100-510: Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Other Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an American lawyer and jurist who has served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States since 1991. He
200-406: A liberal arts education introduced him to the writings of black intellectuals such as Richard Wright , whose literary works Thomas sympathized with. His admiration of Malcolm X led him to read The Autobiography of Malcolm X to the point of wearing down the pages of his copy. Thomas graduated on June 4, 1971, with a Bachelor of Arts , cum laude , ranked ninth in his class. He applied to and
300-693: A 2006 advisory against smoked medical cannabis stating: "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision." Cannabis, called má 麻 (meaning "hemp; cannabis; numbness") or dàmá 大麻 (with "big; great") in Chinese, was used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago. The botanist Hui-lin Li wrote that in China, "The use of Cannabis in medicine
400-498: A chief counsel to Biden, to inform him of her allegations. She recalled that Thomas told Hill in an elevator at the EEOC that he would ruin her career if she spoke about his behavior. When Grant told Hill and Hoerchner that the FBI would be involved, they were reluctant to be investigated. Hill declined to speak with the FBI, as she feared it would misconstrue her words, so instead arranged to deliver
500-471: A condition known as cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS). A 2016 Cochrane review said that cannabinoids were "probably effective" in treating chemotherapy-induced nausea in children, but with a high side-effect profile (mainly drowsiness, dizziness, altered moods, and increased appetite). Less common side effects were "ocular problems, orthostatic hypotension, muscle twitching, pruritus, vagueness, hallucinations, lightheadedness and dry mouth". Evidence
600-461: A corporate lawyer in Atlanta, Georgia . He saw his experience in law school as disappointing, as law firms assumed he was accepted because of affirmative action . According to Thomas, the law firms also "asked pointed questions, unsubtly suggesting that they doubted I was as smart as my grades indicated". In his 2007 memoir, he wrote: "I peeled a fifteen-cent sticker off a package of cigars and stuck it on
700-443: A detraction from socioeconomic issues. During Thomas's tenure, he was credited with improving the efficiency of the EEOC. Settlement award amounts to victims of discrimination tripled, while the number of suits filed decreased. The EEOC's lack of the use of goals and timetables drew criticism from civil rights advocates, who lobbied representatives to review the EEOC's practices; Thomas testified before Congress more than 50 times. Near
800-591: A fellow student say, "Good. I hope the son of a bitch dies" and "[t]hat's what they should do to all the niggers ". The display of racism moved Thomas to leave the seminary. He thought the church did not do enough to combat racism and resolved to abandon the priesthood. He left at the end of the semester. At a nun's suggestion, Thomas enrolled at the College of the Holy Cross , an elite Catholic college in Massachusetts , as
900-539: A focus of the hearings. Thomas said he regarded natural law as a "philosophical background" to the Constitution. Ninety witnesses testified in favor of or against Thomas. A motion on September 27, 1991, to give the nomination a favorable recommendation failed 7–7, and the Judiciary Committee voted 13–1 to send it to the full Senate without recommendation. At the conclusion of the committee's confirmation hearings,
1000-488: A higher risk of psychosis, particularly in individuals with a genetic predisposition to psychotic disorders like schizophrenia. Some studies have shown that cannabis can trigger a temporary psychotic episode, which may increase the risk of developing a psychotic disorder later. The impact of cannabis on depression is less clear. Some studies suggest a potential increase in depression risk among adolescents who use cannabis though findings are inconsistent across studies. There
1100-413: A justice dies, retires, resigns, or is impeached and convicted . Each Supreme Court justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it, and the chief justice's vote counts no more than that of any other justice; however, the chief justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. Furthermore, the chief justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion; otherwise,
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#17328631623191200-524: A lack of production controls. The potential for adverse effects from smoke inhalation makes smoking a less viable option than oral preparations. Cannabis vaporizers have gained popularity because of a perception among users that fewer harmful chemicals are ingested when components are inhaled via aerosol rather than smoke. Cannabinoid medicines are available in pill form ( dronabinol and nabilone ) and liquid extracts formulated into an oromucosal spray ( nabiximols ). Oral preparations are "problematic due to
1300-734: A liberal coalition—including the Alliance for Justice and the National Organization for Women (NOW)—emerged to oppose his candidacy. On October 30, 1989, President George H. W. Bush nominated Thomas to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit to fill the seat vacated by Robert Bork . Thomas gained the support of other African American officials, including former transportation secretary William Coleman , and said that when meeting white Democratic staffers in
