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108-668: The term first appears in a map of the Papal States , in which a land in Campagna e Marittima province is named Ciociarìa . The variant Cioceria has been used since the 18th century. The name comes from the derogatory term, in Roman dialect applied to some poor shepherds, because of their footwear, called in Roman dialect ciocie . These shoes, which were widespread among the poorest shepherds of much of Southern and Southeast Europe, are used today in

216-435: A " ciociaria tradition". These events include food fairs and music festivals, processions, performances of bands, palios and tournaments among the town's quarters. Even the local artisanal production, which has historical roots in the much older craftsmanship of Lazio , Campania and Abruzzo is often improperly associated by tourist organizations, promotional events or the press as part of this " ciociara tradition". Among

324-474: A Turkish designation. The word originated in the Maghrebi Arabic word Koum (قوم), which means "people". The non-specific designation "goumi" (French version "goumier") was used to circumvent tribal distinctions and enable volunteers from different regions to serve together in mixed units for a "common" cause. The president of Egypt Jamal Abdel Nasser also used the same designation (koum or koumia) to build

432-622: A bronze palm (for those who had been cited at the army level). A unit can be mentioned in Despatches. Its flag is then decorated with the corresponding Croix. After two citations in Army Orders, the men of the unit concerned are all entitled to wear a fourragère . In total, between 1942 and 1945, the Group of Tabors, Tabors and Goums earned the Croix de Guerre with bronze palm ( Army level) seventeen times and

540-534: A company of goumiers . It originates from the Arab Maghreb gūm and the Classical Arabic qawm , designating ”tribe” or ”people”. The term also refers to mounted contingents of Arab or Berber horsemen employed by tribal leaders during North African campaigns. The term tabor is originally a Turkish designation of tabur making reference to a battalion or by the intermediary Arab ṭābūr , also originally

648-521: A gradual revival of the pope's temporal power in the Papal States. Throughout the 16th century, virtually independent fiefs such as Rimini (a possession of the Malatesta family) were brought back under Papal control. In 1512 the state of the church annexed Parma and Piacenza, which in 1545 became an independent duchy under an illegitimate son of Pope Paul III . This process culminated in the reclaiming of

756-458: A joke.... No account of their rapes or their other acts is too eccentric to be passed off as true." In his book Up Front , American war cartoonist Bill Mauldin referred to the silent killing of one of a pair of sleeping soldiers (thus leaving one alive to awaken and find the other) as "an old Ghoum trick." The CEF executed 15 soldiers by firing squad and sentenced 54 others to hard labor in military prisons for acts of rape or murder. In 2015,

864-571: A number of Italian cities. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne ' Emperor of the Romans '. From the 9th century to the 12th century, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – was disputed. It was unclear whether the Papal States were a separate realm with

972-624: The Mehal-La Jalifiana was raised in Spanish Morocco using France's goumiers as a model. The Moroccan Goumiers did not see service outside Morocco during the First World War , although the term was sometimes used for detachments of Algerian spahi irregulars employed in Flanders in late 1914. Their existence did, however, enable General Hubert Lyautey to withdraw a substantial portion of

1080-638: The départements of Tibre and Trasimène . Following the fall of the First French Empire in 1814, the Congress of Vienna formally restored the Italian territories of the Papal States, but not the Comtat Venaissin or Avignon, to Vatican control. Upon restitution of sovereignty to the Papal States, Pius VII decided to abolish feudalism, transforming all the noble titles (temporarily abolished during

1188-583: The Arian suzerainty of Odoacer in 473, and in 493, Theodoric , king of the Ostrogoths . The Ostrogothic kings would continue to rule much of Italy until 554. The Roman Church submitted of necessity to their sovereign authority, while asserting its spiritual primacy over the whole of Christendom. Beginning in 535, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I launched a series of campaigns to wrest Italy from

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1296-626: The Byzantine emperors as their foremost temporal guardians for reasons such as increased imperial taxes, disagreement with respect to iconoclasm , and failure of the emperors, or their exarchs in Italy , to protect Rome and the rest of the peninsula from barbarian invasion and pillage. During the Renaissance , the papal territory expanded greatly, and the Pope became one of Italy's most important rulers as well as

1404-594: The Campagne and Maritime Province . Other titles like "Papal Vicar ", "Vicar General", and also several titles of nobility , such as "count" or even "prince" were used. However, throughout the history of the Papal States, many warlords and even bandit chieftains controlled cities and small duchies without having received any title from the Pope of the day. Historically the Papal States maintained military forces composed of volunteers , mercenaries (including Corsican Guard ) and Catholic military orders . Between 1860 and 1870

1512-577: The Duchy of Ferrara in 1598, and the Duchy of Urbino in 1631. At its greatest extent, in the 18th century, the Papal States included most of central Italy – Latium , Umbria , Marche , and the legations of Ravenna , Ferrara , and Bologna extending north into the Romagna . It also included the small enclaves of Benevento and Pontecorvo in southern Italy and the larger Comtat Venaissin around Avignon in southern France. The French Revolution affected

