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50-466: The Classe Mini conceiver around the Mini Transat race is run bi-annually and first took place in 1977. The race is a solo transatlantic yacht race. The class rules focus on this event and encourage development while controlling both costs and design and fitout safety requirements. The size of the boat allows for more experimentation in design without the costs of larger classes. The class association

100-514: A U.S. Air Force C-53 made a transatlantic flight, including takeoff and landing, completely under the control of an autopilot. Bill Lear developed his F-5 automatic pilot, and automatic approach control system, and was awarded the Collier Trophy in 1949. In the early 1920s, the Standard Oil tanker J.A. Moffet became the first ship to use an autopilot. The Piasecki HUP-2 Retriever

150-486: A drowning during the first leg of the 2009 race. Racers typically sleep only 20 minutes at a time and rely on computerized autopilot systems to keep the craft on course while they sleep. The class is considered an incubator for professional ocean racing as a proving ground for sailing skills, as well as a test platform for larger ocean classes such as the Open 60 . Other than the single-handed transatlantic crossing , there are

200-428: A fail passive requirement. CAT IIIa -This category permits pilots to land with a decision height as low as 50 feet (15 m) and a RVR of 200 metres (660 ft). It needs a fail-passive autopilot. There must be only a 10 probability of landing outside the prescribed area. CAT IIIb – As IIIa but with the addition of automatic roll out after touchdown incorporated with the pilot taking control some distance along

250-438: A flight into taxi , takeoff, climb, cruise (level flight), descent, approach, and landing phases. Autopilots that automate all of these flight phases except taxi and takeoff exist. An autopilot-controlled approach to landing on a runway and controlling the aircraft on rollout (i.e. keeping it on the centre of the runway) is known as an Autoland, where the autopilot utilizes an Instrument Landing System (ILS) Cat IIIc approach, which

300-429: A gyroscope or a pair of accelerometers), a computer/amplifier and an actuator. The sensor detects when the aircraft begins the yawing part of Dutch roll. A computer processes the signal from the sensor to determine the rudder deflection required to damp the motion. The computer tells the actuator to move the rudder in the opposite direction to the motion since the rudder has to oppose the motion to reduce it. The Dutch roll

350-581: A host of design tricks, including wings/foils and a telescopic canting keel , a retractable bowsprit and an Asymmetrical spinnaker , has been designed in France. This has led on to the launch of a fully foiling boats with a production foiling mini transat from pogo being launched in 2020. There are two divisions: The prototype division is more liberal with respect to dimensions, such as keel depth and mast height, and it allows for advanced technology such as "canting" keels and carbon-fibre masts. The prototype class

400-584: A number of other races held for the class. In-between years see double-handed events, such as the Mini Fastnet, Mini Barcelona, Select 650 and Open Demi-Cle. The Transat years incorporate more single-handed events. For its intended use, racing across the Atlantic Ocean, the Mini 6.50 is very short and beamy , being nearly half as wide as it is long. Its width carries to the stern , providing sufficient stability that

450-461: A pilot's attention, greatly reducing the pilot's workload. Lawrence Sperry , the son of famous inventor Elmer Sperry , demonstrated it in 1914 at an aviation safety contest held in Paris . Sperry demonstrated the credibility of the invention by flying the aircraft with his hands away from the controls and visible to onlookers. Elmer Sperry Jr., the son of Lawrence Sperry, and Capt Shiras continued work on

500-427: A required performance factor, therefore the amount of error or actual performance factor must be monitored in order to fly those particular routes. The longer the flight, the more error accumulates within the system. Radio aids such as DME, DME updates, and GPS may be used to correct the aircraft position. An option midway between fully automated flight and manual flying is Control Wheel Steering ( CWS ). Although it

550-440: A series yaw damper is clutched to the rudder control quadrant, and will result in pedal movement when the rudder moves. Some aircraft have stability augmentation systems that will stabilize the aircraft in more than a single axis. The Boeing B-52 , for example, requires both pitch and yaw SAS in order to provide a stable bombing platform. Many helicopters have pitch, roll and yaw SAS systems. Pitch and roll SAS systems operate much

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600-474: A wing leveller with limited pitch oscillation-correcting ability; or it may receive inputs from on-board radio navigation systems to provide true automatic flight guidance once the aircraft has taken off until shortly before landing; or its capabilities may lie somewhere between these two extremes. A three-axis autopilot adds control in the yaw axis and is not required in many small aircraft. Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are three-axis and generally divide

