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57-434: It possessed a small territory called Cleitoria or Kleitoria (Κλειτορία), bounded on the east by the territory of Pheneus , on the west by that of Psophis , on the north by that of Cynaetha and Achaea , and on the south by the territories of Caphyae , Tripolis , and Thelpusa . The lofty Aroanian Mountains formed the northeast boundary of the territory of Cleitor, separating it from that of Pheneus. In these mountains

114-438: A defensive and provocative manner. Unwilling to charge uphill against a strong opponent, Agesilaus decided not to engage the enemy and, his bluff called, continued devastating Theban territory, reaching the walls of the city itself. After Agesilaus's departure, Phoebidas, whom he had left as commander of the garrison at Thespiae, continued raiding enemy territory, which prompted Gorgidas to bring his entire Theban force and plunder

171-517: A hill named Graos Stethos (probably the modern Golemi), but he ignored them and marched straight to Thebes itself. Fearing for their city's safety, the Thebans abandoned their hill and marched back home by way of Potniae , but despite being harried by the Spartans they reached Thebes first. As Agesilaus retired to Thespiae, his Olynthian cavalry inflicted some casualties on a group of enemy peltasts after

228-526: A market be set up for his troops, but, once the Thebans went that way to await his arrival, he instead marched eastwards at dawn to Erythrae and Scolus , slipping past the stockade at an undefended point. He began laying waste to enemy territory which had not been ravaged the previous year, before reaching the Spartan-held territory of Tanagra . Turning back westward, Agesilaus found the Theban army formed up in

285-620: A naval force to try to block support for the Athenians. In response, the Athenians sent a powerful fleet towards Sparta. The Spartan general Pollis then led his small fleet to try to stop the siege, but was killed during a naval battle against the Athenian general Chabrias . This naval victory was the first ever victory by an Athenian naval fleet since the Peloponnesian War. Later in 376 BC Chabrias raided Laconia, and possibly reached Sellasia, which

342-502: A whole rather than just for Thebes. In response, the Spartan king Agesilaus struck the name of Thebes off the list of signatories. Both sides then left the conference and prepared for renewed hostilities. As a result of the failure to come to terms with Thebes, the Spartans under Cleombrotus marched against Thebes in 371 BC; however, they were defeated at Leuctra by the Boeotians led by

399-402: Is called Porinas (ὁ καλούμενος Πωρ́ινας), supposed by Leake to be a river, but by Ernst Curtius a rock. Pausanias describes the two roads which led westward from Pheneus around a mountain – that to the right or northwest leading to Nonacris and the supposed river Styx , and that to the left to Cleitor . Nonacris was in the territory of Pheneus. The road to Cleitor ran at first along

456-529: Is not correct, since it was not only in existence in the time of Pausanias, but it continued to coin money as late as the reign of Septimius Severus . Pausanias gives only a brief description of Cleitor. He says that its three principal temples were those of Demeter , Asclepius , and Eileithyia ; that at the distance of four stadia from the city the Cleitorians possessed a temple of the Dioscuri , whom they called

513-404: Is not of that precipitous kind which the description of Pausanias would lead one to suppose, and it is not impossible that the acropolis may have been on some other height in the neighbourhood, and that the hill on which the ancient remains are found may have been part of the lower city. There were several roads from Pheneus to the surrounding towns. Of these the northern road to Achaea ran through

570-647: Is said to have been founded by a hero of the same name, the son of the Arcadian king Azan . The Cleitoria formed an important part of the Azanian district. The Cleitorian fountain, described below, was regarded as one of the curiosities of Azania; and the Aroanian Mountains, on the summits of which the daughters of Proetus wandered in their madness, are called the Azanian Mountains. The Cleitorians were renowned among

627-570: Is to the north-east of Sparta. In 375 BC Athens mounted two successful expeditions - one into the northern Aegean under Chabrias and a second which sailed around the Peloponnese to western Greece. This force was led by Timotheos , son of Conon , who won the battle of Alyzeia in Acarnania . In 375 BC there was a renewal of the King's Peace , but this lasted but a few months. The capture of Plataea by

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684-472: The Aroanian chain ; and it is about 7 miles (12 km) in length and the same in breadth. Two streams descend from the northern mountains, and unite their waters about the middle of the valley; the united river bore in ancient times the name of Olbius and Aroanius . There is no opening through the mountains on the south; but the waters of the united river are carried off by subterranean channels (katavóthra) in