1400-642: A majority of CBD is excreted in feces and some in the urine. The terminal half-life is approximately 18–32 hours. Smoking has been the means of administration of cannabis for many users, but it is not suitable for the use of cannabis as a medicine. It was the most common method of medical cannabis consumption in the US as of 2013 . It is difficult to predict the pharmacological response to cannabis because concentration of cannabinoids varies widely, as there are different ways of preparing it for consumption (smoked, applied as oils, eaten, infused into other foods, or drunk) and
1500-451: A period of days or weeks. The amount of cannabis normally used for medicinal purposes is not believed to cause any permanent cognitive impairment in adults, though long-term treatment in adolescents should be weighed carefully as they are more susceptible to these impairments. Withdrawal symptoms are rarely a problem with controlled medical administration of cannabinoids. The ability to drive vehicles or to operate machinery may be impaired until
1600-436: A reasonable option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment. Comparative studies have found cannabinoids to be more effective than some conventional antiemetics such as prochlorperazine , promethazine , and metoclopramide in controlling CINV, but these are used less frequently because of side effects including dizziness, dysphoria, and hallucinations. Long-term cannabis use may cause nausea and vomiting,
1700-486: A role in the overall effect of cannabis. The most studied are THC, CBD and CBN. CB1 and CB2 are the primary cannabinoid receptors responsible for several of the effects of cannabinoids, although other receptors may play a role as well. Both belong to a group of receptors called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). CB1 receptors are found in very high levels in the brain and are thought to be responsible for psychoactive effects. CB2 receptors are found peripherally throughout
1800-421: A set of chambers in the Supreme Court building, and employ law clerks. The names of retired associate justices continue to appear alongside those of the active justices in the bound volumes of Supreme Court decisions. Federal statute ( 28 U.S.C. § 294 ) provides that retired Supreme Court justices may serve—if designated and assigned by the chief justice—on panels of the U.S. courts of appeals, or on
1900-602: A slower onset of effect than the inhalation of it because the THC travels to the liver first through the blood before it travels to the rest of the body. Inhaled cannabis can result in THC going directly to the brain, where it then travels from the brain back to the liver in recirculation for metabolism. Eventually, both routes of metabolism result in the metabolism of psychoactive THC to inactive 11-COOH-THC. Due to substantial metabolism of THC and CBD, their metabolites are excreted mostly via feces , rather than by urine. After delta-9-THC
2000-568: A sophomore transfer student on a full academic scholarship. He was one of the college's first black students, being one of twenty recruited by President John E. Brooks in 1968 in a group that also included the future attorney Ted Wells , the running back Eddie Jenkins Jr. , and the novelist Edward P. Jones . In the fall of that year, Thomas and other black students founded the college's Black Student Union (BSU), which became an important part of their campus identity. Without financial support from his grandfather, he defrayed his expenses by working as
2100-489: A student of the property law scholar Quintin Johnstone , who became his favorite professor. Johnstone remembered Thomas as having "performed very well". Guido Calabresi , the dean of Yale Law School , described Thomas and fellow student Hillary Clinton as "both excellent students [who] had the same kind of reputation". Thomas obtained his Juris Doctor on May 20, 1974. After graduation, he sought to enter private practice as
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#17328631623192200-601: A subordinate at the Department of Education and the EEOC. The Senate confirmed Thomas by a vote of 52–48, the narrowest margin in a century. Since the death of Antonin Scalia , Thomas has been the Court's foremost originalist , stressing the original meaning in interpreting the U.S. Constitution . In contrast to Scalia—who had been the only other consistent originalist—he pursues a more classically liberal variety of originalism. Thomas
2300-559: A tolerance is developed. Although supporters of medical cannabis say that it is safe, further research is required to assess the long-term safety of its use. Recreational use of cannabis is associated with cognitive deficits, especially for those who begin to use cannabis in adolescence. As of 2021 there is a lack of research into long-term cognitive effects of medical use of cannabis, but one 12-month observational study reported that "MC patients demonstrated significant improvements on measures of executive function and clinical state over
2400-419: A waiter and dishwasher in the college's dining hall. Thomas later recalled, "I was 19. My only hope was Holy Cross College". Professors at Holy Cross remembered Thomas as a determined, diligent student. He kept to a strict routine of studying alone and stayed back during holidays to continue working. Thomas C. Lawler, an English professor at Holy Cross, recalled him as having "never talked very much in class. He
2500-415: A written statement. The statement described how Thomas pressured her to date him, and included descriptions of him speaking about sexual interests involving pornographic films. Hill also alleged that Thomas spoke of sex at work despite her being uncomfortable with the subject, adding, "I sensed that my discomfort with his discussions only urged him on, as though my reaction of feeling ill at ease and vulnerable
