Gallic Wars (58 BC – 57 BC)
65-659: Clades Lolliana (16 BC) Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) Marcomannic Wars (166–180) ( participating Roman units ) Roman campaigns in Germania during the 230s Gothic invasion of the Balkans (250–251) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (254) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (267–268) Roman–Alemannic Wars Gothic War (367–369) Gothic War (376–382) Visigothic Wars Vandalic Wars Anglo-Saxon Wars Vandalic War (533–534) Gothic War (535–554) The clades Lolliana or Lollian disaster
130-555: A demonstration to his troops, to Rome, and to the German peoples that his army could move largely unopposed through Germany, but like Drusus, he did nothing to hold territory. Tiberius' forces were attacked by German troops on the way west back to the Rhine, but successfully defended themselves. The elite of the Cherusci tribe came to be special friends of Rome after Tiberius's campaigns of AD 5. In
195-511: A popular full-scale boycott of Roman pottery (red slip ware), in protest of Varus' cruelty. Following the massacre, Varus returned to Antioch . Between 10 BC and 6 AD Tiberius, his brother Drusus , Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus , and Germanicus conducted long campaigns in Germania, the area north of the Upper Danube and east of the Rhine , in an attempt at achieving a further major expansion of
260-504: A son of Lucius Nonius Asprenas was named Quinctilianus , which implied adoption. Vipsania disappears from history. It is unknown whether she died or was divorced. Varus then married Claudia Pulchra . She was a daughter of Claudia Marcella Minor and the Roman consul of 12 BC, Marcus Valerius Messalla Appianus . Her maternal grandmother was Octavia the Younger , sister of Augustus. Hence she
325-476: A supporter of Julius Caesar's heir, Octavian . Varus accompanied Augustus on a three-year tour of the eastern provinces between 22 BC and 19 BC, winning public acknowledgement while he was there. Around 15 BC, Varus spent a year or more serving as the legate of the 19th Legion while it was stationed at Dangstetten, as evidenced by a luggage-tag bearing his name and position excavated from the site. When Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa died in early 12 BC, Varus delivered
390-449: Is known of the campaign of AD 9 until the return trip, when Varus left with his legions from their camp on the Weser. On their way back to Castra Vetera, Varus received reports from Arminius that there was a small uprising west of the Roman camp. The Romans were on the way back to the Rhine anyway, and the small revolt would only be a small detour – about two days away. Varus departed to deal with
455-688: The Clades Variana ("Varian Disaster"), the name used by Roman historians to describe the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, and to prove that Roman military might could still overcome German lands. The last general to lead Roman forces in the region during this time was Germanicus , the adoptive son of Emperor Tiberius , who in AD 16 had launched the final major military expedition by Rome into Germania. In 27 BC, Augustus became princeps and sent Agrippa to quell
520-671: The Attuarii , the Bructeri , and subdued the Cherusci. Soon thereafter, he declared the Cherusci "friends of the Roman people." In AD 5, he campaigned against the Chauci , and then coordinated an attack into the heart of Germany both overland and by river. The Roman fleet and legions met on the Elbe, whereupon Tiberius departed from the Elbe to march back westward at the end of the summer without stationing occupying forces at this eastern position. This accomplished
585-607: The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in September at Kalkriese (East of modern Osnabrück ), the Romans marched right into it. The heavily forested, swampy terrain made the infantry manoeuvres of the legions impossible to execute and allowed the Germans to defeat the legions in detail . On the third day of fighting, the Germans overwhelmed the Romans at Kalkriese Hill, north of Osnabrück. Accounts of
650-560: The Frisians , who thereafter served in his army as allies. Then, he attacked the Chauci , who lived in northwestern Germany in what is now Lower Saxony . Around winter, he recrossed the Rhine, and returned to Rome. The following spring, Drusus began his second campaign across the Rhine. He first subdued the Usipetes, and then marched east to the Visurgis ( Weser River ). Then, he passed through
715-537: The Marcomanni , the other most important Germanic leader, whom Arminius hoped to coax into an anti-Roman military alliance , but Marbod declined the offer and sent the head on to Rome for burial. Some captured Romans were caged and burned alive; others were enslaved or ransomed. Tacitus and Florus report that the victorious Germanic tribes tortured and sacrificed captive officers to their gods on altars that could still be seen years later. The Roman army later recovered