741-683: The Theban War it carried on hostilities against Orchomenus . In the Social War it belonged to the Achaean League , and in 220 BC it bravely repelled the assaults of the Aetolians , who attempted to scale the walls. It was sometimes used as the place of meeting of the Achaean League. Strabo mentions Cleitor among the Arcadian towns destroyed in his time, or of which scarcely any traces existed; but this

798-733: The acropolis of the ancient city, since the whole plain was discovered to be covered with stones and pottery, mixed with quadrangular blocks and remains of columns. There are remains three Doric templates and a theatre towards the western end of the hill. Its site is near the modern Kleitoria . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Smith, William , ed. (1854–1857). "Cleitor". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography . London: John Murray. 37°53′34″N 22°06′12″E  /  37.892704°N 22.103248°E  / 37.892704; 22.103248 Pheneus Pheneus or Pheneos ( Ancient Greek : Φένεος or Φενεός )

855-499: The Athenian Chabrias refused to risk his hoplites in support. Although Agesilaus's scorched earth tactics caused severe food shortages at Thebes, his campaigns accomplished little else. He had failed to decisively engage the enemy or to capture Thebes, and his depredations had the effect of strengthening the resolve of the affected Boeotian communities against Sparta. Sparta's allies meanwhile grew increasingly dissatisfied with

912-516: The Attic countryside while retreating. According to varying accounts, Sphodrias had either been enticed by a Theban bribe, aimed at forcing Athens to become more belligerent, or acted upon secret orders from Cleombrotus. A Spartan delegation in Athens, which had been probably sent earlier by Agesilaus to assess Athenian intentions, professed ignorance of the attack, but Sphodrias was then unexpectedly acquitted by

969-409: The Cleitorians. Their power was increased by the conquest of Lusi, Paus, and other towns in their neighbourhood. In commemoration of these conquests they dedicated at Olympia a brazen statue of Zeus , 18 feet (5.5 m) in height, which was extant in the time of Pausanias, who has preserved the inscription upon it. Cleitor seems to have occupied an important position among the Arcadian cities. In

1026-549: The King surprised them by marching at daybreak and crossed the stockade at an undefended position before the enemy could reach him. Agesilaus then encountered a Theban and Athenian force set up on a defensive position in a hill some 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 km southwest of Thebes. He dispersed their light troops and brought his army uphill to threaten the enemy, but the latter, led by the Athenian Chabrias , defiantly stood their ground in

1083-664: The Peloponnesians for their love of liberty (τὸ Κλειτορίων φιλελεύθερον καὶ γενναῖον), of which an instance is cited even from the mythical times, in the brave resistance they offered to Sous , king of Sparta . According to Plutarch , Sous was besieged by the Cleitorians in a dry place with no water. He made an agreement with them that he would return to them all his conquests if him and all his men would be allowed water to drink. He then offered his entire kingdom to any of his soldiers who would resist drinking. When all of them drank, Soos himself refused to, and continued to wage war against

1140-496: The Pheneatic plain. Upon this road, at the distance of 15 stadia from the city, was a temple of Apollo Pythius , which was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. A little above the temple the road divided, the one to the left leading across Mount Crathis to Aegeira, and the other to the right running to Pellene: the boundaries of Aegeira and Pheneus were marked by a temple of Artemis Pyronia , and those of Pellene and Pheneus by that which

1197-635: The Spartans failed to get over the Cithaeron Mountains, this gave the Thebans the chance to take the attack to the Spartans, and in doing so they conquered the Spartans' remaining strongholds in Boeotia while the Spartan base in Thespiae was also lost. The Spartans were only left with some land in the south and Orchomenus in the north-west. Because the Spartans were having a hard time attacking Thebes over land, they decided to change their strategy and rather use

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1254-540: The Theban Citadel as Leontiades felt threatened by the democratic party. The Spartans were ruled by kings and, therefore, were supportive of oligarchic governments in other Greek cities. Because of this Phoebidas agreed, occupying the city and practically taking control of Thebes. Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the Spartans , Pelopidas and other leading Theban democrats fled to Athens where Pelopidas took

1311-522: The Theban coup. It was probably around this time, likely due to fear that Athens would not offer support, that Thebes sent an embassy to Sparta, offering to rejoin the Peloponnesian League in return for recognition of its new government. Cleombrotus inflicted no damage to Theban territory, as he apparently hoped for a reconciliation, but the government at Sparta, led by the other king, the anti-Theban hardliner Agesilaus , would have nothing less than