1620-559: The Duchy of Rome was completely cut off from the Byzantine Empire, of which it was theoretically still a part. The popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks . In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Short crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead King Childeric III . Zachary's successor, Pope Stephen II , later granted Pepin the title Patrician of

1728-600: The Kingdom of Italy . Only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Pope's temporal control. In 1870, the Pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, except the Leonine City within Rome, which the new Italian state refrained from occupying militarily, despite its annexation. In 1929, the Italian fascist leader Benito Mussolini , the head of the Italian government , ended

1836-650: The Manfredi in Faenza , and the Malatesta in Rimini all gave nominal acknowledgment to their papal overlords and were declared vicars of the Church. In Ferrara, the death of Azzo VIII d'Este without legitimate heirs (1308 ) encouraged Pope Clement V to bring Ferrara under his direct rule: however, it was governed by his appointed vicar, King Robert of Naples , for only nine years before

1944-662: The Ordelaffi of Forlì, the Montefeltro of Urbino and the da Polenta of Ravenna , and against the cities of Senigallia and Ancona . The last holdouts against full Papal control were Giovanni Manfredi of Faenza and Francesco II Ordelaffi of Forlì. Albornoz, at the point of being recalled, in a meeting with all the Papal vicars on 29 April 1357, promulgated the Constitutiones Sanctæ Matris Ecclesiæ , which replaced

2052-556: The Province of Frosinone ) reported that in his town, 700 women out of 2,500 inhabitants were raped and that some had died as a result. In northern Latium and southern Tuscany , it is alleged that the Goumiers raped and occasionally killed women and young men after the Germans retreated, including members of partisan formations . A British journalist commented, "The Goums have become a legend,

2160-575: The Second French Empire at the Battle of Sedan deprived Rome of its French protector. King Victor Emmanuel II at first aimed at a peaceful conquest of the city and proposed sending troops into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the pope. When the pope refused, Italy declared war on 10 September 1870, and the Italian Army, commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna , crossed the frontier of

2268-650: The State of the Church (Italian: Stato della Chiesa [ˈstaːto della ˈkjɛːza] ; Latin: Status Ecclesiasticus ), were a conglomeration of territories on the Italian Peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the Pope from 756 to 1870. They were among the major states of Italy from the 8th century until the Unification of Italy , which took place between 1859 and 1870, and culminated in their demise. The state

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2376-515: The armistice of 1940 , the Goums were returned to Morocco. To evade strict German limits on how many troops France could maintain in North Africa, the Goumiers were described as having Gendarmerie -type functions, such as maintenance of public order and the surveillance of frontiers, while maintaining military armament, organization, and discipline. The 1st GSM (Groupe de Supplétifs Marocains) fought on

2484-715: The " Prisoner in the Vatican " problem involving a unified Italy and the Holy See by negotiating the Lateran Treaty , signed by the two parties. This treaty recognized the sovereignty of the Holy See over a newly created territorial entity, a city-state within Rome limited to a token territory which became the Vatican City . The Papal States were also known as the Papal State (although

2592-541: The "rule by harlots". In practice, the popes were unable to exercise effective sovereignty over the extensive and mountainous territories of the Papal States, and the region preserved its old system of government, with many small countships and marquisates, each centred upon a fortified rocca . Over several campaigns in the mid-10th century, the German ruler Otto I conquered northern Italy; Pope John XII crowned him emperor (the first so crowned in more than forty years) and

2700-624: The 1st and 4th Groups took part in the fighting to seize Pforzheim . During the last weeks of the war, the 2nd Group fought in the Black Forest and pushed southeast to Germany's Austrian border. During the same period, the 1st and 4th Groups advanced with other French forces on Stuttgart and Tübingen . The 3rd (3e Tabor Marocain) occupied an area between Stuttgart and Tübingen from about April 20, 1945. When they got to Waldenbuch, they entered every house and raped and plundered. Some women were badly injured. Pastor Pfäfflin managed to get them to

2808-868: The Algerians returned to their homeland, but the advantages of indigenous irregulars were such that they were replaced by Moroccan levies. Retaining the designation of goumiers, the Moroccans served in detachments under French officers, and initially mostly Algerian NCOs, both of whom were usually seconded from the Spahis and Tirailleurs. Moroccan sous-officers were in due course appointed. These semi-permanently employed Moroccan goumiers were initially raised as six separate detachments of local militia by General Albert D'Amade in 1908, to patrol recently-occupied areas. Goumiers also served as scouts and in support of regular French troops, and in 1911 they became permanent units. Nominally,

2916-606: The Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south were both restored. Popular opposition to the reconstituted and corrupt clerical government led to revolts in 1830 and in 1848 , which were suppressed by the intervention of the Austrian army. The nationalist and liberal revolutions of 1848 affected much of Europe. In February 1849 a Roman Republic was declared, and the hitherto liberally-inclined Pope Pius IX had to flee