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#1733086329854780-457: The Rhine in 13 BC and launched a retaliatory campaign across the Rhine in 12 BC. Drusus led three more campaigns against the Germanic tribes in the years 11–9 BC. For the campaign of 10 BC, he was celebrated for being the Roman who traveled farthest east in northern Europe. Succeeding generals would continue attacking across the Rhine until AD 16, notably Publius Quinctilius Varus in AD 9. During
845-421: The 230s Gothic invasion of the Balkans (250–251) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (254) Gothic invasion of the Balkans (267–268) Roman–Alemannic Wars Gothic War (367–369) Gothic War (376–382) Visigothic Wars Vandalic Wars Anglo-Saxon Wars Vandalic War (533–534) Gothic War (535–554) The Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) were a series of conflicts between
910-499: The 6th century AD asserts that all Germans living between the Elbe and the Rhine had submitted to Roman power. However, the military situation in Germany was very different from what was suggested by imperial propaganda. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was appointed as the commander in Germany by Augustus in 6 BC, and three years later, in 3 BC, he reached and crossed the Elbe with his army. Under his command causeways were constructed across
975-597: The Cherusci, and he granted the tribe a free status among the German peoples. To keep an eye on the Cherusci, Tiberius had a winter base built on the Lippe. It was Roman opinion that by AD 6 the German tribes had largely been pacified, if not conquered. Only the Marcomanni , under king Maroboduus , remained to be subdued. Rome planned a massive pincer attack against them involving 12 legions from Germania , Illyricum , and Rhaetia , but when word of an uprising in Illyricum arrived
1040-537: The Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire . Tensions between the Germanic tribes and the Romans began as early as 17/16 BC with the Clades Lolliana , where the 5th Legion under Marcus Lollius was defeated by the tribes Sicambri , Usipetes , and Tencteri . Roman Emperor Augustus responded by rapidly developing military infrastructure across Gaul . His general, Nero Claudius Drusus , began building forts along
1105-460: The Germans, including a tax – what Augustus expected any governor of a subdued province to do. However, the Germanic tribes began rallying around a new leader, Arminius of the Cherusci. Arminius, who Rome considered an ally, and who had fought in the Roman army before. He accompanied Varus, who was in Germania with the Legions XVII , XVIII , and XIX to finish the conquest of Germania. Not much
1170-599: The Quinctilii Vari, had long been impoverished and was unimportant; Ronald Syme notes, "The sole and last consul of that family", Sextus Quinctilius, "had been two years antecedent to the Decemvirs " (i.e. 453 BC). His father, Sextus Quinctilius Varus , was a senator who had served as a quaestor in 49 BC. This Sextus aligned with the Senatorial Party in the civil war against Julius Caesar . Although Sextus survived
1235-561: The Rhine and made various excursions into enemy territory, moving with the same caution as Tiberius had the year before. The campaigns were conducted against the Bructeri and the Marsi to avenge the defeat of Varus, but had no significant effect. However, the campaign, combined with Rome's alliance to the Marcommanic federation of Marbod , prevented the Germanic coalition, led by Arminius, from crossing
1300-498: The Rhine in 17/16 BC, the tribes Sicambri , Usipetes , and Tencteri crossed the river and attacked a Roman cavalry unit. Unexpectedly, they came across the 5th Legion under Marcus Lollius , whom they defeated and whose eagle they captured. This defeat convinced Augustus to reorganize and improve the military presence in Gaul in order to prepare the region for campaigns across the Rhine. An attack soon after by Lollius and Augustus caused
1365-544: The Rhine to invade Gaul and Italy. In the winter of AD 12, Tiberius and Germanicus returned to Rome. Augustus appointed Germanicus commander of the forces in the Rhine the following year. In August AD 14, Augustus died and on 17 September the senate met to confirm Tiberius as princeps . Roman writers, including Tacitus and Cassius Dio, mention that Augustus left a statement ordering the end of imperial expansion. It's not known if Augustus actually made such an order, or if Tiberius found it necessary to stop Roman expansion as
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#17330863298541430-496: The Rhine to stabilize the frontier in AD 10. Tiberius increased the defensive capabilities of the Rhine fortifications and redistributed forces across the region. He began to improve discipline and led small attacks across the Rhine. Velleius reports Tiberius as having enormous success. He says Tiberius: penetrat interius, aperit limites, vastat agros, urit domos, fundit obvios maximaque cum gloria, incolumi omnium, quos transduxerat, numero in hiberna revertitur. penetrated into