2600-475: Is a lack of evidence that cannabinoids are effective in treating depressive or anxiety disorders , attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette syndrome , post-traumatic stress disorder , or psychosis . Research indicates that cannabis, particularly CBD, may have anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects. A study found that CBD significantly reduced anxiety during a simulated public speaking test for individuals with social anxiety disorder. However,
2700-462: Is also dependent on route of administration. Smoking and inhalation of vaporized cannabis have better absorption than do other routes of administration, and therefore also have more predictable distribution. THC is highly protein bound once absorbed, with only 3% found unbound in the plasma. It distributes rapidly to highly vascularized organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys, as well as to various glands. Low levels can be detected in
2800-500: Is also tasked with carrying out the chief justice's duties when he is unable to, or if that office is vacant. There are currently eight associate justices on the Supreme Court. The justices, ordered by seniority, are: An associate justice who leaves the Supreme Court after attaining the age and meeting the service requirements prescribed by federal statute ( 28 U.S.C. § 371 ) may retire rather than resign. After retirement, they keep their title, and by custom may also keep
2900-411: Is always considered to be the most senior justice. If two justices are commissioned on the same day, the elder is designated the senior justice of the two. Currently, the senior associate justice is Clarence Thomas . By tradition, when the justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Supreme Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. The senior associate justice
3000-447: Is deemed to be a reasonable option if other treatments have not been effective. Its use for MS is approved in ten countries. A 2012 review found no problems with tolerance, abuse, or addiction. In the United States, cannabidiol , one of the cannabinoids found in the marijuana plant, has been approved for treating two severe forms of epilepsy, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome . A 2019 systematic review found that there
3100-594: Is dose-related. A 2004 literature review on the subject concluded that cannabis use is associated with a two-fold increase in the risk of psychosis, but that cannabis use is "neither necessary nor sufficient" to cause psychosis. A French review from 2009 came to a conclusion that cannabis use, particularly that before age 15, was a factor in the development of schizophrenic disorders. The genus Cannabis contains two species which produce useful amounts of psychoactive cannabinoids: Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa , which are listed as Schedule I medicinal plants in
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3200-599: Is eight, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869 . Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution of the United States grants plenary power to the president to nominate, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the Senate , appoint justices to the Supreme Court. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution effectively grants life tenure to associate justices, and all other federal judges , which ends only when
3300-610: Is hydroxylated into 11-OH-THC via CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4, it undergoes phase II metabolism into more than 30 metabolites, a majority of which are products of glucuronidation . Approximately 65% of THC is excreted in feces and 25% in the urine, while the remaining 10% is excreted by other means. The terminal half-life of THC is 25 to 36 hours, whereas for CBD it is 18 to 32 hours. CBD is hydroxylated by P450 liver enzymes into 7-OH-CBD. Its metabolites are products of primarily CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 activity, with potential activity of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6. Similar to delta-9-THC,
3400-439: Is insufficient data to draw strong conclusions about the safety of medical cannabis. Typically, adverse effects of medical cannabis use are not serious; they include tiredness, dizziness, increased appetite, and cardiovascular and psychoactive effects. Other effects can include impaired short-term memory; impaired motor coordination; altered judgment; and paranoia or psychosis at high doses. Tolerance to these effects develops over
3500-547: Is lacking for both efficacy and safety of cannabis and cannabinoids in treating patients with HIV/AIDS or for anorexia associated with AIDS. As of 2013, current studies suffer from the effects of bias, small sample size, and lack of long-term data. A 2021 review found little effect of using non-inhaled cannabis to relieve chronic pain. According to a 2019 systematic review, there have been inconsistent results of using cannabis for neuropathic pain, spasms associated with multiple sclerosis and pain from rheumatic disorders, but
3600-764: Is largely attributed to significant first-pass metabolism in the liver and erratic absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. However, oral administration of CBD has a faster time to peak concentrations (2 hours) than THC. Due to the poor bioavailability of oral preparations, alternative routes of administration have been studied, including sublingual and rectal. These alternative formulations maximize bioavailability and reduce first-pass metabolism. Sublingual administration in rabbits yielded bioavailability of 16% and time to peak concentration of 4 hours. Rectal administration in monkeys doubled bioavailability to 13.5% and achieved peak blood concentrations within 1 to 8 hours after administration. Like cannabinoid absorption, distribution