3024-709: The Croix de Guerre with silver gilt star ( corps level) nine times: In 1945, the Goumiers received their first flag, from Charles de Gaulle . In 1952 this standard was awarded the Legion of Honour , the highest decoration in France. A scene in which women are raped by goumiers during the 1944 Italian Campaign of World War II has a key role in Alberto Moravia 's 1958 novel Two Women (Orig. title in Italian La Ciociara ) and

3132-758: The French Army of Africa. This had initially been a political subterfuge, since following the Algeciras Conference of 1906, France had undertaken not to recruit regular Moroccan troops while the Sultan remained nominal ruler of the country. With the outbreak of World War I this restraint was lifted and the French enlisted large numbers of regular Moroccan tirailleurs, spahis and artillerymen. The goumiers had however proven so valuable as auxiliaries that they continued their dual roles as tribal police and combat troops. Initially,

3240-664: The Germans began staging major retreats away from the known presence of Goumiers. The Italian campaign of World War II is perhaps the most famous and most controversial in the history of the Goumiers. The 4th Group of Moroccan Tabors shipped out for Italy in November 1943 and was followed in January 1944 by the 3rd Group, then reinforced by the 1st Group in April 1944. A total of 73,000 Moroccans (both auxiliary Goumiers and regular Tirailleurs) served in Italy during 1943-45. All were volunteers under

3348-593: The Goumiers and the Moroccan regulars of the Tirailleur units: During their fighting in the Italian Campaign, the Goumiers suffered 3,000 casualties, of which 600 were killed in action. The military achievements of the Goumiers in Italy were accompanied by widespread reports of war crimes: "...exceptional numbers of Moroccans were executed—many without trial—for allegedly murdering, raping, and pillaging their way across

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3456-487: The Goums were incorporated into the new Royal Army of Morocco . Following negotiations between the French, Spanish and Moroccan governments, it was agreed that both regular and auxiliary Moroccan units could be transferred into the new Forces Armées Royales or FAR. Fourteen thousand Moroccan personnel were accordingly transferred from French service. The modern Moroccan military includes Auxiliary Force Companies. have an overlapping rural policing role and are in that sense

3564-537: The Great , promulgated in 321, allowed the Christian Church to possess property and restored to it any property formerly confiscated; in the larger cities of this empire the property restored would have been quite considerable, the Roman patrimony not least among them. The Lateran Palace was gifted to the patrimony, most probably from Constantine himself. Other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in

3672-836: The Hospital in Tübingen . The pastor wrote a protest note to the International Red Cross. After the total surrender of Germany on 8 May 1945, a military government was established in Stuttgart. This ended the rape and pillaging. By mid-1946, all three groups had been repatriated to Morocco. Goumier casualties in World War II from 1942 to 1945 totaled 8,018, of which 1,625 were killed in action. Following World War II Moroccan goumiers saw service in French Indo-China from June 1949 until

3780-565: The Italian Kingdom, especially any proposal which required the Pope to become an Italian subject. Instead, the papacy confined itself (see Prisoner in the Vatican ) to the Apostolic Palace and adjacent buildings in the loop of the ancient fortifications known as the Leonine City , on Vatican Hill . From there it maintained a number of features pertaining to sovereignty, such as diplomatic relations since in canon law these were inherent in

3888-408: The Italian State and gave rise to the myth of the Breach of Porta Pia , in reality, a tame affair involving a cannonade at close range that demolished a 1600-year-old wall in poor repair. The defence of Rome was not however bloodless, with 12 dead and 47 wounded amongst the Papal forces and 32 dead plus 145 wounded of the Italian troops. Pope Pius IX ordered the commander of the Papal forces to limit

3996-435: The Italian countryside. The French authorities sought to defuse the problem by importing numbers of Berber women to serve as " camp followers " in rear areas set aside exclusively for the Goumiers." According to Italian sources, more than 7,000 people were raped by Goumiers. Those rapes, later known in Italy as Marocchinate , were against women, children and men, including some priests. The mayor of Esperia (a comune in

4104-416: The Italian state recognized compensation for a victim of these events. In September 1943 the 2nd Group of Moroccan Tabors participated in the liberation of Corsica , and fought the Germans in the mountains near Bastia , by Cape Corse. [2] The 2nd Group of Moroccan Tabors was part of the French Forces that took Elba from the Germans in June 1944. The operation was called Operation Brassard . The island

4212-454: The Italian territory recently regained by Byzantium. By the 7th century, Byzantine authority was largely limited to a diagonal band running roughly from Ravenna , where the emperor's vicar, or exarch , was located, to Rome and south to Naples , plus coastal exclaves. North of Naples, the band of Byzantine control contracted, and the borders of the "Rome-Ravenna corridor" became extremely narrow. With effective Byzantine power weighted at

4320-482: The Moroccan Goums wore tribal dress with only blue cloaks as uniform items, but as they achieved permanent status they adopted the distinctive brown and grey striped jellaba (a hooded Moroccan cloak) that was to remain their trademark throughout their history with the French Army. Their normal headdress was a turban . Goums included both infantry and cavalry elements. Their traditional and favoured weapons were sabres or elongated daggers . An equivalent force known as