1495-503: The Rhine's forces and waged two campaigns within Germania over the course of 8 and 7 BC. He marched his army between the Rhine and the Elbe, and met little resistance except from the Sicambri. Tiberius came close to exterminating the Sicambri, and had those who survived transported to the Roman side of the Rhine, where they could be watched more closely. Velleius Paterculus portrays Germany as essentially conquered, and Cassiodorus writing in
1560-570: The Rhine. Nero Claudius Drusus , an experienced general and stepson of Augustus, was made governor of Gaul in 13 BC. The following year saw an uprising in Gaul – a response to the Roman census and taxation policy set in place by Augustus. For most of the following year he conducted reconnaissance and dealt with supply and communications. He also had several forts built along the Rhine, including Argentoratum ( Strasburg , France), Moguntiacum ( Mainz , Germany), and Castra Vetera ( Xanten , Germany). Drusus first saw action following an incursion by
1625-648: The Roman Empire together with a shortening of its frontier line. They subdued several Germanic tribes, such as the Cherusci . In 6 AD, Tiberius declared Germania pacified, and Varus was appointed to govern it. Tiberius, who would later rule as emperor, left the region to suppress the Great Illyrian Revolt . Augustus made Publius Quinctilius Varus the first "officially appointed" governor of the newly created Roman province of Germania in 7 AD. In September 9 AD Varus
1690-479: The Sicambri and the Usipetes into Gaul, which he repelled before launching a retaliatory attack across the Rhine. This marked the beginning of Rome's 28 years of campaigns across the lower Rhine. He crossed the Rhine with his army and invaded the land of the Usipetes. He then marched north against the Sicambri and pillaged their lands. Travelling down the Rhine and landing in what is now the Netherlands , he conquered
1755-437: The attack was called off and concluded peace with Maroboduus, recognizing him as king. Part of the Roman strategy was to resettle troublesome tribal peoples, to move them to locations where Rome could keep better tabs on them and away from their regular allies. Tiberius resettled the Sicambri, who had caused particular problems for Drusus, in a new site west of the Rhine, where they could be watched more closely. Although it
1820-504: The bogs somewhere in the region between the Ems and the Rhine, called pontes longi . The next year, conflicts between the Rome and the Cherusci flared up. While the elite members of one faction sought stronger ties with Roman leaders, the Cherusci as a whole would continue to resist for the next twenty years. Although Ahenobarbus had marched to the Elbe and directed the construction of infrastructure in
1885-779: The cavalry, the Germanics came across the Roman governor Lollius and defeated him as well. They captured the eagle of the fifth legion . When Lollius and Augustus began to assemble armies, the Germanics retreated back to their own lands, made peace and gave hostages. Velleius Paterculus 2.97.1 Cassius Dio 54.20.4-5 This article about a battle or war of Ancient Roman history is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC %E2%80%93 AD 16) Gallic Wars (58 BC – 57 BC) Clades Lolliana (16 BC) Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) Marcomannic Wars (166–180) ( participating Roman units ) Roman campaigns in Germania during
1950-577: The costs were too great, both financially and militarily. About one-third of Rome's total military forces, eight legions, were stationed in the Rhine following their redeployment by Tiberius. Four were in lower Germany under Aulus Caecina (the 5th and 21st at Xanten; the 1st and 20th at or near Cologne). Another four were in upper Germany under Gaius Silius (the 2nd , 13th , 16th , and 14th ). Publius Quinctilius Varus Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) Publius Quinctilius Varus ( Cremona , 46 BC – near Kalkriese , AD 9)
2015-411: The defeat are scarce, due to the totality of the defeat, but Velleius Paterculus testifies that some Roman cavalrymen abandoned the infantry and fled towards the Rhine, but they were intercepted by the German tribesmen and killed. Varus himself, upon seeing all hope was lost, took his own life by falling on his sword. Arminius cut off his head and sent it to Bohemia as a present to King Marbod of
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2080-424: The defeat, it is unknown whether he was involved in the assassination of Julius Caesar . Sextus killed himself after the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. The mother of Varus is unknown; Syme notes that "no relatives on either side of the family can be discovered or surmised." Varus had three sisters, all named Quinctilia. They were probably all younger based on when they started having children, so it seems likely he
