103-407: Subfamily Afrociminae Subfamily Cimicinae Subfamily Cacodminae Subfamily Haematosiphoninae Subfamily Latrocimicinae Subfamily Primicimicinae The Cimicidae are a family of small parasitic bugs that feed exclusively on the blood of warm-blooded animals. They are called cimicids or, loosely, bed bugs, though the latter term properly refers to the most well-known member of
206-442: A taxonomic rank ; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain , kingdom , phylum ( division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum ), class , order , family , genus , and species . The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed
309-469: A basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress
412-552: A chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the Linnaean system ). Plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with
515-499: A cimicid has fed, causing it to move out of a danger zone after feeding. Most cimicids feed once every three to seven days in natural conditions. C. lectularius normally feeds once every seven days and Ornithocoris toledoi every eight days, though C. hemipterus has been observed feeding every day for several days (in hot climates). Excessively hot or cold temperatures disrupt normal behavior. All cimicids harbour bacterial symbionts in paired structures known as "mycetomes". Although
618-423: A convenient mammal to exploit as they roost communally, returning to the same roost regularly. It is perhaps to avoid the parasites that some species of bat regularly change roosts. The subfamily Haematosiphoninae use birds in the swift and swallow families, Apodidae and Hirundinidae . One species, P. cavernis , has a very limited distribution and appears to make use of only one species of host. Host switching
721-469: A decline in suitable cave sites. As their name suggests, throughout history the cliff swallows concentrated their nesting colonies along mountain cliffs, primarily by the western North American coast. Today, with the development of highways, concrete bridges, and buildings this adaptable bird species is rapidly adjusting its common nesting sites, with populations expanding further east and building their mud nests on these concrete infrastructures . Thus,
824-471: A diet consisting of flying insects , particularly swarming species such as: flies, bees, lacewings, mayflies, butterflies, moths, grasshoppers, and damselflies. The birds forage high (usually 50 m or higher) over fields or marshes , and tend to rely on bodies of water like ponds during bad weather with high winds. These birds are day-hunters ( diurnal ), returning to their nesting sites at dusk , and are not very active during cold or rainy weather because of
927-443: A different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined " beta taxonomy " as the classification of ranks higher than species. An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species
1030-480: A great distance from marshes. [REDACTED] The social structure of these cliff swallow colonies has evolved a complex vocalisation system. Five vocalisations have been identified, which are used by both juveniles and adults for different reasons. These vocalisations are structurally similar across the age groups and can be described as begging, alarm, recognition, and squeak calls, all with some variations. Juvenile cliff swallows are said to have established
1133-611: A host species can vary between populations of a given species; the causes for this are unclear. The effects of cimicid feeding on the host include causing an immune response that results in discomfort, the transmission of pathogens, secondary infections at the wound site, physiological changes such as iron deficiency, and reduced fitness (slow growth, small size, or lack of reproductive success). Hosts can defend themselves against attack by choosing non-infected sites and by grooming, while cimicids can maximise their success by reducing feeding time, selecting feeding sites which are out of reach of
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#17328771227141236-630: A human, which provided an abundant food supply that led to the growth and expansion of the ectoparasite populations. Cimicids are relatively specialized in their choice of hosts, compared to other bloodsucking insects. Most cimicids have a preferred host, but accept some others when presented with the choice, such as C. lectularius and C. hemipterus , which are most often found among humans, but can also survive by feeding on birds, bats, rabbits, and mice. The subfamilies Primicimicinae and Latrocimicinae use New World bats as their hosts, while Afrocimicinae and Cacodminae use Old World bats. Bats represent
1339-510: A laboratory attempt to crossbreed a female C. lectularius with C. hemipterus males, one nymph hatched out of 479 eggs laid. It possessed features of both species, suggesting it was a hybrid instead of a product of parthenogenesis . Cimicids are attracted to hosts by a variety of cues, including heat (even a temperature difference of 1 °C) and kairomones . Host cues (at least in some species, including C. lectularius and Stricticimex antennatus ) change from attractants to repellants after
1442-451: A little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy. Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy. Later authors have used the term in
1545-414: A nest from the previous season or build a new nest. Building a new nest may have the benefit of lower parasite numbers, but it is very energy expensive and time-consuming. Further, taking the extra time to build a nest from scratch will mean reproducing later which could negatively affect their chicks' survival. Nests constructed with sticky clay can last a number of years and are further supported by
1648-504: A notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above. A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics , scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes
1751-511: A ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but
1854-470: A single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius , Timotheus of Gaza , Demetrios Pepagomenos , and Thomas Aquinas . Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. During