4428-430: The Napoleonic occupation) into honorifics disconnected from territorial privileges. In 1853, Pius IX put an end to the centuries-old duality between the Papal nobility and the Roman baronial families by equating the civic patriciate of the city of Rome with the nobility created by the Pope. From 1814 until the death of Pope Gregory XVI in 1846, the popes followed a reactionary policy in the Papal States. For instance,

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4536-417: The Ostrogoths which continued until 554 and devastated Italy's political and economic structures. Justinian established the Exarchate of Ravenna of which the Duchy of Rome , an area roughly coterminous with modern day Lazio , was an administrative division. In 568 the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north, establishing their own Italian kingdom, and over the next two centuries would conquer most of

4644-533: The Papal Army ( Esercito Pontificio in Italian) comprised two regiments of locally recruited Italian infantry, two Swiss regiments and a battalion of Irish volunteers , plus artillery and dragoons . In 1861 an international Catholic volunteer corps, called Papal Zouaves after a kind of French colonial native Algerian infantry, and imitating their uniform type, was created. Predominantly made up of Dutch, French and Belgian volunteers, this corps saw service against Garibaldi 's Redshirts , Italian patriots, and finally

4752-399: The Papal States, along with the rest of the Italian principalities, were effectively independent. From 1305 to 1378, the popes lived in the papal enclave of Avignon , surrounded by Provence and under the influence of the French kings. This period was known as the "Avignonese" or "Babylonian Captivity". During this period the city of Avignon itself and the surrounding Comtat Venaissin

4860-430: The Papal States, and in February 1798 General Louis-Alexandre Berthier declared a Roman Republic . Pope Pius VI fled from Rome to Siena and died in exile in Valence in 1799. In October 1799, Neapolitan troops under King Ferdinant invaded the newfound republic and restored Papal States, ending the republic. The French quickly drove the Neapolitans out and reoccupied the Papal States, but didn't bother restoring

4968-401: The Papal territory expanded greatly, notably under Popes Alexander VI and Julius II . The Pope became one of Italy's most important secular rulers as well as the head of the Church, signing treaties with other sovereigns and fighting wars. In practice, though, most of the Papal States were still only nominally controlled by the Pope, and much of the territory was ruled by minor princes. Control

5076-447: The Pope as their sovereign ruler, or a part of the Frankish Empire over which the popes had administrative control, as suggested in the late-9th-century treatise Libellus de imperatoria potestate in urbe Roma , or whether the Holy Roman emperors were vicars of the Pope ruling Christendom , with the Pope directly responsible only for the environs of Rome and spiritual duties. The Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed when it

5184-455: The Protestants, troops loyal to Emperor Charles V brutally sacked Rome and imprisoned Pope Clement VII , as a side effect of battles over the Papal States. Thus Clement VII was forced to give up Parma , Modena , and several smaller territories. A generation later the armies of King Philip II of Spain defeated those of Pope Paul IV in the Italian War of 1551–1559 , fought to prevent growing Spanish dominance in Italy. This period saw

5292-442: The Romans . Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, defeated the Lombards, thus taking control of northern Italy, and made a gift of the lands formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. In 781, Charlemagne codified the regions over which the pope would be temporal sovereign: the Duchy of Rome, Ravenna, the Duchy of the Pentapolis , parts of the Duchy of Benevento , Tuscany , Corsica , Lombardy , and

5400-415: The Tunisian front as part of the Moroccan March Division from December 1942, and was joined by the 2nd GSM in January 1943. The 15th Army Group commander, British General Harold Alexander considered the French Moroccan Goumiers as "great fighters" and gave them to the allies to help them to take Bizerte and Tunis . After the Tunisia Campaign , the French organized two additional groups and retitled

5508-451: The Vosges Mountains and the Colmar Pocket , the 3rd Group was repatriated to Morocco in April 1945. It was replaced in Europe by the 4th Group, which had returned to North Africa after French forces left Italy. [3] The 1st, 2nd, and 4th Groups of Moroccan Tabors fought in the final operations to overrun southwestern Germany in 1945. The 1st Group fought through the Siegfried Line in the Bienwald from 20 to 25 March 1945. In April 1945,

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5616-418: The administration of the church from imperial interference, the independence of the Papal States increased in importance. After the extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty , the German emperors rarely interfered in Italian affairs. In response to the struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines , the Treaty of Venice made official the independence of the Papal States from the Holy Roman Empire in 1177. By 1300,

5724-518: The best known objects in the artisanal production of the areas south east of Rome that are arbitrarily associated to this recent term there are copper amphoras (called "conca"); wicker and "vinchio" (marshy grass that grows on the slopes of the Aurunci Mounts) woven in the shape of baskets; terracotta amphorae, called "cannate", terracotta jugs made in Aquino and Fiuggi ; gold and coral jewellery produced in Alatri , Anagni , Fiuggi , Veroli ; works in copper and wrought iron; embroideries , like