2145-512: The defeat. His son's ( the younger Varus ) chances for a political career were ruined. Tiberius himself fell under severe criticism for recommending Varus as the governor of Germania. Tiberius, according to Gaius Stern, was forced to sacrifice his friend and former brother-in-law to save his career. Furthermore, Varus himself had been one of the figures on the Ara Pacis , but the figure is lost today. Stern has proposed that common citizens vandalized
2210-400: The disease, most likely gangrene . When Augustus learned Drusus was sick, he sent Tiberius to quickly go to him. Ovid states Tiberius was at the city of Pavia at the time, and when he had learned of his brother's condition, he rode to be at his dying brother's side. He arrived in time, but it wasn't long before Drusus drew his last breath. After Drusus' death, Tiberius was given command of
2275-520: The end of the campaign season. In 9 BC, he began his fourth campaign, this time as consul. Despite bad omens, Drusus again attacked the Chatti and advanced as far as the territory of the Suebi , in the words of Cassius Dio , "conquering with difficulty the territory traversed and defeating the forces that attacked him only after considerable bloodshed." Afterwards, he once again attacked the Cherusci, and followed
2340-432: The front of the column was attacked. They heard loud shouting and spears began falling on them from the woody slope to their left. Spears then began falling from the woods to their right and the front fell into disorder from panic. The surrounded soldiers were unable to defend themselves because they were marching in close formation and the terrain was too muddy for them to move effectively. Within ten minutes, word reached
2405-446: The funeral eulogy alongside the future emperor Tiberius . With his political career thus boosted, he was elected consul in 13 BC as the colleague of Tiberius. Varus married Vipsania , daughter of Agrippa, at an unknown date before 13 BC. Varus became a personal friend to Marcus Agrippa and Tiberius. The historian Josephus says (in a section of his Antiquities whose manuscript tradition Walther John believed to be corrupt) that
2470-451: The heart of Germany. Scouts were sent ahead of Roman forces as the column approached Kalkriese . Scouts were local Germans as they would have had knowledge of the terrain, and so would had to have been a part of Arminius' ploy. Indeed, they reported that the path ahead was safe. Historians Wells and Abdale say that the scouts likely alerted the Germans to the advancing column, giving them time to get into position. The Roman column followed
2535-535: The heart of the country, opened up military roads, devastated fields, burned houses, routed those who came against him, and, without loss to the troops with which he had crossed, he returned, covered with glory, to winter quarters. According to Seager and Wells, Velleius' account is almost certainly an exaggeration. Seager says that Tiberius successfully applied tactics that he had developed in Illyricum, but that his attacks were "no more than punitive raids". Tiberius did not get far in his conquest of Germany, because he
2600-464: The historian Velleius Paterculus calls the "vast war". However, no account of this war exists. Vinicius must have performed well, for he was awarded the ornamenta triumphalia on his return to Rome. Again in AD 4, Augustus sent Tiberius to the Rhine frontier as the commander in Germany. He campaigned in northern Germany for the next two years. During the first year, he conquered the Canninefati ,
2665-468: The infrastructure, including those to the Roman road network in 20 BC by Aggripa. Rome increased its military presence along the Rhine and several forts were constructed there between 19 and 17 BC. Augustus thought that the future prosperity of the Empire depended on the expansion of its borders, and Germania had become the next target for imperial expansion. After capturing and executing Roman soldiers east of
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2730-399: The invaders to retreat back to Germania and sue for peace with Rome. From 16 to 13 BC, Augustus was active in Gaul. In preparation for the coming campaigns, Augustus established a mint at Lugdunum ( Lyon ) in Gaul, to supply a means of coining money to pay the soldiers, organized a census for collecting taxes from Gaul, and coordinated the establishment of military bases on the west bank of
2795-472: The latter's lead. Not only was Varus' trust in Arminius a terrible misjudgement, but Varus compounded it by placing his legions in a position where their fighting strengths would be minimized and those of the Germanic tribesmen maximized – because he expected no ambush and very little trouble in intimidating the rebels. Arminius and the Cherusci tribe along with other allies, had skillfully laid an ambush, and in