650-552: Is a design requirement for them to be self-righting when capsized . The constraint of the box rule led to the introduction of the Scow hull form when David Raison's Mini used the hull shape to win 2011 victory, which may in fact, revolutionize open ocean racing if not sailing altogether. This design trend has now influenced the design of both the Class40 and IMOCA 60 class. The Magnum began an even more radical 'semi-flying' scow that uses

700-585: Is always in CWS mode. The major difference is that in this system the limitations of the aircraft are guarded by the flight control computer , and the pilot cannot steer the aircraft past these limits. The hardware of an autopilot varies between implementations, but is generally designed with redundancy and reliability as foremost considerations. For example, the Rockwell Collins AFDS-770 Autopilot Flight Director System used on

750-435: Is an owner led organization that administers the rules and co-ordinates a series of single and double handed events for the class. In response to the perceived challenge of sailing small high-performance boats the class has created rigorous trials, equipment, and inspection requirements to add promote safety. The mini Transat class is largely French in its makeup but the class has tried to encourage international entries. Due to

800-537: Is approximately 7% faster. Production boats use approved designs and comparatively conservative materials. Mini Transat Mini Transat is a solo transatlantic yacht race which typically starts in France and ends in the Caribbean . The race uses small 6.5 metres (21 ft) long yachts conforming to the Mini Transat 6.50 class rules which gives considering scope for development. More recently, this has led to

850-407: Is approximately 7% faster. By far, the most successful mini design is the commercially produced Pogo 2 designed by Jean-Marie Finot of Groupe Finot (now Finot-Conq) in 1995. In response to the perceived challenge of sailing small high-performance single handed boats, Classemini has created rigorous trials, equipment, and inspection requirements to add sanity to the race. Also, it might be said that

900-451: Is becoming less used as a stand-alone option in modern airliners, CWS is still a function on many aircraft today. Generally, an autopilot that is CWS equipped has three positions: off, CWS, and CMD. In CMD (Command) mode the autopilot has full control of the aircraft, and receives its input from either the heading/altitude setting, radio and navaids, or the FMS (Flight Management System). In CWS mode,

950-411: Is damped and the aircraft becomes stable about the yaw axis. Because Dutch roll is an instability that is inherent in all swept-wing aircraft, most swept-wing aircraft need some sort of yaw damper. There are two types of yaw damper: the series yaw damper and the parallel yaw damper. The actuator of a parallel yaw damper will move the rudder independently of the pilot's rudder pedals while the actuator of

1000-481: Is generally considered unlikely that different engineering teams will make the same mistakes. As the software becomes more expensive and complex, design diversity is becoming less common because fewer engineering companies can afford it. The flight control computers on the Space Shuttle used this design: there were five computers, four of which redundantly ran identical software, and a fifth backup running software that

1050-414: Is generally made mandatory by international aviation regulations. There are three levels of control in autopilots for smaller aircraft. A single-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the roll axis only; such autopilots are also known colloquially as "wing levellers", reflecting their single capability. A two-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the pitch axis as well as roll, and may be little more than

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1100-451: Is needed: at least fail-passive but it needs to be fail-operational for landing without decision height or for RVR below 100 metres (330 ft). CAT IIIc – As IIIb but without decision height or visibility minimums, also known as "zero-zero". Not yet implemented as it would require the pilots to taxi in zero-zero visibility. An aircraft that is capable of landing in a CAT IIIb that is equipped with autobrake would be able to fully stop on

1150-425: Is often used in conjunction with an autothrottle , a system for controlling the power delivered by the engines. An autopilot system is sometimes colloquially referred to as "George" (e.g. "we'll let George fly for a while"; "George is flying the plane now". ). The etymology of the nickname is unclear: some claim it is a reference to American inventor George De Beeson (1897 - 1965), who patented an autopilot in

1200-478: Is tested by pushing the end of the mast under water with the vessel's hatches open; this design avoids the possibility of turtling . There are two divisions: production and prototype. Production boats use approved designs and comparatively conservative materials. The prototype division is more liberal with respect to dimensions, such as keel depth and mast height, and it allows for advanced technology such as "canting" keels and carbon-fibre masts. The prototype class

1250-461: Is used when the visibility is zero. These approaches are available at many major airports' runways today, especially at airports subject to adverse weather phenomena such as fog . The aircraft can typically stop on their own, but will require the disengagement of the autopilot in order to exit the runway and taxi to the gate. An autopilot is often an integral component of a Flight Management System . Modern autopilots use computer software to control