5832-426: The brigands of Sabina and not of Lazio. The correct geographic term for the northern area of the province of Frosinone is Valle del Sacco (or Middle Valle Latina (Latin Valley)). The area inhabited by the Hernici was known in Latin as ager Hernicus . Except for the fascist propaganda of the time, most scholars believe that the toponym Ciociaria was originally widespread only in Roman popular culture and among

5940-452: The citizens recalled the Este from exile (1317). Interdiction and excommunications were in vain because in 1332, John XXII was obliged to name three Este brothers as his vicars in Ferrara. In Rome itself, the Orsini and the Colonna struggled for supremacy, dividing the city's rioni between them. The resulting aristocratic anarchy in the city provided the setting for the fantastic dreams of universal democracy of Cola di Rienzo , who

6048-401: The city of Rome maintained the last Jewish ghetto in Western Europe. Italian nationalism had been stoked during the Napoleonic period but dashed by the settlement of the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which sought to restore the pre-Napoleonic conditions: most of northern Italy was under the rule of junior branches of the Habsburgs and the Bourbons . The Papal States in central Italy and

6156-405: The city. The revolution was suppressed with French help in 1849 and Pius IX switched to a conservative line of government. Until his return to Rome in 1850, the Papal States were governed by a group of cardinals known as the Red Triumvirate . As a result of the Second Italian War of Independence , Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy , while Giuseppe Garibaldi overthrew the Bourbon monarchy in

6264-524: The combat to liberate Marseille from 20 to 28 August 1944. The 1st Group was subsequently used to secure France's Alpine frontier with Italy until late October 1944, and then took part in the forcing of the Belfort Gap in November. During late September and early October 1944, the 2nd and 3rd Groups fought in the areas of Remiremont and Gérardmer . All three groups fought in the Vosges Mountains during November and December 1944, facing extremely cold weather and bitter German resistance. After hard fighting in

6372-465: The defence of the city in order to avoid bloodshed. The city was captured on 20 September 1870. Rome and what was left of the Papal States were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy as a result of a plebiscite the following October. This marked the definitive end of the Papal States. Despite the fact that the traditionally Catholic powers did not come to the Pope's aid, the papacy rejected the 1871 " Law of Guarantees " and any substantial accommodation with

6480-432: The eastern two-thirds of the Papal States, cementing its hold on the south. Bologna, Ferrara, Umbria, the Marches, Benevento and Pontecorvo were all formally annexed by November of the same year. While considerably reduced, the Papal States nevertheless still covered the Latium and large areas northwest of Rome. A unified Kingdom of Italy was declared and in March 1861 the first Italian parliament , which met in Turin ,

6588-406: The embroidered towels and tablecloths of Veroli and Boville Ernica and the religious vestments produced in Anagni . The day following the Battle of Monte Cassino , Goumiers rampaged through the surrounding countryside committing mass rape in Southern Lazio. Victims of such crimes became known in Italy as marocchinate , literally translatable as "Moroccaned". Alberto Moravia wrote

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6696-428: The fall of Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Stationed in the northern frontier zone of Tonkin, the goumier units were used mainly for convoy escort and quadrillage de zone (regional search and destroy) duties. By contrast with the regular Moroccan tirailleurs , who enlisted for fixed terms of service, the goumiers were contracted to serve specifically in Indo-China for the period of hostilities only. As in previous campaigns,

6804-489: The first half of the 20th century, goumiers were employed as auxiliaries by the French Army in Italy during World War II. These irregular infantry came from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco where they were recruited from the indigenous Berber tribes. The designation of "goumiers" was originally given to tribal irregulars employed as allies by the French Army in southern Algeria. These mounted auxiliaries operated under their own tribal leadership and were entirely distinct from

6912-470: The forces of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany during 1942–1945. Goumier units were also used to man the front lines in mountainous and other rough terrain areas, freeing regular Allied infantry units to operate along more profitable axes of advance. In May 1940, 12 Moroccan Goums were organized as the 1st Group of Moroccan Auxiliaries (French: 1 Groupe de Supplétifs Marocains – G.S.M.) and used in combat against Italian troops operating out of Libya . After

7020-425: The forces of the newly united Italy. The Papal Army was disbanded in 1870, leaving only the Palatine Guard , which was itself disbanded on 14 September 1970 by Pope Paul VI ; the Noble Guard , which also disbanded in 1970; and the Swiss Guard , which continues to serve both as a ceremonial unit at the Vatican and as the Pope's protective force. A small Papal Navy was also maintained, based at Civitavecchia on

7128-471: The goumiers were organised in battalion sized Tabors, each comprising several Goums or companies. The proportion of French officers to Moroccan other ranks was low, with normally only two in each company. Locally recruited Indochinese auxiliaries were attached to each Tabor as reconnaissance units. Brigaded for administrative purposes in the Groupement de Tabors Marocain d'Extreme Orient there were, at any one time, usually three Tabors serving in Indochina during