1957-429: A steady temperature and opportunities for regular blood meals. However, the bats frequently groom themselves and each other, putting the parasites at risk of being eaten. Cimicids lessen this risk by hiding in concealed locations between feeding bouts, and by producing a repellent substance which makes them distasteful. In evolutionary terms, most species of cimicid probably specialised on insectivorous bats or birds, with
2060-576: A taxon involves five main requirements: However, often much more information is included, like the geographic range of the taxon, ecological notes, chemistry, behavior, etc. How researchers arrive at their taxa varies: depending on the available data, and resources, methods vary from simple quantitative or qualitative comparisons of striking features, to elaborate computer analyses of large amounts of DNA sequence data. American cliff swallow Petrochelidon lunifrons The cliff swallow or American cliff swallow ( Petrochelidon pyrrhonota )
2163-569: A tightly coordinated flock overhead, in such close synchronization that they may appear as one large organism. These large group formations are called creches. The cliff swallows' social behavior does not end with these "synchronized flying" displays; they use special vocalizations to advise other colony members of a good prey location where ample food is available. It has been thought that colony sites located close to marshes would have larger quantities of insects to support big populations; however, there are equally large nesting colonies located at
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#17328771227142266-524: A truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus 's system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals
2369-420: A unique call by the approximate age of 15 days, which allows the parents to identify their chick from others in the colony. The "squeak" call is of great interest to researchers because this is the special vocalisation made at a distance from the colony when a bird encounters a good foraging area. When this call is heard, large groups of their colony "neighbours" will arrive at the location. This "squeak" call
2472-399: A warm patch for sitting on their eggs. Cliff swallows are similar in body plumage colouring to the related barn swallow species but lack the characteristic fork-shaped tail of the barn swallow prominent during flight. The cliff swallows have a square-shaped tail. Juvenile cliff swallows have an overall similar body plumage colouring to the adults, with paler tones. The juveniles lack
2575-428: A wire preening under the sun. Cliff swallows build gourd-shaped nests made from mud with small entrance holes. They build their nests tightly together, on top of one another, under bridges or alongside mountain cliffs. Living in large populations, these aerial insectivores use extensive vocalizations to communicate warnings or food availability to the other individuals. The cliff swallow's average body length
2678-610: A year in some instances. Cimicids are typically small, oval, flattened, wingless insects. They are stimulated to appear from their hiding places by cues such as a slight rise in the temperature of their surroundings. Among the family's distinctive characteristics are traumatic insemination , in which the male fertilises the eggs by piercing the female's abdominal wall with his intromittent organ . They also have distinctive paired structures called mycetomes inside their bodies, in which they harbour bacterial symbionts : these may help them to obtain nutrients they cannot get from blood. Although
2781-456: Is 13 cm (5.1 in), and they have short legs and small bills with relatively long pointed wings. Adult cliff swallows have an overall dark brownish plumage covering both their back and wings, and they have a characteristic white forehead, rich red-coloured cheeks with a dark throat, basic white underparts and a buffy-coloured rump. In good lighting conditions, their crowns and mantle feathers are iridescent . The Northern population
2884-497: Is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive): Domain , Kingdom , Phylum , Class , Order , Family , Genus , Species , and Strain . The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing
2987-669: Is a member of the passerine bird family Hirundinidae , the swallows and martins. The generic name Petrochelidon is derived from the Ancient Greek petros meaning "stone" and khelidon ( χελιδών ) "swallow", and the specific name pyrrhonota comes from purrhos meaning "flame-coloured" and -notos "-backed". Cliff swallows are extremely social songbirds that can be found in large nesting colonies reaching over 2,000 nests . They are frequently seen flying overhead in large flocks during migration , gracefully foraging over fields for flying insects or perching tightly together on
3090-400: Is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular taxon . This analysis may be executed on the basis of any combination of the various available kinds of characters, such as morphological, anatomical , palynological , biochemical and genetic . A monograph or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for
3193-458: Is a resource for fossils. Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of biology , and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic naturalists are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize life , the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of biodiversity and the resulting field of conservation biology . Biological classification
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3296-495: Is also much easier to transmit parasites or diseases when living in close proximity. The cliff swallows have an unusually large parasite community that includes ectoparasites , ticks, fleas and swallow bugs, among others. These parasite infestations have been shown to negatively affect juvenile growth and developmental rates. Cliff swallows are socially monogamous , one pair will look after each nest, but many occurrences of sexual polygamy have been noted because of
3399-454: Is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy: In 1970, Michener et al. defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows: Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics)