1368-575: The Thebans put the Theban-Athenian Alliance under strain, as the Plataeans were expelled from their city and found asylum in Athens, where they were a strong voice against Thebes. Though the alliance held, Athens insisted on negotiations with Sparta. A peace treaty was agreed but significant disagreements arose at the treaty signing. Epaminondas insisted that he should sign for the Boeotians as

1425-699: The banks of the river till sunset, when they were supposed to be most vocal. These singing fish are also mentioned by Athenaeus and Pliny the Elder . The former writer cites three authorities in proof of their existence, of whom Philostephanos placed them on the Ladon, Mnaseas in the Cleitor, and the Peripatetic Clearchus in the Pheneatic Aroanius. Pliny improperly identifies them with the exocoetus or adonis, which

1482-539: The bite of a snake. Its site is located near the modern Archaia Feneos , formerly Kalyvia, in the municipal unit of Feneos . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Smith, William , ed. (1854–1857). "Pheneus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography . London: John Murray. 37°54′38″N 22°18′25″E  /  37.91045°N 22.30692°E  / 37.91045; 22.30692 Theban War The Boeotian War broke out in 378 BC as

1539-512: The boundary between the Cleitorii and Psophidii. This forest, in the time of Pausanias, contained bears and wild boars. Paus is also mentioned by Herodotus , who speaks of it as a town of Azania . Cleitor was situated in the midst of the aforementioned plain, upon a hill of moderate height between two rivulets. The more important of these streams, running south of the town, was also called Cleitor (the modern Mostitsaiiko). The other stream rises in

1596-526: The canal of Heracles are still visible, and one bank of it was a conspicuous object in the valley when it was visited by William Martin Leake in 1806. The canal of Heracles, however, could not protect the valley from the danger to which it was exposed, in consequence of the katavóthra becoming obstructed, and the river finding no outlet for its waters. The Pheneatae related that their city was once destroyed by such an inundation, and in proof of it they pointed out upon

1653-569: The canal of Heracles, and then crossed the mountain, which formed the natural boundary between the Pheneatis and Cleitoria, close to the village of Lycuria . On the other side of the mountain the road passed by the sources of the river Ladon. This mountain, from which the Ladon springs, was called Penteleia (Πεντελεία). The fortress, named Penteleium (Πεντέλειον), which Plutarch says was near Pheneus, must have been situated upon this mountain. The southern road from Pheneus led to Orchomenus , and

1710-585: The city they split it into four settlements, as that was what it had used to be. In the north the city of Olynthus grew in power and violated the terms agreed upon at the end of the Corinthian War. Because of this Sparta sent an army against the city under the command of Phoebidas . When the army was in Boeotia around 383 or 382 BC, Leontiades , who was leader of the oligarchic party in Thebes, asked Phoebidas to occupy

1767-426: The constant and fruitless campaigning. A change in policy was made after the aged Agesilaus, while on a pause at Megara on the way back to Sparta, became afflicted with an illness which left him incapacited for years. Encouraged by the other king, Cleombrotus , Sparta shifted its focus from Thebes on land to Athens at sea. An expedition in 376 BC led by King Cleombrotus was blocked at the passes of Cithaeron . As

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1824-483: The district of Lusi, and falls into the Cleitor just beyond the remains of the ancient city. The Cleitor, after flowing rapidly through the plain, falls into the Aroanius, at the distance of seven stadia from the city of Cleitor, according to Pausanias; but the real distance is at least double. A little north of the junction of the river Cleitor with the Aroanius, the remains of a small Doric temple were discovered. Cleitor

1881-436: The great gods; and that further on the summit of a mountain, at the distance of 30 stadia from the city, there was a temple of Athena Coria . In the territory of Cleitor was a celebrated fountain, of which those who drank were said to have lost forever their taste for wine. A spring of water, gushing forth from the hill on which the ruins stand, is usually supposed to be this miraculous fountain; but Ernst Curtius places it in

1938-424: The home government. Athens declared that Sparta had broken the peace and prepared for war. Sparta called upon all its allies and, led by Agesilaus, invaded Boeotia in the spring of 378. The Thebans and their commander, Gorgidas , had decided to resist the Spartans and screen their city by setting up, probably with aid of the Athenians, a continuous trench and palisade that stretched from the border with Thespiae in