2860-590: The lost legions' eagles , one each under Germanicus in 15 AD, 16 AD and 42 AD. Due to the shame and the ill luck thought to be created by the Roman defeat, the XVII, XVIII and XIX legions never again appeared in the Roman Army's order of battle. The loss at the Teutoburg Forest was keenly felt by Augustus in his remaining years. According to the biographer Suetonius , upon hearing the news, Augustus tore his clothes, refused to cut his hair for months and, for years afterwards,
2925-481: The middle and rear of the column began to flee in all directions, but most of them were caught in the bog or killed. Varus realized the severity of his situation and killed himself with his sword. A few Romans survived and made their way back to the winter quarters at Xanten by staying hidden and carefully travelling through the forests. It had become clear that German lands had not been pacified. After word reached Rome of Varus' defeat, Augustus had Tiberius sent back to
2990-410: The middle of the column where Varus was. Communication was hampered by the column being packed densely in the narrow road. Not knowing the full extent of the attack, Varus ordered his forces to advance forward to reinforce his forces at the front. This pushed the soldiers at the front further into the enemy, and thousands of German warriors began to pour out of the woods to attack up close. The soldiers at
3055-427: The preceding years, a power struggle had resulted in the alliance of one party with Rome. In this tribe was a ruling lineage that played a critical role in forging this friendship between the Cherusci and Rome. Belonging to this elite clan, was the young Arminius , who was around twenty-two at the time. Membership in this clan gave him special favor with Rome. Tiberius lent support to this ruling clan to gain control over
3120-425: The region east of the Rhine, he did not do well against the Cherusci warrior bands, who he tried to handle like Tiberius had the Sicambri. Augustus recalled Ahenobarbus to Rome in 2 BC and replaced him with a more seasoned military commander, Marcus Vinicius . Between 2 BC and AD 4, Vinicius commanded the 5 legions stationed in Germany. At around the time of his appointment, many of the Germanic tribes arose in what
3185-455: The retreating Cherusci across the Weser River, and advanced as far as the Elbe, "pillaging everything in his way", as Cassius Dio puts it. Ovid states that Drusus extended Rome's dominion to new lands that had only been discovered recently. On his way back to the Rhine, Drusus fell from his horse and was badly wounded. His injury became seriously infected, and after thirty days, Drusus died from
3250-403: The return trip from his campaign, Varus' army was ambushed and almost destroyed by a Germanic force led by Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ; Arminius was the leader of the Cherusci , had previously fought in the Roman army, and was considered by Rome to be an ally. Roman expansion into Germania Magna stopped as a result, and all campaigns immediately after were in retaliation of
3315-500: The revolt believing that Arminius would ride ahead to garner the support of his tribesmen for the Roman cause. In reality, Arminius was actually preparing an ambush. Varus took no extra precautions on the march to quell the uprising, as he was expecting no trouble. Arminius' revolt came during the Pannonian revolt, at a time when the majority of Rome's legions were tied down in Illyricum. Varus only had three legions, which were isolated in
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#17330863298543380-410: The road going north until it began to wrap around a hill. The hill was to the west of the road and was wooded. There was boggy terrain all around the hill, woodland to the east, and a swamp to the north (out of sight of the Roman column until they reached the bend taking the road southwest around the hill's northeastern point). Roman forces continued along the sloshy sandbank at the base of the hill until
3445-474: The son of Varus, also named "Publius Quinctilius Varus", served under him during his command in Syria. If true, that son would have to be a son by a prior marriage and not the son by his last wife, Claudia Pulchra. It is possible that this son might have instead been an older son, Sextus Nonius Quinctilianus , who might have ended up adopted by his sister's husband after Varus and Vipsania died. That would explain why
3510-551: The terrain to harass them. He was made consul for the following year, and it was voted that the doors to the Temple of Janus be closed, a sign the empire was at peace. However, peace did not last, for in the spring of 10 BC, he once again campaigned across the Rhine and spent the majority of the year attacking the Chatti . In his third campaign, he conquered the Chatti and other German tribes, and then returned to Rome, as he had done before at