3502-442: Is dependent on several factors, including overlap in host detection cues and ability to digest different kinds of blood. For example, the red blood cells of chickens are about 3 to 5 μm longer in diameter than those of humans, making human blood more suitable for the narrow food canal of C. lectularius . C. hemipterus may be able to vary the size of its food canal, allowing it greater flexibility in its choice of hosts. Preference for
3605-419: Is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy". How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as
3708-417: Is rarely transmitted from cimicids to bats, but it has not been observed replicating after such transmission. The viruses HIV and hepatitis B can persist in C. lectularius for two weeks, but with no viral replication. The possibility of these and most other viruses being transmitted from C. lectularius to humans is considered extremely remote. Polyctenidae and Cimicidae are considered to be sister taxa ,
3811-565: Is slightly larger in body size and also differs in facial markings from the Mexican population of cliff swallows, which have a chocolate-brown patch on their foreheads. The male and female have identical plumage, therefore sexing them must be done through palpation of the cloaca . During the breeding season, the males will have a harder cloaca that is more pronounced because the seminal vesicles are swollen. In addition, during incubation females will lose feathers on their lower breast to create
3914-400: Is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced
4017-400: Is used greatly during bad weather conditions. For this specific call, the cliff swallows are one of the few known vertebrates to make a "competitively disadvantageous" cue to their peers for food availability. Alarm calls are heard at the colony while the birds are flying over and around the colony entrance way, and serve as a signal of danger close to the nests. When this call is heard by
4120-518: The Aristotelian system , with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi , due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in
4223-468: The Cretaceous , for the evolution of the first Cimicidae. When bats appeared some 50 million years later, the parasites presumably switched hosts, feeding on bats and birds from then on. The group colonised humans as hosts on three occasions. The genus Cimex is seen to be polyphyletic . An independent molecular analysis came to a similar conclusion, that bedbugs diversified and fed on other hosts long before
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4326-575: The Neomura , the clade that groups together the Archaea and Eucarya , would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from Actinomycetota . His 2004 classification treated the archaeobacteria as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely. Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding Prionobiota ( acellular and without nucleic acid ) and Virusobiota (acellular but with nucleic acid) to
4429-503: The Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment , categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology
4532-439: The species problem . The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher taxonomic ranks subgenus and above, or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of phylogenetic nomenclature . While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations,
4635-461: The vertebrates ), as well as groups like the sharks and cetaceans , are commonly used. His student Theophrastus (Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his Historia Plantarum . Several plant genera can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as Cornus , Crocus , and Narcissus . Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on
4738-488: The 1960s. In 1958, Julian Huxley used the term clade . Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic . The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical evolutionary tree , with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic. A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed paraphyletic , while groups representing more than one branch from
4841-512: The North American coastlines. The Eastern populations travel through Florida , and the Western populations through Mexico and Central America down to their destinations. Flocks containing large numbers of cliff swallows have been recorded migrating together, but whether they stay together or disperse to different locations is unknown. The cliff swallow is famous for their regular migration to San Juan Capistrano, California . They nest at
4944-487: The Origin of Species (1859) led to a new explanation for classifications, based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of cladistic methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of monophyly , supported by the presence of synapomorphies . Since then,
5047-431: The analysis. Biological classification In biology , taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις ( taxis ) 'arrangement' and -νομία ( -nomia ) ' method ') is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing ) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given
5150-522: The animal and plant kingdoms toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Zoonomia in 1796 by Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 's Philosophie zoologique of 1809. The idea
5253-486: The basic plumage. The pre-formative facial plumage has been suggested as a possible way for parents nesting in large colonies to recognize their chicks. The cliff swallow belongs to the largest order and dominant avian group – Passeriformes . They are the perching birds, or the passerines. All the bird species in this order have four toes, three pointing forward and one pointing backwards ( anisodactylous ), that enable them to perch with ease. The sub-order that
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#17328771227145356-442: The basis of plumage colour, body size, and distribution – Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pyrrhonota , P. p. melanogaster , P. p. tachina , P. p. hypopolia , P. p. ganieri . In addition, three core genera of hirundo were established on the basis of molecular studies: Hirundo sensu stricto , containing the barn swallow; Cecropis , containing the red-rumped swallow; and Petrochelidon , containing