7236-417: The goumiers were under the control of the Sultan of Morocco , but in practice, they formed an extension of the French Army and subsequently fought for France in third countries (see below). However, their biggest involvement was in Morocco itself during the period of French "pacification". As noted below, the goum units had the formal status of local police, though they fought and served as an integral part of

7344-463: The groups as Groupement de Tabors Marocains (G.T.M.) Each group contained a command Goum (company) and three Tabors (battalions) of three Goums each. A Tabor contained four 81-mm mortars and totalled 891 men. Each infantry Goum was authorized 210 men, one 60-mm mortar, two light machine guns, and seven automatic rifles. Separate from the groups, the 14th Tabor did not participate in the fighting in Europe and remained in Morocco to keep public order for

7452-420: The head of Western Christianity . At their zenith, the Papal States covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio (which includes Rome ), Marche , Umbria , Romagna and portions of Emilia . The popes' reign over these lands was an exemplification of their temporal powers as secular rulers, as opposed to their ecclesiastical primacy. By 1860, much of the Papal States' territory had been conquered by

7560-410: The intellectuals who disseminated its traditions, and therefore insignificant outside the borders of the Papal State : the term does not appear in any document of the Kingdom of Naples or the Two Sicilies to indicate the Liri Valley or the territory of Fondi , nor is the adjective ciociaro used to designate a population or a culture in the Neapolitan state. From the second post-war period, however,

7668-413: The mosaic of local law and accumulated traditional 'liberties' with a uniform code of civil law. These Constitutiones Aegidianae (as they are informally known) mark a watershed in the legal history of the Papal States; they remained in effect until 1816. Pope Urban V ventured a return to Italy in 1367 that proved premature; he returned to Avignon in 1370 just before his death. During the Renaissance ,

7776-630: The name used varied with the preferences and habits of the European languages in which it was expressed. For its first 300 years, within the Roman Empire , the Church was persecuted and unable to hold or transfer property. Early congregations met in rooms set aside for the purpose in the homes of wealthy adherents, and a number of titular churches located on the outskirts of Rome were held as property by individuals, rather than by any corporate body. Nonetheless,

7884-423: The new United Arab Republic. In French military terminology, a goum was a unit of 200 auxiliaries. Three or four goums made up a tabor . An engine or groupe was composed of three tabors. A goum in this case was the equivalent of a company in regular military units and a tabor would thereby be equivalent to a battalion. A tabor was the largest permanent goumier unit. In addition to colonial campaigns during

7992-514: The northeast end of this territory, the pope, as the largest landowner and most prestigious figure in Italy, began by default to take on much of the ruling authority that the Byzantines were unable to exercise in the areas surrounding the city of Rome. While the popes legally remained "Roman subjects" under Byzantine authority, in practice the Duchy of Rome became an independent state. Popular support for

8100-517: The novel La ciociara on the event, which was made into a successful 1960 movie directed by Vittorio de Sica starring Sophia Loren and a 2015 opera by Marco Tutino . This further contributed to the spread of the term that is indeed often associated with these war crimes. [REDACTED] Media related to Ciociaria at Wikimedia Commons Papal States The Papal States ( / ˈ p eɪ p ə l / PAY -pəl ; Italian : Stato Pontificio ; Latin : Dicio Pontificia ), officially

8208-571: The old capital of Piedmont, declared Rome the capital of the new kingdom. However, the Italian government could not take possession of the city because a French garrison in Rome protected Pope Pius IX. The opportunity for the Kingdom of Italy to eliminate the Papal States came in 1870; the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in July prompted Napoleon III to recall his garrison from Rome and the collapse of

8316-474: The orders of General Alphonse Juin . "Here the Goums more than proved their value as light, highly mobile mountain troops who could penetrate the most vertical terrain in fighting order and with a minimum of logistical requirements. Most military analysts consider the Goumiers' manoeuvre as the critical victory that finally opened the way to the Italian capital of Rome ." [1] The U.S. Fifth Army commander, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark , also paid tribute to

8424-523: The papacy. In the 1920s, the papacy – then under Pius XI – renounced the bulk of the Papal States. The Lateran Treaty with Italy (then ruled by the National Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini ) was signed on 11 February 1929, creating the State of the Vatican City , forming the sovereign territory of the Holy See , which was also indemnified to some degree for loss of territory. As

8532-461: The papal territory on September 11 and advanced slowly toward Rome. The Italian Army reached the Aurelian Walls on September 19 and placed Rome under a state of siege. Although the Pope's tiny army was incapable of defending the city, Pius IX ordered it to put up more than token resistance to emphasize that Italy was acquiring Rome by force and not consent. This incidentally served the purposes of

8640-821: The plural is usually preferred, the singular is equally correct as the polity was more than a mere personal union ). The territories were also referred to variously as the State(s) of the Church , the Pontifical States , the Ecclesiastical States , the Patrimony of St Peter or the Roman States ( Italian : Stato Pontificio , also Stato della Chiesa , Stati della Chiesa , Stati Pontifici , and Stato Ecclesiastico ; Latin : Status Pontificius , also Dicio Pontificia "papal rule"). To some extent