1300-410: Is usually a set of extra hardware and software that deals with pre-programming the model's flight. A flight director (FD) is a very important component when it comes to flying an aircraft. It is considered a crucial component within an aircraft's avionics system. The primary function of the flight director is to provide visual guidance to which ever pilot is hand-flying the airplane. Hand-flying or not,

1350-631: The Boeing 777 uses triplicated FCP-2002 microprocessors which have been formally verified and are fabricated in a radiation-resistant process. Software and hardware in an autopilot are tightly controlled, and extensive test procedures are put in place. Some autopilots also use design diversity. In this safety feature, critical software processes will not only run on separate computers, and possibly even using different architectures, but each computer will run software created by different engineering teams, often being programmed in different programming languages. It

1400-604: The Canary Islands or Madeira , ending in the West Indies or Brazil . The Miniclasse 6.50 closely monitors the craft but applies minimal design restrictions, such as length (6.5m), beam (3.0m), draft (approximately 2.0m) The race runs in odd-numbered years, and was most recently completed in 2019. Sailors had to qualify by covering one of two specified 1,000-mile courses, in addition to having 1,500 miles of ocean racing experience, much of it solo. There are no prizes and

1450-517: The OSTAR race that seemed to exclude ocean racing for sailors with moderate budgets. The first Mini Transat started from the Penzance Sailing Club in 1977 and races have since been run biannually in odd-numbered years. There was a move to Brest, France in 1985, and since then, it has started at various locations in France, such as Brittany , La Rochelle or Charente-Maritime , with a stop at

1500-427: The 1930s, while others claim that Royal Air Force pilots coined the term during World War II to symbolize that their aircraft technically belonged to King George VI . In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the continuous attention of a pilot to fly safely. As aircraft range increased, allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to serious fatigue. An autopilot is designed to perform some of

1550-469: The 2011 race suffered no casualties. Autopilot An autopilot is a system used to control the path of a vehicle without requiring constant manual control by a human operator. Autopilots do not replace human operators. Instead, the autopilot assists the operator's control of the vehicle, allowing the operator to focus on broader aspects of operations (for example, monitoring the trajectory, weather and on-board systems). When present, an autopilot

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1600-454: The Mini Transat is not necessarily considered a race for the win. Sailors are competitive yet mutually supportive during training and preparations, they tend to be closely grouped during the race, and a race completion is seen as a personal or national victory that comes with intangible rewards. Non-completion means, at very least, loss of the mini. The race is considered dangerous and there was

1650-461: The aircraft control surfaces to damp unacceptable motions. SAS automatically stabilizes the aircraft in one or more axes. The most common type of SAS is the yaw damper which is used to reduce the Dutch roll tendency of swept-wing aircraft. Some yaw dampers are part of the autopilot system while others are stand-alone systems. Yaw dampers use a sensor to detect how fast the aircraft is rotating (either

1700-537: The aircraft. The software reads the aircraft's current position, and then controls a flight control system to guide the aircraft. In such a system, besides classic flight controls, many autopilots incorporate thrust control capabilities that can control throttles to optimize the airspeed. The autopilot in a modern large aircraft typically reads its position and the aircraft's attitude from an inertial guidance system . Inertial guidance systems accumulate errors over time. They will incorporate error reduction systems such as

1750-431: The boats can plane as a fast motorboat does: Minis are capable of sailing as fast as 25 knots. They typically have two connected rudders and a narrow steel or iron fin keel with a lead bulb at the end, with a mast height typically twice the Mini's length. They also have a retractable bowsprit that extends a spinnaker -genoa "kite" two or more meters beyond the bow. Minis must be self-righting when capsized , and this

1800-548: The carousel system that rotates once a minute so that any errors are dissipated in different directions and have an overall nulling effect. Error in gyroscopes is known as drift. This is due to physical properties within the system, be it mechanical or laser guided, that corrupt positional data. The disagreements between the two are resolved with digital signal processing , most often a six-dimensional Kalman filter . The six dimensions are usually roll, pitch, yaw, altitude , latitude , and longitude . Aircraft may fly routes that have

1850-479: The division within the class, production vs. prototype, unnecessarily divides the race. The mini Transat remains a largely French race with only about 30% non-French racers. The 650 class is admitted to be a "test bed" for mechanisms to be used on bigger and far more expensive open classes. On the other hand, David Raison's Mini introduces a whole new hull shape with its 2011 victory, which may, in fact, revolutionize open ocean racing if not sailing altogether; and

1900-409: The downwind nature of the racing across the Atlantic Ocean designs tend to be beamy , being nearly half as wide as it is long. The wide flat stern is designed to promote planing similar to a surfboard. As a consequence of the wide beam twin rudders are pretty much standard so that one rudder remains in the water when heeled. The class led the way with canting keels – due to their small size there