5459-470: The bat's pelage with these. Cimicids are a specialised group of blood-sucking parasites that primarily feed on bats, birds and humans. They are thought to have evolved from predatory heteropteran ancestors, with about 60% of extant species using bats as their primary hosts. Bats are social mammals and many species congregate in communal roosts to give birth and rear their young. These roosts provide excellent conditions for their arthropod ectoparasites, with
5562-433: The blood of their hosts. They are often considered to be ectoparasites because, although they move away from the host after feeding, they remain within the confines of their host's roost, nest or dwelling; however, under a different definition, they may be considered to be micropredatory bloodsuckers. Reproduction in cimicids involves traumatic insemination ; although the female has a normal genital tract for laying eggs,
5665-585: The church of Mission San Juan Capistrano , where their annual migration is culturally celebrated. A 1940 song by Leon René , " When the Swallows Come Back to Capistrano ", celebrates this event. Cliff swallows live in a colonial lifestyle during the breeding season, composed of a large number of pairs per nesting site. This group-style life can present the birds with some benefits and disadvantages; valuable information can be shared through group learning about food location and habitat preferences, but it
5768-538: The cliff swallow belongs to is Oscines (or Passeri), for the songbirds. The family that encompasses approximately 90 species of swallows and martins, Hirundinidae , includes birds that have small stream-lined bodies made for great agility and rapid flight. Furthermore, those in the family Hirundinidae have short-flat bills for their largely insectivorous diets, small feet because they spend much of their time in flight and long wings for energy-efficient flight. There are five subspecies of cliff swallow distinguished on
5871-826: The cliff swallow's breeding range includes large areas across Canada and the United States , excluding some Southern and Northern areas. The majority of nesting colonies are situated in close proximity to fields, ponds , and other ecosystems that would hold a large variety of flying insect populations to sustain their energy requirements during the breeding season . The cliff swallows' wintering grounds have been recorded as South American countries, such as Southern Brazil , Uruguay , and parts of Argentina . However, their behavior and populations have yet to be extensively studied on their wintering grounds leaving room for new information about this species. The cliff swallows are long-distance day-migrants that generally travel along
5974-562: The cliff swallow. The genetic tests deemed Petrochelidon and Cecropis sister to each other and both closest to Delichon , the house martins. Finally, the cave swallow was identified as the nearest living relative in North America of the cliff swallow. The cave swallow has a similar plumage to the cliff swallow; however, the former has a dark cap and pale throat, and also a much smaller distribution in North America, most likely due to
6077-450: The cliff swallows' tier-stacking construction strategy. Cliff swallows from the same colony socially collect mud for nest building, being seen converging at small areas together and then carrying globs of mud in their bills back to their nests. Each bird pair will have about 3–4 nestlings per brood; a clutch size of 4 has been identified as the most common and most successful. The cliff swallows brood-parasitize neighboring nests, where
6180-474: The colony. The nesting sites can be vulnerable to predation by other cavity-nesting bird species, such as the house sparrow . These birds will search a number of swallow nests for the perfect place to make their own nest, destroying numerous eggs in the process. Nests, especially those at the periphery of colonies, are vulnerable to snake predation. Central nests are more coveted, have larger clutches, and are preferred for reuse in subsequent years Once
6283-426: The core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature
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#17328771227146386-542: The definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In zoology , the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks ( superfamily to subspecies ), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN Code ). In the fields of phycology , mycology , and botany , the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants ( ICN ). The initial description of
6489-399: The entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or
6592-489: The evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from molecular genetics that for the most part complements traditional morphology . Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from c. 1500 BC , indicating that
6695-516: The exception of spiders published in Svenska Spindlar ). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean. Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as DNA sequencing , bioinformatics , databases , and imaging . A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as dendrograms of
6798-460: The existence of bats, suggesting that "bats were colonized several times independently, unless the evolutionary origin of bats has been grossly underestimated." Primicimex Bucimex Leptocimex Cadocmus and allies Paracimex Oeciacus and part of " Cimex " (inc C. hemipterus and C. pipistrelli ) part of " Cimex " (inc C. lectularius ) Afrocimicinae , Haematosiphoninae , Latrocimicinae were not included in
6901-563: The family, Cimex lectularius , the common bed bug and its tropical relation Cimex hemipterus . The family contains over 100 species. Cimicids appeared in the fossil record in the Cretaceous period. When bats evolved in the Eocene , Cimicids switched hosts and now feed mainly on bats or birds . Members of the group have colonised humans on three occasions. Cimicids usually feed on their host's blood every three to seven days, crawling away from
7004-544: The females may move their eggs into or lay their eggs in other nests. The females who show intra-specific parasitism tend to have greater reproductive success than those that were brood-parasitized. The "victims" of brood-parasitism must nurture more chicks with higher energy costs and decreased fitness because they are raising young that will not pass on their own genetic material. The male cliff swallows will also take part in this gene-spread by mating with more than just one female, contributing to genetic variation throughout