8748-458: The plural name Papal States indicates, the various regional components retained their identity under papal rule. The Pope was represented in each province by a governor, who bore one of a number of titles. These included " papal legate ", as in the former principality of Benevento , or at Bologna , in Romagna , and the March of Ancona ; and " papal delegate ", as in the former Duchy of Pontecorvo and in

8856-585: The pope relied mainly on diplomacy to achieve as much. In practice, these papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch and Ravenna. A climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries contained in the Lombardic King Liutprand 's Donation of Sutri (728) to Pope Gregory II . When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751,

8964-571: The popes in Italy enabled several to defy the will of the Byzantine emperor: Pope Gregory II excommunicated Emperor Leo III during the Iconoclastic Controversy . Nevertheless, the Pope and the exarch still worked together to limit the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the papacy assumed an ever-larger role in protecting Rome from the Lombards, but lacking direct control over sizable military assets,

9072-500: The property held nominally or actually by individual members of the Roman churches would usually be treated as a common patrimony handed over successively to the legitimate "heir" of that property, often its senior deacons , who were, in turn, assistants to the local bishop. This common patrimony became quite considerable, including as it did not only houses etc. in Rome or nearby but also landed estates, such as latifundia , whole or in part, across Italy and beyond. A law of Constantine

9180-456: The province of Frosinone only by folklore groups and for touristic initiatives. Since, until the Fascist era, there were no official publications that imposed the term on the territories of the current province of Frosinone, the term, however rare, was used during the nineteenth century in a rather varied way with respect to geographical areas. In 1861, Franco Mistrali applied the term for example to

9288-590: The provinces of the Roman Empire. However, the Roman Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, not as a sovereign entity. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the papacy found itself increasingly placed in a precarious and vulnerable position. As central Roman authority disintegrated throughout the late 5th century, control over the Italian peninsula repeatedly changed hands, falling under

9396-466: The realist and neorealist literary topos , the search for a common Christian Democratic political identity in southern Lazio and in part the suppression of the ecclesiastical province of Capua with the annexation of the dioceses of Monte Cassino , Aquino and Atina to the Roman ecclesiastical province, were the cultural factors that favored, in the common opinion, the spread of that point of view according to which this undefined and non-geographic term to

9504-512: The rebirth of ancient Rome was one that would not prevail." The Rienzo episode engendered renewed attempts from the absentee papacy to re-establish order in the dissolving Papal States, resulting in the military progress of Cardinal Albornoz , who was appointed papal legate, and his condottieri heading a small mercenary army. Having received the support of the archbishop of Milan, Giovanni Visconti , he defeated Giovanni di Vico , lord of Viterbo , moving against Galeotto Malatesta of Rimini and

9612-469: The regular French military forces from Morocco for service on the Western Front . By 1924 twenty-seven Goum units were in the French service. They comprised mixed detachments of about three-quarters infantry and one-quarter cavalry. Together with partisan tribal irregulars the goumiers numbered about 10,000 men. French officers and NCOs continued to be seconded from regular units. Remaining separate from

9720-580: The regular Moroccan regiments of the French Armée d'Afrique , the Goumiers gave valuable service during the Rif Wars of the 1920s. They subsequently became a form of gendarmerie , keeping order in rural districts of Morocco. Four Moroccan groups ( regimental -sized units, about 12 000 men in total) served with the Allied forces during World War II . They specialised in night raiding operations, and fought against

9828-643: The regular Muslim cavalry ( Spahi ) and infantry ( Tirailleur ) regiments of the French Armée d'Afrique. After 1870 the Algerian goums were replaced by the permanent indigenous corps. Subsequently, tribal police auxiliaries serving with the French gendarmerie in the settled areas of Morocco were also known as goumiers. Algerian goumiers were employed during the initial stages of the French intervention in Morocco, commencing in 1908. After their terms of enlistment expired,

9936-543: The remainder of the war. The 4th Tabor of Moroccan Goums fought in the Sicilian Campaign , landing at Licata on 14 July 1943, and was attached to the U.S. Seventh Army , commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton . The Goumiers of the 4th Tabor were attached to the U.S. 1st Infantry Division on 27 July 1943 and were recorded in the U.S. 26th Infantry Regiment's log files for their courage. Upon their arrival many Italian soldiers surrendered en masse, while

10044-536: The republic, as they continued their invasion to Naples, where they established another republic . In June 1800, French Consulate formally concluded the occupation and restored the Papal States, with the newly elected Pope Pius VII taking residence in Rome. Yet, in 1808 the French Empire under Napoleon invaded again, and this time on 17 May 1809 the remainder of the States of the Church were annexed to France, forming

10152-859: The service of the Sultan of Morocco , they served under French officers, including a period as part of the Free French Forces . Employed initially as tribal irregulars, then in regular contingents, the goumiers were employed extensively during the French occupation of Morocco from 1908 to the early 1930s. They then served in North Africa, Italy, and France during World War II between 1942 and 1945. During this period four Moroccan tabor groups (groupes de tabors marocains - GTM) were created, each comprising three tabors (battalions), and each tabor comprising three or four goums (companies). Goumiers subsequently served in Indochina from 1946 to 1954. The term goum designated