3575-544: The territory of the Cherusci, whose territory stretched from the Ems to the Elbe , and pushed as far east as the Weser. This was the furthest east into northern Europe that a Roman general had ever traveled, a feat which won him much renown. Between depleted supplies and the coming winter, he decided to march back to friendly territory. On the return trip, Drusus' legions were nearly destroyed at Arbalo by Cherusci warriors taking advantage of
3640-596: The uprisings in Gallia . During the Gallic uprisings, weapons were smuggled into Gaul across the Rhine from Germania to supply the insurrection. At the time, Rome's military presence in the Rhineland was small and its only military operations there were punitive expeditions against incursions. It was seen as more important to secure Gaul and wipe out any signs of resistance there. After Gaul had been pacified, improvements were made to
3705-419: Was a Roman general and politician under the first Roman emperor Augustus . Varus is generally remembered for having lost three Roman legions when ambushed by a coalition of Germanic tribes led by Arminius , the chieftain of the Cherusci tribe in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest , where he committed suicide to avoid capture and shameful reproach . Although he was a patrician by birth, his family,
3770-544: Was a battle in 16 BCE, when the consul Marcus Lollius was defeated by the Sicambri , Usipetes and Tencteri , Germanic tribes who had crossed the Rhine . This defeat is coupled by the historian Suetonius with the disaster of Publius Quinctilius Varus in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest . After capturing and crucifying Romans in their own lands, the three Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine and plundered Roman territory. Roman cavalry were ambushed and routed. While pursuing
3835-462: Was a grand-niece of Augustus. His marriage to Pulchra shows that Varus still enjoyed political favor. Pulchra bore Varus a son, also called Publius Quinctilius Varus . Through their son, they may have had further descendants. In 8–7 BC, Varus governed the province of Africa . Later he went to govern Syria and Judaea in the Levant from 7–6 BC until 4 BC with four legions under his command, where he
3900-453: Was assumed that the province of Germania Magna had been pacified, and Rome had begun integrating the region into the empire, there was a risk of rebellion during the military subjugation of a province. Following Tiberius's departure to Illyricum, Augustus appointed Publius Quinctilius Varus to the German command, as he was an experienced officer, but not the great military leader a serious threat would warrant. Varus imposed civic changes on
3965-411: Was born at least four years before his father's suicide. The fact that they had advantageous marriages indicates someone was involved in their upbringing. One sister married Publius Cornelius Dolabella , consul of 35 BC; another married Sextus Appuleius , consul of 29 BC; and the third married Lucius Nonius Asprenas , son of the consul of 36 BC. Despite his father's political allegiances, Varus became
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#17330863298544030-409: Was heard, upon occasion, to yell, "Quinctilius Varus, give me back my legions!" ( Quintili Vare, legiones redde! ). Roman historians referred to the battle as the clades Variana ("Varian disaster"). Gibbon describes Augustus' reaction to the defeat as one of the few times the normally stoic ruler lost his composure. Varus' political legacy in Rome was destroyed and the government blamed him for
4095-527: Was known for his harsh rule and high taxes. The Roman-Jewish historian Josephus mentions the swift action of Varus against a messianic revolt after the death of the Roman client king, Herod the Great in 4 BC. After occupying Jerusalem , he crucified 2000 Judeans , making him one of the prime objects of popular resentment against Rome in Judaea . Per archeological evidence, the people of Judaea begun en masse
4160-400: Was moving slowly as to not risk wasting lives. His advance was cautious and deliberate: he ravaged crops, burned dwellings, and dispersed the population. Suetonius reports that Tiberius' orders were given in writing and that he was to be consulted directly on any doubtful points. Tiberius was joined by his adoptive son Germanicus for the campaigns of AD 11 and 12. The two generals crossed
4225-599: Was preparing to leave his summer headquarters in Vetera (today Xanten ) and march three legions – the Seventeenth , Eighteenth , and Nineteenth – with him to Moguntiacum (modern-day Mainz ), when news arrived from the Germanic prince Arminius (a Roman citizen and leader of an auxiliary cavalry unit) of a growing revolt in the Rhine area to the West. Ignoring a warning from Segestes not to trust Arminius, Varus marched his forces behind
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