1950-464: The flight director is used with all autopilot systems today. When the flight director is turned on, it shows a pink triangle along the middle of the PFD, it can also be called or considered a "crosshair". The FD is the aircraft's computer giving instructions to the pilot hand-flying on how to fly the plane and where to put the attitude indicator. When the pilot hand-flying has aligned their attitude indicator with

2000-504: The formation of two divisions within the class: the production class that limits development and costs, and the prototype class which allows for more flexibility in dimensions and technology. Bob Salmon developed the idea of a mini-transatlantic race in the late 1970s in England with the intent of promoting affordable offshore solo racing. It was partially conceived as a response to the trend for bigger and more expensive boats such as sailed in

2050-524: The pilot controls the autopilot through inputs on the yoke or the stick. These inputs are translated to a specific heading and attitude, which the autopilot will then hold until instructed to do otherwise. This provides stability in pitch and roll. Some aircraft employ a form of CWS even in manual mode, such as the MD-11 which uses a constant CWS in roll. In many ways, a modern Airbus fly-by-wire aircraft in Normal Law

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2100-423: The pilot's tasks. The first aircraft autopilot was developed by Sperry Corporation in 1912. The autopilot connected a gyroscopic heading indicator , and attitude indicator to hydraulically operated elevators and rudder . ( Ailerons were not connected as wing dihedral was counted upon to produce the necessary roll stability.) It permitted the aircraft to fly straight and level on a compass course without

2150-405: The pilot. CAT I – This category permits pilots to land with a decision height of 200 feet (61 m) and a forward visibility or Runway Visual Range (RVR) of 550 metres (1,800 ft). Autopilots are not required. CAT II – This category permits pilots to land with a decision height between 200 feet (61 m) and 100 feet (30 m) and a RVR of 300 metres (980 ft). Autopilots have

2200-429: The pink FD crosshairs, that pilot is flying the correct flight path indicated by the aircraft's computers. The Flight Director is there to help you maintain a multitude of things depending on the situation. It can help you with maintaining a vertical speed, a specific altitude, heading, and/or navigational tracking all in one. Flight directors are extremely useful when it comes to instrument approaches when you must maintain

2250-541: The runway but would have no ability to taxi. Fail-passive autopilot: in case of failure, the aircraft stays in a controllable position and the pilot can take control of it to go around or finish landing. It is usually a dual-channel system. Fail-operational autopilot: in case of a failure below alert height, the approach, flare and landing can still be completed automatically. It is usually a triple-channel system or dual-dual system. In radio-controlled modelling , and especially RC aircraft and helicopters , an autopilot

2300-551: The runway. This category permits pilots to land with a decision height less than 50 feet or no decision height and a forward visibility of 250 feet (76 m) in Europe (76 metres, compare this to aircraft size, some of which are now over 70 metres (230 ft) long) or 300 feet (91 m) in the United States. For a landing-without-decision aid, a fail-operational autopilot is needed. For this category some form of runway guidance system

2350-746: The same autopilot after the war, and in 1930, they tested a more compact and reliable autopilot which kept a U.S. Army Air Corps aircraft on a true heading and altitude for three hours. In 1930, the Royal Aircraft Establishment in the United Kingdom developed an autopilot called a pilots' assister that used a pneumatically spun gyroscope to move the flight controls. The autopilot was further developed, to include, for example, improved control algorithms and hydraulic servomechanisms. Adding more instruments, such as radio-navigation aids, made it possible to fly at night and in bad weather. In 1947,

2400-519: The same way as the yaw damper described above; however, instead of damping Dutch roll, they will damp pitch and roll oscillations to improve the overall stability of the aircraft. Instrument-aided landings are defined in categories by the International Civil Aviation Organization , or ICAO. These are dependent upon the required visibility level and the degree to which the landing can be conducted automatically without input by

2450-504: Was developed independently. The software on the fifth system provided only the basic functions needed to fly the Shuttle, further reducing any possible commonality with the software running on the four primary systems. A stability augmentation system (SAS) is another type of automatic flight control system; however, instead of maintaining the aircraft required altitude or flight path, the SAS will move

2500-613: Was the first production helicopter with an autopilot. The lunar module digital autopilot of the Apollo program is an early example of a fully digital autopilot system in spacecraft. Not all of the passenger aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. Older and smaller general aviation aircraft especially are still hand-flown, and even small airliners with fewer than twenty seats may also be without an autopilot as they are used on short-duration flights with two pilots. The installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats

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