3700-619: Is not clear whether it is a useful treatment for any condition, or whether harms outweigh any benefit. There is no consistent evidence that it helps with chronic pain and muscle spasms . Low quality evidence suggests its use for reducing nausea during chemotherapy , improving appetite in HIV/AIDS , improving sleep, and improving tics in Tourette syndrome . When usual treatments are ineffective, cannabinoids have also been recommended for anorexia , arthritis , glaucoma , and migraine . It
3800-412: Is one of the 50 "fundamental" herbs in traditional Chinese medicine . The Ebers Papyrus ( c. 1550 BCE ) from Ancient Egypt describes medical cannabis. The ancient Egyptians used hemp (cannabis) in suppositories for relieving the pain of hemorrhoids . Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for treating
3900-403: Is one reason why treatment with cannabis is difficult to classify and study. A 2014 review stated that the variations in ratio of CBD-to-THC in botanical and pharmaceutical preparations determines the therapeutic vs psychoactive effects (CBD attenuates THC's psychoactive effects ) of cannabis products. Overall, research into the health effects of medical cannabis has been of low quality and it
4000-404: Is the first metabolic product in this pathway. Both Delta-9-THC and 11-OH-THC are psychoactive. The metabolism of THC into 11-OH-THC plays a part in the heightened psychoactive effects of edible cannabis. Next, 11-OH-THC is metabolized in the liver into 11-COOH-THC, which is the second metabolic product of THC. 11-COOH-THC is not psychoactive. Ingestion of edible cannabis products lead to
4100-626: Is unclear whether American states might be able to mitigate the adverse effects of the opioid epidemic by prescribing medical cannabis as an alternative pain management drug. Cannabis should not be used in pregnancy . Research analyzing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) did not find significant differences in sleep duration between cannabis users and non-users. This suggests that some individuals may perceive benefits from cannabis use in terms of sleep, it may not significantly change overall sleep patterns across
Clarence Thomas - Misplaced Pages Continue
4200-547: The Carnegie Library , the only library for Blacks in Savannah before libraries were desegregated in 1961. When Thomas was ten years old, Anderson began putting his grandsons to work during the summers, helping him build a house on a plot of farmland he owned, building fences, and doing farm work. He believed in hard work and self-reliance, never showed his grandsons affection, beat them frequently according to Leola, and impressed
4300-507: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) the next year. President George H. W. Bush nominated Thomas to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in 1990. He served in that role for 19 months before filling Marshall's seat on the Supreme Court. Thomas's confirmation hearings were bitter and intensely fought, centering on an accusation that he had sexually harassed Anita Hill ,
4400-556: The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) on May 1, 1981. The Senate received the nomination on May 28, 1981, and Thomas was quickly confirmed before the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee on June 19, succeeding Cynthia Brown at the age of 32. He held the position for a brief period before James offered him a new position as chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), a promotion that Thomas believed, as with his position in
4500-731: The United States Senate , he was "struck by how easy it had become for sanctimonious whites to accuse a black man of not caring about civil rights". In February 1990, the Senate Judiciary Committee recommended Thomas by a vote of 12 to 1. On March 6, 1990, the Senate confirmed him to the Court of Appeals by a vote of 98 to 2. He developed cordial relationships during his 19 months on the federal court, including with Judge Ruth Bader Ginsburg . During his judgeship, Thomas authored 19 opinions. When Justice William Brennan retired from
4600-489: The "best qualified at this time". Thornburgh cautioned Bush that replacing Marshall with any candidate who was not perceived to share Marshall's views would make confirmation difficult. Liberal interest groups sought to challenge Thomas's nomination by paralleling the same strategy used against Robert Bork's confirmation. Abortion-rights groups, including the National Abortion Rights Action League and
4700-471: The 1880s. He was the second of three children of M.C. Thomas, a farm worker, and Leola Williams. Williams had been born out of wedlock; after her mother's death, she was sent from Liberty County, Georgia , to live with an aunt in Pin Point. The family were descendants of enslaved people and spoke Gullah as a first language . Thomas's earliest known ancestors were slaves named Sandy and Peggy, who were born in
4800-541: The EEOC and upgraded its record-keeping under an uncompromising leadership that eschewed racial quotas. Concerned by the EEOC's limited statutory authority, Thomas sought to impose criminal penalties for employers who practiced employment discrimination , moving to shift funding towards agency investigators. Though he had been critical of affirmative action , Thomas also opposed the Reagan Administration's agenda to remove affirmative action policies, believing it to be
4900-644: The NOW, were concerned that Thomas would be among those to overrule Roe v. Wade . Republican officials in turn emphasized his personal history and gathered support from African American interest groups, including the NAACP . Other civil rights organizations, such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and the National Urban League , were convinced not to oppose Thomas, believing that he