7107-486: The first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis , Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard Owen in 1842. The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of evolutionary taxonomic thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in
7210-459: The fore limbs of bats away from the roost, and this is likely to be the means by which the insects disperse. The cimicids have no special adaptations to enable them to travel in this way, however the only two members of the Primicimicinae subfamily, Bucimex chilensis and Primicimex cavernis have claws and an erect a row of peg-like spines on the tarsus , and have been observed clinging to
7313-682: The formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the PhyloCode , which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades, it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the PhyloCode or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish) for over 250 years. Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as
7416-568: The former family also being flightless and specialized to feed on the blood of bats. A fossil bedbug, Quasicimex eilapinastes , was identified in 2008 from Late Cretaceous Burmese amber , aged 99 million years ago (mya). Molecular analysis of five mitochondrial and nuclear genes shows that the Cimicidae, a group of over 100 species, form a clade . The Primicimicinae is sister to the clade containing all other extant species. The analysis, dated using fossils, gives an estimated date of 115 mya, in
7519-406: The host and hiding while they digest the blood, which may take several days. This means that they specialise in vertebrate hosts that return regularly to particular sites to nest, roost or sleep. Birds and bats suit these specific requirements, as do humans now that they live in dwellings, and these are the main hosts used by the bugs. Most cimicids are able to go for long periods without feeding, over
7622-421: The hosts grooming activities, choosing to feed at times when the host is inactive, and removing themselves to a safer environment promptly when satiated. Although viruses and other pathogens can be acquired by cimicids, they rarely transmit them to their hosts. O. vicarius is a vector of several arboviruses , but is not killed by these viruses. Trypanosoma cruzi , the trypanosome that causes Chagas disease ,
7725-409: The insects may acquire viruses and other pathogens while feeding, these do not normally replicate inside the insect, and the infections are not transmitted to new hosts. All cimicids are small, oval-shaped, and flat in appearance, although their bodies bulge after feeding. They do not fly, but have small, non-functional wing pads. They have beak-like mouthparts with which they pierce the skin and suck
7828-411: The iridescent adult plumages, and their foreheads and throats appear speckled white. The juvenile cliff swallows' white forehead and throat markings have high variance between unrelated individuals compared with those from the same clutch. These distinctive white facial markings disappear during maturity following their complex-basic moult pattern , because their pre-formative plumage is different from
7931-537: The last inseminating male sires more offspring than his predecessors. Males will mount any recently-fed bug, regardless of sex, and start probing its abdomen in the region of the spermalege, thus receiving tactile, morphological and behavioral cues revealing the sex of the mounted bug. Females occasionally die from a ruptured gut after insemination; insemination via the female reproductive tract does not normally occur, except under restrictive laboratory conditions. The females' spermalege contain immune cells that seem to reduce
8034-466: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. With the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use. The cladistic method has emerged since
8137-399: The low number of prey available. Foraging behaviors related closely to their reproduction cycle ; when the birds first arrive at the nesting site they will forage as far as 10 miles from the colony, in the hopes of increasing body fat reserves to prepare for cold-windy days and their energy extensive egg-laying stage. When the swallows return to the nesting site at dusk, they often fly in
8240-410: The male never uses it (except in the species Primicimex cavernis ), instead piercing the female's abdominal wall with his intromittent organ and injecting sperm into the spermalege , a storage structure; the sperm then migrate through the female's paragenital system to reach the eggs. This practice may have evolved as males competed with each other to place their sperm closer and closer to the ovaries;
8343-401: The merger of previous subtaxa. Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the phylogeny ) between taxa are inferred. Kinds of taxonomic characters include: The term " alpha taxonomy " is primarily used to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa , particularly species. In earlier literature,
8446-465: The other colony members, a mass fleeing of birds out and away from their nests is observed. The breeding season of cliff swallows starts with the return of the birds from their wintering grounds. They usually arrive in large groups and start immediately to choose their nesting sites. The cliff swallows have been observed to skip from one to five years between breeding at the same place to avoid parasite infestations, but some pairs will return annually to
8549-434: The possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide
8652-419: The possibility of dispersal to other sites via their winged hosts. On returning to a roost, a bat may only be available to cimicids for a short time before it cools down and enters a state of torpor , with reduced blood flow. When the bats lived in close proximity to humans, in caves or in the roofs of their huts, a new opportunity arose; the cimicids could make use of the large size and homeothermic properties of