1995-399: The latter city; and 50 stadia beyond, the road crossed the Ladon, but Pausanias does not mention where the territory of Cleitor began. The road then entered a forest of oaks called Soron, and passed through Argeathae , Lycuntes , and Scotane , till it arrived at the ruins of Paus , situated at the end of the forest, and not far from Seirae , which was distant 30 stadia from Psophis, and was

2052-452: The lead in a conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 BC the democratic party surprised and killed their chief political opponents in Thebes (members of the aristocratic party that supported the Spartans), and roused the people against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army gathered by Pelopidas. Sparta immediately sent against Thebes a force under one of their kings, Cleombrotus , in

2109-468: The limestone rocks, and, after flowing underground, reappear as the sources of the river Ladon . In order to convey the waters of this river in a single channel to the katavóthra, the inhabitants at an early period constructed a canal, 50 stadia in length, and 30 feet (9 m) in breadth. This great work, which was attributed to Heracles , had become useless in the time of Pausanias , and the river had resumed its ancient and irregular course; but traces of

2166-415: The lower parts of the rock being constantly moistened, while the upper are in a state of comparative dryness, thus producing a difference of colour in process of time. It is, however, certain that the Pheneatic plain has been exposed more than once to such inundations. Pliny the Elder says that the calamity had occurred five times; and Eratosthenes related a memorable instance of such an inundation through

2223-497: The middle of winter. As the border fort of Eleutherae was held by an Athenian garrison, he was forced to enter Boeotia through Mount Cithaeron , where he wiped out a force of Theban democrats. After passing through the allied cities of Plataea and Thespiae , Cleombrotus's force camped at Cynoscephalae (6 km west of Thebes) to await events. The Athenians were alarmed at Cleombrotus's presence nearby, and, seeking to placate Sparta, immediately punished their own generals who had aided

2280-400: The mountains the marks of the height to which the water was said to have ascended. Pausanias evidently refers to the yellow border which is still visible upon the mountains and around the plain: but in consequence of the great height of this line upon the rocks, it is difficult to believe it to be the mark of the ancient depth of water in the plain, and it is more probably caused by evaporation;

2337-489: The obstruction of the katavóthra, when, after they were again opened, the water rushing into the Ladon and the Alpheius overflowed the banks of those rivers at Olympia . The account of Eratosthenes has been confirmed by a similar occurrence in modern times. In 1821 the katavóthra became obstructed, and the water continued to rise in the plain till it had destroyed 7 to 8 square miles (18 to 21 km ) of cultivated country. Such

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2394-422: The punishment of the coup leaders and the restoration of a pro-Spartan regime, terms which Thebes rejected. Whatever negotiations Cleombrotus may have initiated on his own came to nothing, and, once it became apparent after 16 days that neither Thebes nor Athens would offer a challenge, he ended the campaign, retiring unhindered by way of Creusis and Aigosthena . Although Athens had not yet committed itself, it

2451-412: The residence of Evander ; and its celebrity in mythical times is indicated by its connection with Heracles. Pausanias found the city in a state of complete decay. The acropolis contained a ruined temple of Athena Tritonia , with a brazen statue of Poseidon Hippius . On the descent from the acropolis was the stadium; and on a neighbouring hill, the sepulchre of Iphicles , the brother of Heracles. There

2508-752: The result of a revolt in Thebes against Sparta . The war saw Thebes become dominant in the Greek World at the expense of Sparta. However, by the end of the war Thebes’ greatest leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas , were both dead and Thebes power already waning, allowing for the rise of Macedon . After the end of the Corinthian War , which had seen many of Sparta’s allies abandon her, Sparta began reconstructing its hegemony and punishing many disloyal allies. In 385 BC Sparta attacked Mantinea claiming they had failed to fulfil their allied obligations. When Sparta took

2565-459: The river Aroanius (the modern Phoniatiko) rises, which flowed through the territory of Cleitor from north to south, and falls into the Ladon near the sources of the latter. The valley of this river opens out into two plains. In the upper plain, was situated Lusi , at one time an independent town, but at a later period a dependency of Cleitor. In the lower plain, was the town of Cleitor itself. Besides