5000-561: The OCR, was because of his race. After James consulted the President, Thomas hesitantly took up the chair with Reagan's approval. Thomas chaired the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) from 1982 to 1990. As chairman, he was tasked with enforcing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in an agency that had been mutually resented by both Democrats and Republicans. He announced a reorganization of
5100-485: The Senate Judiciary Committee. Thomas testified for 25 hours, the second-longest of any Supreme Court nominee. He was reticent when answering senators' questions, recalling what had happened to Robert Bork when Bork expounded on his judicial philosophy during his confirmation hearings four years earlier. As many of his earlier writings frequently referenced natural law , his views on the legal theory became
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#17328631623195200-407: The Senate was debating whether to give final approval to Thomas's nomination. An FBI interview with Anita Hill , a former colleague of Thomas at the EEOC, was soon leaked to the press and allegations of sexual harassment followed. As a result, on October 8, the final vote was postponed, and the confirmation hearings were reopened. It was only the third time in the Senate's history that such an action
5300-595: The Supreme Court in July 1990, Thomas was Bush's favorite among the five candidates on his shortlist for the position. However, Bush's advisors, including Attorney General Dick Thornburgh , considered Thomas inexperienced, and he instead nominated David Souter of the First Circuit Court of Appeals . A year later, Justice Thurgood Marshall announced his retirement on June 27, 1991, and Bush nominated Thomas to replace him. Bush announced his selection on July 1, calling Thomas
5400-538: The Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 104 persons have served as an associate justice: Medical cannabis Medical cannabis , medicinal cannabis or medical marijuana ( MMJ ) refers to cannabis products and cannabinoid molecules that are prescribed by physicians for their patients. The use of cannabis as medicine has a long history, but has not been as rigorously tested as other medicinal plants due to legal and governmental restrictions, resulting in limited clinical research to define
5500-431: The U.S. district courts. Retired justices are not, however, authorized to take part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Supreme Court (unlike other retired federal judges who may be permitted to do so in their former courts); neither are they known or designated as a "senior judge". When, after his retirement, William O. Douglas attempted to take a more active role than was customary, maintaining that it
5600-705: The US; a third species, Cannabis ruderalis , has few psychogenic properties. Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds; at least 80 of these are cannabinoids – chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain. As of 2012, more than 20 cannabinoids were being studied by the U.S. FDA. The most psychoactive cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant is tetrahydrocannabinol (or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly known as THC). Other cannabinoids include delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol , cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol (CBG); they have less psychotropic effects than THC, but may play
5700-426: The attention of officials in the newly elected Reagan Administration as a black conservative . Pendleton James, Reagan's personnel director, offered Thomas the position of assistant secretary for civil rights at the U.S. Department of Education . Initially reluctant, Thomas agreed after Danforth and others pressed him to take the post. President Ronald Reagan nominated Thomas as assistant secretary of education for
5800-570: The body and are thought to modulate pain and inflammation. Cannabinoid absorption is dependent on its route of administration. Inhaled and vaporized THC have similar absorption profiles to smoked THC, with a bioavailability ranging from 10 to 35%. Oral administration has the lowest bioavailability of approximately 6%, variable absorption depending on the vehicle used, and the longest time to peak plasma levels (2 to 6 hours) compared to smoked or vaporized THC. Similar to THC, CBD has poor oral bioavailability, approximately 6%. The low bioavailability
5900-443: The brain, testes, and unborn fetuses, all of which are protected from systemic circulation via barriers. THC further distributes into fatty tissues a few days after administration due to its high lipophilicity, and is found deposited in the spleen and fat after redistribution. Delta-9-THC is the primary molecule responsible for the effects of cannabis. Delta-9-THC is metabolized in the liver and turns into 11-OH-THC. 11-OH-THC
6000-497: The children, and a judge granted the request in March 1951. After the divorce, M.C. moved to Savannah and later Pennsylvania, visiting his children only once. Leola went to work as a maid in Savannah during the week and returned to Pin Point on the weekends. Custody of the children was awarded to Leola's aunt. When her aunt's house burned down in 1955, Leola took her children to live with her in
6100-400: The course of 12 months". Exposure to THC can cause acute transient psychotic symptoms in healthy individuals and people with schizophrenia. A 2007 meta analysis concluded that cannabis use reduced the average age of onset of psychosis by 2.7 years relative to non-cannabis use. A 2005 meta analysis concluded that adolescent use of cannabis increases the risk of psychosis, and that the risk
