guerre or War College. Two years later, he graduated ninth in his class with honourable mention and was immediately designated as a trainee in the French Army's General Staff headquarters, where he would be the only Jewish officer. His father Raphaël died on 13 December 1893. At the War College examination in 1892, his friends had expected him to do well. However, one of
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1280-480: The youngest of nine children (seven of whom survived to adulthood). His grandfather was a merchant from a long established Alsatian Jewish family in Rixheim, not far from Mulhouse. His father became a prosperous industrialist who started a cotton mill, then expanded the business with a weaving factory. This enabled the Dreyfus family to live a comfortable and affluent life within Mulhouse society. He spent his first years in
1320-683: Was acquitted by the Parisian court, which accepted his defence that he had not meant to kill Dreyfus, meaning merely to graze him. In 1937, Dreyfus' son Pierre published his father's memoirs based on his correspondence between 1899 and 1906. The memoirs were titled Souvenirs et Correspondance and translated into English by Betty Morgan . Dreyfus started corresponding with the marquise Marie-Louise Arconati-Visconti in 1899 and began attending her Thursday (political) salons after his release. They continued their correspondence until her death in 1923. In October 2021, French president Emmanuel Macron opened
1360-484: Was arrested for treason on 15 October 1894. On 5 January 1895, Dreyfus was summarily convicted in a secret court martial, publicly stripped of his army rank, and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island in French Guiana . Following French military custom of the time, Dreyfus was formally degraded ( cashiered ) by having the rank insignia, buttons and braid cut from his uniform and his sword broken, all in
1400-612: Was assigned to the 31st Artillery Regiment, which was in the garrison at Le Mans. Dreyfus was subsequently transferred to a mounted artillery battery attached to the First Cavalry Division (Paris), and promoted to lieutenant in 1885. In 1889, he was made adjutant to the director of the Établissement de Bourges, a government arsenal, and promoted to captain. On 18 April 1891, the 31-year-old Dreyfus married 20-year-old Lucie Eugénie Hadamard (1870–1945). They had two children, Pierre (1891–1946) and Jeanne (1893–1981). Three days after
1440-521: Was found not guilty by a secret court martial, before fleeing secretly to England and shaving off his moustache. Rachel Beer , editor of The Observer and the Sunday Times , interviewed him twice. He confessed to writing the bordereau under orders from Sandherr in an attempt to frame Dreyfus. She wrote about her interviews in September 1898, reporting his confession and writing a leader column accusing
1480-410: Was guilty; far-right politician Jean-Marie Le Pen 's lawyer responded that Dreyfus' exoneration was "contrary to all known jurisprudence". Éric Zemmour , a far-right political opponent of Macron, said repeatedly in 2021 that the truth about Dreyfus was not clear; his innocence was "not obvious". Dreyfus' prison sentence on Devil's Island had taken its toll on his health. He was granted retirement from
1520-458: Was initiated at this meeting, and was published first on 15 November 1886 in Nîmes. Gide, de Boyve and Fabre all contributed to the journal. Gide was active in the social Protestant movement, as were other Musée social members such as Jules Siegfried (1837–1922), Édouard Gruner (1849–1933), Henri Monod (1843–1911) and Pierre-Paul Guieysse (1841–1914). As a Protestant Christian Socialist , Gide
1560-563: Was interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse , Paris. A statue of Dreyfus holding his broken sword is located at Boulevard Raspail, nº116–118, at the exit of the Notre-Dame-des-Champs metro station . A duplicate statue stands in the courtyard of the Museum of Jewish Art and History in Paris. During the German occupation of France during WWII, Lucie Dreyfus , who had played a major role in
1600-571: Was involved with progressive politics in France, endorsing the université populaire philosophy after the Dreyfus Affair . He promoted the establishment of a School for Advanced Social Studies ( École supérieure de sciences sociales ) (1899). Additionally, he served among the early faculty of the École supérieure de journalisme de Paris . Together with the School for Social Studies, it was established in 1899 as one of three grandes écoles developing from
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