8755-774: The rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014) covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the Encyclopedia of Life , the Global Biodiversity Information Facility , the NCBI taxonomy database , the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera , the Open Tree of Life , and the Catalogue of Life . The Paleobiology Database
8858-457: The return of their migratory hosts. The five nymphal instars (stages) must each take a blood meal to develop to the next stage. An undisturbed bug may take 3–15 minutes to ingest a full meal depending on its life stage. They can survive long periods of time without feeding, reappearing from their hiding places when hosts again become available. Adult bedbugs have been reported to live three to twelve months in an untreated household situation. In
8961-417: The risk of infection from traumatic insemination. Feeding is required for egg production in females and probably for sperm production in males. Egg-laying behavior varies among species. C. lectularius stops laying fertile eggs about 35 to 50 days after the last insemination. The American cliff swallow bug, Oeciacus vicarius , hibernates after mating in autumn and begins laying in spring, to coincide with
9064-455: The same site. Particularly for younger pairs, the size of the colony can affect their reproductive success, because they seem to rely on the valuable information that can be obtained from a large colony. Older birds are usually found in smaller colonies and exhibit earlier nesting times, avoiding the parasite manifestation that comes with the hot mid-summer season. Cliff swallows decide upon arrival at their nesting site whether they will fix
9167-407: The same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by de Candolle , in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique . John Lindley provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use
9270-535: The significance of these has not been fully studied, they may be concerned with the biosynthesis of nutrients that the insect cannot synthesize itself, as is the case in other blood-sucking insects. Many cimicids can go without food for long periods, one and a half years in some instances. This allows them to survive the winter at summer bat roosts even when the bats are hibernating elsewhere, and may be an important adaptive trait because of their limited dispersal ability. Cimicids have occasionally been observed clinging to
9373-472: The term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century. William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate
9476-482: The terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently. However, taxonomy, and in particular alpha taxonomy , is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. A taxonomic revision or taxonomic review
9579-505: The three-domain method is the separation of Archaea and Bacteria , previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called Monera ), with the Eukaryota for all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus . A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method. Thomas Cavalier-Smith , who published extensively on the classification of protists , in 2002 proposed that
9682-427: The top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common. Domains are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, Carl Woese 's three-domain system was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of
9785-436: The traditional three domains. Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019, which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to
9888-514: The tree of life are called polyphyletic . Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of synapomorphies , shared derived character states. Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of Zoological and Botanical nomenclature , to a certain extent. An alternative system of nomenclature, the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature or PhyloCode has been proposed, which regulates
9991-638: The uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place. Organisms were first classified by Aristotle ( Greece , 384–322 BC) during his stay on the Island of Lesbos . He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms attributes , such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied. He divided all living things into two groups: plants and animals . Some of his groups of animals, such as Anhaima (animals without blood, translated as invertebrates ) and Enhaima (animals with blood, roughly
10094-424: The varying genetics throughout the colony and within many individual nests. Both the female and the male cliff swallows will contribute to the colony's genetic variability by performing various actions of brood parasitism . The cliff swallows have an "aggressive and fearless" personality in comparison to their relatives the barn swallows, who were noted as being "timid and fearful". The cliff swallows feed on
10197-486: Was Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682), in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (France, 1656–1708). His work from 1700, Institutiones Rei Herbariae , included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it
10300-551: Was entitled " Systema Naturae " ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system"). Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These classifications described empirical patterns and were pre- evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin 's On
10403-597: Was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent . Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of
10506-532: Was the Italian physician Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist". His magnum opus De Plantis came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species. Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the Asteraceae and Brassicaceae . In the 17th century John Ray ( England , 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works. Arguably his greatest accomplishment
10609-429: Was the text he used as a young student. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works Systema Naturae 1st Edition in 1735, Species Plantarum in 1753, and Systema Naturae 10th Edition , he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which proved to be an elegant solution to
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