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#17328631623196200-580: The end of his final term, the EEOC came under congressional scrutiny for the mishandling of age-discrimination cases. In early 1989, President George H. W. Bush expressed interest in nominating Thomas to a federal judgeship. Thomas, now at age 41, initially rejected the position, believing himself unready to make a lifetime commitment to being a judge. White House Counsel C. Boyden Gray and White House Chief of Staff John H. Sununu advocated for his nomination, and Judge Laurence Silberman advised Thomas to accept an appointment. Anticipating Thomas's nomination,
6300-490: The family, he was raised by his grandfather in a poor Gullah community near Savannah, Georgia . Growing up as a devout Catholic, Thomas originally intended to be a priest in the Catholic Church , but he was frustrated by what he viewed as the church's insufficient attempts to combat racism. He abandoned his aspiration of becoming a clergyman and graduated from the College of the Holy Cross and Yale Law School , where he
6400-793: The federal level, the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment was enacted in December 2014, limiting the ability of federal law to be enforced in states where medical cannabis has been legalized. In the U.S., the National Institute on Drug Abuse defines medical cannabis as "using the whole, unprocessed marijuana plant or its basic extracts to treat symptoms of illness and other conditions". A cannabis plant includes more than 400 different chemicals, of which about 70 are cannabinoids . In comparison, typical government-approved medications contain only one or two chemicals. The number of active chemicals in cannabis
6500-409: The first time. Despite having little formal education, Anderson had built a successful business delivering coal, oil, and ice. When racial unrest led to widespread protest and marches in Savannah from 1960 to 1963, Anderson used his wealth to bail out demonstrators and took his grandchildren to meetings promoted by the NAACP . Thomas has described his grandfather as the person who has influenced his life
6600-426: The frame of my law degree to remind myself of the mistake I'd made by going to Yale. I never did change my mind about its value." Hill, Jones, and Farrington, the Savannah law firm where Thomas had interned the previous summer, offered him a job upon graduation, but he declined. With no job offers from major law firms, Thomas took a position as an associate with Missouri attorney general John Danforth , who offered him
6700-453: The general population. A review of literature up to 2018 indicates that cannabidiol (CBD) may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of insomnia. CBD, a non-psychoactive component of cannabis, is of particular interest due to its potential to influence sleep without the psychoactive effects associated with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Medical cannabis is somewhat effective in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) and may be
6800-499: The home), as well as his dissent in Gonzales v. Raich (arguing that the U.S. Congress may not criminalize the private cultivation of medical cannabis ). He is widely considered to be the Court's most conservative member . Thomas was born on June 23, 1948, in his parents' wooden shack in Pin Point, Georgia . Pin Point was a small community near Savannah founded by freedmen in
6900-635: The importance of a good education on them. Anderson taught Thomas that "all of our rights as human beings came from God, not man", and that racial segregation was a violation of divine law . During his freshman year from 1967 to 1968, Thomas attended Conception Seminary College , a Benedictine seminary in Missouri , with the intent to become a priest; no one in Thomas's family had attended college before. After Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination , he overheard
7000-513: The late 18th century and owned by wealthy planter Josiah Wilson of Liberty County. Thomas's older sister, Emma, was born in 1946, and his younger brother, Myers, in 1949. Upon becoming pregnant with Thomas's older sister, Leola was expelled from her Baptist church and dropped out of high school after the 10th grade; her father ordered her to marry M.C. in January 1947. After three years of marriage, M.C. sued for divorce, claiming that Leola neglected
7100-644: The list of Schedule I controlled substances maintained by the United States federal government, followed by regulatory and scientific review. Others oppose its legalization, such as the American Academy of Pediatrics . Medical cannabis can be administered through various methods, including capsules , lozenges , tinctures , dermal patches , oral or dermal sprays, cannabis edibles , and vaporizing or smoking dried buds . Synthetic cannabinoids are available for prescription use in some countries, such as synthetic delta-9-THC and nabilone . Countries that allow
7200-472: The medical use of whole-plant cannabis include Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and Uruguay. In the United States, 38 states and the District of Columbia have legalized cannabis for medical purposes, beginning with the passage of California's Proposition 215 in 1996. Although cannabis remains prohibited for any use at
7300-546: The most. Anderson converted to Catholicism and sent Thomas to be educated at a series of Catholic schools. Thomas attended the predominantly black St. Pius X High School in Chatham County for two years before transferring to St. John Vianney's Minor Seminary on the Isle of Hope , where he was the segregated boarding school 's first black student. Though he experienced hazing , he performed well academically. He spent many hours at
7400-528: The organization would rate Thomas more poorly than it thought he deserved, so pressured the ABA for at least the mid-level qualified rating while simultaneously discrediting it as partisan. Opponents of Thomas's nomination saw the assessment as indicating that he was unfit for the Court. The ABA gave Thomas its highest rankings in integrity and judicial temperament and a middle-grade in professional competence. On September 10, 1991, formal confirmation hearings began before