2622-601: The surroundings of Thespiae in retaliation. Gorgidas was then surprised and put to flight by Phoebidas, but successfully regrouped at the Thespios ( Kanavari ) river valley and counterattacked his pursuers there, killing Phoebidas and chasing the Spartans back to Thespiae. In 377, Agesilaus, once again in command of the Peloponnesian forces, implemented a ruse against the Theban army to bypass their stockade unopposed. After arriving at Plataea, he sent word to Thespiae requesting that

2679-591: The territory of Lusi, because it is said to have been situated upon the confines of the Cleitoria, and is mentioned in connection with the purification of the daughters of Proetus by Melampus , which is said to have taken place at Lusi. Another marvel in the territory of Cleitor was the singing fish of the river Aroanius. These fish, which were called ποικιλίαι, were said to sing like thrushes. Pausanias relates that he had seen these fish caught; but that he had never heard them sing, although he had remained for that purpose on

2736-408: The valley of the Aroanius, the upper valley of the Ladon also formed part of the territory of Cleitor. The Ladon rose in this district, and flowed through the southern part of it in a southwesterly direction. The road from Caphyae to Psophis passed through the Cleitoria, and was traversed by Pausanias in the 2nd century. At the distance of seven stadia from Caphyae was Nasi , in the territory of

2793-399: The water from the plain. The eastern road from Pheneus led to Stymphalus , across Mount Geronteium , which formed the boundary between the territories of the two cities. To the left of Mt. Geronteium near the road was a mountain called Tricrena (Τρίκρηνα), or the three fountains; and near the latter was another mountain called Sepia (Σηπία), where Aepytus is said to have perished from

2850-453: The west, alongside the northern bank of the Asopus in the south, to the border with Tanagra in the east. Agesilaus probed the stockade looking for weak points, moving his camp around it and devastating the land outside, while the Thebans and Athenians sent out repeated forays to harass his forces. After getting a measure of the defenders' movements and having them grow used to his own movements,

2907-418: Was a sea-fish. The ποικιλία was probably trout, and was so called from its spotted and many-coloured scales. The walls of the ancient city may still be traced in nearly their full extent. They enclose an irregular oblong space, not more than a mile in circumference; they were about 15 feet (4.6 m) in thickness, and were fortified with towers. But the space enclosed by these walls seems to have been properly

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2964-605: Was a town in the northeast of ancient Arcadia . Its territory, called Pheniatis (ἡ Φενεατική or ἡ Φενεᾶτις or η Φενική), was bounded on the north by that of the Achaean towns of Aegeira and Pellene , east by the Stymphalia , west by the Cleitoria , and south by the Caphyatis and Orchomenia . This territory is shut in on every side by lofty mountains, offshoots of Mount Cyllene and

3021-400: Was also a temple of Hermes , who was the principal deity of the city. The lower slope of the mountain, upon which the remains of Pheneus stand, is occupied by a village now called Archaia Feneos . There is, however, some difficulty in the description of Pausanias compared with the existing site. Pausanias says that the acropolis was precipitous on every side, and that only a small part of it

3078-410: Was artificially fortified; but the summit of the insulated hill, upon which the remains of Pheneus are found, is too small apparently for the acropolis of such an important city, and moreover it has a regular slope, though a very rugged surface. Hence Leake supposes that the whole of this hill formed the acropolis of Pheneus, and that the lower town was in a part of the subjacent plain; but the entire hill

3135-546: Was its condition till 1832, when the subterraneous channels again opened, the Ladon and Alpheius overflowed, and the plain of Olympia was inundated. Other ancient writers allude to the katavóthra and subterraneous course of the river of Pheneus. Pheneus is mentioned by Homer in the Catalogue of Ships in the Iliad – its toops are led by Agapenor . It was more celebrated in mythical than in historical times. Virgil represents it as

3192-462: Was soon the target of an act of Spartan aggression which brought it firmly to the Theban camp. Sphodrias , the harmost (governor) whom Cleombrotus had left in command of a Spartan remnant garrisoned at Thespiae, launched an officially unauthorized nighttime raid on the Athenian port of Piraeus . The attack was a fiasco, as the Spartans were still a distance away from their objective when dawn broke, and Sphodrias had to content himself with plundering

3249-465: Was the way by which Pausanias came to the former city. The road passed from the Orchomenian plain to that of Pheneus through a narrow ravine (φάραγξ); in the middle of which was a fountain of water, and at the further extremity the village of Caryae . The mountains on either side were named Oryxis (Ὄρυξις), and Sciathis (Σκίαθις), and at the foot of either was a subterraneous channel, which carried off

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