10260-504: The south reaches the Garigliano (including according to some even the Lazio coast  [ it ] ). On the basis of the above, various local institutions periodically organize various folkloristic events that recall the aforementioned clichés with respect to the clothing, religious initiatives and traditions of the territories of the valle del Sacco , considering them as manifestations of

10368-462: The south. Afraid that Garibaldi would set up a republican government, the Piedmontese government petitioned French Emperor Napoleon III for permission to send troops through the Papal States to gain control of the south. This was granted on the condition that Rome be left undisturbed. In 1860, with much of the region already in rebellion against Papal rule, Piedmont-Sardinia invaded and conquered

10476-404: The successors of the Goumiers. In France , citations made during World War I, World War II or colonial conflicts were accompanied with awards of a Croix de Guerre (Cross of War) with attachments on the ribbon depending on the degree of citation: the lowest being represented by a bronze star (for those who had been cited at the regiment or brigade level) while the highest degree is represented by

10584-633: The temporal territories of the Papacy as well as the Roman Church in general. In 1791 an election in Comtat Venaissin and Avignon was followed by occupation by Revolutionary France. Later, with the French invasion of Italy in 1796, the Legations (the Papal States' northern territories ) were seized and became part of the Cisalpine Republic . Two years later, French forces invaded the remaining area of

10692-699: The terms of the agreement establishing the Protectorate in 1912. In Italy, the Allies suffered a long stalemate at the German Gustav Line . In May 1944, three Goumier groupes, under the name Corps de Montagne , were the vanguard of the French Expeditionary Corps 's attack, through the Aurunci Mountains during Operation Diadem , the fourth and final Battle of Monte Cassino . The corps was under

10800-540: The two of them ratified the Diploma Ottonianum , by which the emperor became the guarantor of the independence of the Papal States. Yet over the next two centuries, popes and emperors squabbled over a variety of issues, and the German rulers routinely treated the Papal States as part of their realms on those occasions when they projected power into Northern and Central Italy. As the Gregorian Reform worked to free

10908-481: The war against the Viet Minh. In October 1950 the 11e Tabor was overrun at Na Kheo, with only 369 survivors out of 924 goumiers and French officers. During this, their final campaign in French service, the goumiers continued, at least for parade and in cold weather, to wear the distinctive flat-topped turbans and brown-striped djellabas that had distinguished these units since 1911. With Moroccan independence in 1956,

11016-469: The west coast and Ancona on the east. With the fall of the Papal States in 1870, the last ships of the flotilla were sailed to France, where they were sold after the death of Pius IX. Goumier The Moroccan Goumiers ( French : Les Goumiers Marocains ) were indigenous Moroccan soldiers who served in auxiliary units attached to the French Army of Africa , between 1908 and 1956. While nominally in

11124-512: Was acclaimed Tribune of the People in 1347, and met a violent death in early October 1354 as he was assassinated by supporters of the Colonna family. To many, rather than an ancient Roman tribune reborn, he had become just another tyrant using the rhetoric of Roman renewal and rebirth to mask his grab for power. As Guido Ruggiero states, "even with the support of Petrarch , his return to first times and

11232-663: Was added to the Papal States; it remained a papal possession for some 400 years even after the popes returned to Rome, until it was seized and incorporated into the French state during the French Revolution . During the Avignon Papacy , local despots took advantage of the absence of the popes to establish themselves in nominally papal cities: the Pepoli in Bologna, the Ordelaffi in Forlì ,

11340-471: Was always contested; indeed it took until the 16th century for the Pope to have any genuine control over all his territories. Papal responsibilities were often in conflict. The Papal States were involved in at least three wars in the first two decades of the 16th century. Julius II, the "Warrior Pope", fought on their behalf. The Reformation began in 1517. In 1527, before the Holy Roman Empire fought

11448-419: Was legally established in the 8th century when Pepin the Short , king of the Franks , gifted Pope Stephen II , as a temporal sovereign, lands formerly held by Arian Lombards , adding them to lands and other real estate formerly acquired and held by the bishops of Rome, as landlords , from the time of Constantine onward. This donation came about as part of a process whereby the popes began to turn away from

11556-426: Was more heavily defended than expected, and there were many casualties on both sides as a result of the severe fighting. The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Groups of Moroccan Tabors fought in the campaigns in southern France, Vosges Mountains , and Alsace during late 1944 and early 1945. The Goumiers started landing in southern France on 18 August 1944. Attached to the 3rd Algerian Infantry Division, all three groups took part in

11664-508: Was subdivided among Charlemagne 's grandchildren. Imperial power in Italy waned and the papacy's prestige declined. This led to a rise in the power of the local Roman nobility, and the control of the Papal States during the early 10th century passed to a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti . This period was later dubbed the Saeculum obscurum ("dark age"), and sometimes as

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