7500-443: The pain relief experienced after using medical cannabis is due to the placebo effect , especially given widespread media attention that sets the expectation for pain relief. Cannabis' efficacy is not clear in treating neurological problems, including multiple sclerosis (MS) and movement problems. Evidence also suggests that oral cannabis extract is effective for reducing patient-centered measures of spasticity. A trial of cannabis
7600-539: The president, who was sponsoring Thomas. Biden used the FBI instead of the committee's investigators to avoid the appearance of partisanship. Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States An associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States is a justice of the Supreme Court of the United States , other than the chief justice of the United States . The number of associate justices
7700-463: The prospect of practicing what he liked. Thomas moved to Saint Louis to study for the Missouri bar , and was admitted on September 13, 1974. He remained financially destitute even after leaving Yale, trying unsuccessfully on one occasion to make money by selling his blood at a blood bank , and hoped that by working for Danforth he might later acquire a job in private practice. From 1974 to 1977, Thomas
7800-410: The relationship between cannabis use and anxiety symptoms is complex, and while some users report relief, the overall evidence from observational studies and clinical trials remains inconclusive. Cannabis is often used by people to cope with anxiety, yet the efficacy and safety of cannabis for treating anxiety disorders is yet to be researched. Cannabis use, especially at high doses, is associated with
7900-490: The risk of minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness , feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations . Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident. Many cultures have used cannabis for therapeutic purposes for thousands of years. Some American medical organizations have requested removal of cannabis from
8000-402: The room she rented in a tenement with an outdoor toilet in Savannah, leaving her daughter with the aunt in Pin Point. She asked her father, Myers Anderson, for help. He initially refused but agreed after his wife threatened to throw him out. Thomas and his brother went to live with Anderson, his maternal grandfather, in 1955 and experienced amenities such as indoor plumbing and regular meals for
8100-497: The safety and efficacy of using cannabis to treat diseases. Preliminary evidence has indicated that cannabis might reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy and reduce chronic pain and muscle spasms . Regarding non-inhaled cannabis or cannabinoids, a 2021 review found that it provided little relief against chronic pain and sleep disturbance, and caused several transient adverse effects , such as cognitive impairment, nausea , and drowsiness . Short-term use increases
8200-399: The same violation, he suggested a walkout in protest. The BSU adopted his idea, and Thomas, along with sixty other black students, departed campus. Some of the priests negotiated with the protesting black students to reenter the school. When administrators granted amnesty to all protesters, Thomas returned to the college, later also to attend anti-war marches . In April 1970, he participated in
8300-401: The senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. The chief justice also has certain administrative responsibilities that the other justices do not and is paid slightly more ($ 298,500 per year as of 2023, compared to $ 285,400 per year for an associate justice). Associate justices have seniority in order of the date their respective commissions bear, although the chief justice
8400-532: The staff of Senator Joe Biden , the chair of the committee, that her allegations be made anonymously if she chose to testify and that Thomas not be informed of them, which Biden declined. Hill then notified Democratic staffers the day after the hearings had ended that she wished to make her allegations known to the committee. Hill's allegations were corroborated by Susan Hoerchner, a judge in California, who also wished to remain anonymous. Hoerchner called Harriet Grant,
8500-418: The uptake of cannabinoids into fatty tissue, from which they are released slowly, and the significant first-pass liver metabolism, which breaks down Δ9THC and contributes further to the variability of plasma concentrations". The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked cannabis for any condition or disease, as it deems that evidence is lacking concerning safety and efficacy. The FDA issued
8600-586: The violent 1970 Harvard Square riots . He has credited his protests for his turn toward conservatism and subsequent disillusionment with leftist movements. Having struggled with English as a native speaker of Gullah , Thomas chose to major in English literature . He became a member of Alpha Sigma Nu , the Jesuit honor society , and the Purple Key Society, of which he was the only black member. The college's focus on
8700-459: Was Bush's last black nominee. On July 31, 1991, the board of directors of the NAACP voted against endorsing Thomas, announcing their opposition to his confirmation the same day. The American Bar Association (ABA) appraised Thomas as "qualified" for the Supreme Court. The result came in contrast to the "well qualified" rating some nominees had received previously. The Bush Administration anticipated that
8800-628: Was accepted by Yale Law School , Harvard Law School , and the University of Pennsylvania Law School . That same year, Thomas matriculated at Yale Law School as one of twelve black students. Yale offered him the best financial aid package, and he was attracted to the civil rights activism of some of its faculty members. Finding it difficult to keep up with the school's expectations, he struggled to connect with other students who came from upper-class backgrounds. He enrolled in Yale's most difficult courses and became
8900-446: Was an assistant attorney general of Missouri—the only African-American member of Danforth's staff. He worked first in the office's criminal appeals division and later in the revenue and taxation division. Thomas conducted lawsuits independently, gaining a reputation as a fair but controversial prosecutor. Years later, after he joined the Supreme Court, Thomas recalled his position in Missouri as "the best job I've ever had". When Danforth
9000-713: Was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1976, Thomas left to become an attorney in Monsanto 's legal department in Saint Louis. He found the job unsatisfying, so left to rejoin Danforth in Washington, D.C. , as a legislative assistant. From 1979 to 1981, he handled energy issues for the Senate Commerce Committee . Thomas, who had switched his party affiliation from Democratic to Republican while working for Danforth in Missouri, soon drew
9100-400: Was going to get as much as he could and get as far, ultimately, as he could". Thomas became a vocal student activist as an undergraduate. He became acquainted with black separatism , the black Muslim Movement , the black power movement , and displayed a poster of Malcolm X in his dormitory room. When some black students were disproportionately punished in comparison with white students for
9200-571: Was his prerogative to do so because of his senior status, he was rebuffed by Chief Justice Warren Burger and admonished by the whole Court. There are currently three living retired associate justices: David Souter , retired June 29, 2009; Anthony Kennedy , retired July 31, 2018; and Stephen Breyer , retired June 30, 2022. Souter has served on panels of the First Circuit Courts of Appeals following his retirement; Kennedy and Breyer have not performed any judicial duties since retiring. Since
9300-436: Was influenced by a number of conservative authors, especially Thomas Sowell . Upon graduating, he was appointed as an assistant attorney general in Missouri and later entered private practice there. He became a legislative assistant to U.S. Senator John Danforth in 1979, and was made Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights at the U.S. Department of Education in 1981. President Ronald Reagan appointed Thomas as Chairman of
9400-542: Was known for his silence during most oral arguments, though has since begun asking more questions to counsel. He is notable for his majority opinions in Good News Club v. Milford Central School (determining the freedom of religious speech in relation to the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution ) and New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen (affirming the individual right to bear arms outside
9500-430: Was nominated by the U.S. president George H. W. Bush in 1990 to succeed Thurgood Marshall . After Marshall, Thomas is the second African American to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court and has been its longest-serving member since Anthony Kennedy 's retirement in 2018. Since Stephen Breyer 's retirement in 2022, he is also the Court's oldest member. Thomas was born in Pin Point , Georgia . After his father abandoned
9600-537: Was not effective treating chronic cancer pain. The authors state that additional randomized controlled trials of different cannabis products are necessary to make conclusive recommendations. When cannabis is inhaled to relieve pain, blood levels of cannabinoids rise faster than when oral products are used, peaking within three minutes and attaining an analgesic effect in seven minutes. A 2011 review considered cannabis to be generally safe, and it appears safer than opioids in palliative care. A 2022 review concluded
9700-440: Was probably a very early development. Since ancient humans used hemp seed as food, it was quite natural for them to also discover the medicinal properties of the plant." Emperor Shen-Nung , who was also a pharmacologist, wrote a book on treatment methods in 2737 BCE that included the medical benefits of cannabis. He recommended the substance for many ailments, including constipation, gout, rheumatism, and absent-mindedness. Cannabis
9800-484: Was taken and the first since 1925, when Justice Harlan F. Stone 's nomination was recommitted to the Judiciary Committee. Hill was raised in Oklahoma and, like Thomas, graduated from Yale Law School. She told James Brudney, a fellow Yale alumnus, about alleged sexual advances Thomas had made, telling him that she also did not wish to testify or make the allegations public to the Senate Judiciary Committee. Hill requested to
9900-442: Was the kind of person you really might not notice". By contrast, he was outspoken at BSU meetings, distinguishing himself as a contrarian who often feuded with Ted Wells. The future running back Ed Jenkins, a BSU member, said Thomas "could turn on a dime and reduce you to intellectual rubble". Edward P. Jones, who lived across from Thomas as a sophomore, reflected that "there was a fierce determination I sensed from him [Thomas], that he
10000-484: Was what he wanted". The FBI report of its investigation was not made public. The White House announced that the FBI had found the allegations "without foundation". Congressional officials who had seen the report told the New York Times that "the bureau could not draw any conclusion because of the 'he said, she said' nature of the subject". The use of the FBI was contentious in the Judiciary Committee because it answers to
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