74-507: 45; see text Nochotta S.G.Gmel. (1774) Cicer is a genus of the legume family, Fabaceae , and the only genus found in tribe Cicereae . It is included within the IRLC , and its native distribution is across the Middle East and Asia . Its best-known and only domesticated member is Cicer arietinum , the chickpea. 45 species are accepted: Currently, the only cultivated species of
148-434: A hydrogen-based economy . It is an alternative to electrolysis , and does not require hydrocarbons like current methods of steam reforming . But note that all of the available energy in the hydrogen so produced is supplied by the heat used to make it. Sulfuric acid is rarely encountered naturally on Earth in anhydrous form, due to its great affinity for water . Dilute sulfuric acid is a constituent of acid rain , which
222-470: A simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides. Most legumes have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules . Some of the fixed nitrogen becomes available to later crops, so legumes play a key role in crop rotation . The term pulse , as used by the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
296-566: A Swiss village that are believed to date back to the Stone Age . Archaeological evidence suggests that these peas must have been grown in the eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamian regions at least 5,000 years ago and in Britain as early as the 11th century. The soybean was domesticated around 5,000 years ago in China from a descendant of the wild vine Glycine soja. The oldest-known domesticated beans in
370-610: A base and can be protonated, forming the [H 3 SO 4 ] ion. Salts of [H 3 SO 4 ] have been prepared (e.g. trihydroxyoxosulfonium hexafluoroantimonate(V) [H 3 SO 4 ] [SbF 6 ] ) using the following reaction in liquid HF : The above reaction is thermodynamically favored due to the high bond enthalpy of the Si–F bond in the side product. Protonation using simply fluoroantimonic acid , however, has met with failure, as pure sulfuric acid undergoes self-ionization to give [H 3 O] ions: which prevents
444-408: A burnt appearance in which the carbon appears much like soot that results from fire. Although less dramatic, the action of the acid on cotton , even in diluted form, destroys the fabric. The reaction with copper(II) sulfate can also demonstrate the dehydration property of sulfuric acid. The blue crystals change into white powder as water is removed. Sulfuric acid reacts with most bases to give
518-466: A considerable flowering advance (of up to 30 days) in response to vernalization—which means that the plant would have to grow in areas where it is exposed to a prolonged period of cold before it can properly grow. Although there is promise for some kind of domestication process to allow for and create new sources of food through C. reticulatum , there are several issues that make domestication of this wild species quite difficult. The first of these problems
592-411: A dehydrating agent, forming the nitronium ion NO + 2 , which is important in nitration reactions involving electrophilic aromatic substitution . This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an oxygen atom, is important in many organic chemistry reactions, such as Fischer esterification and dehydration of alcohols. When allowed to react with superacids , sulfuric acid can act as
666-413: A diet of perennial grasses. Factors include larger consumption, faster digestion, and higher feed conversion rate . The type of crop grown for animal rearing depends on the farming system. In cattle rearing, legume trees such as Gliricidia sepium can be planted along edges of fields to provide shade for cattle, the leaves and bark are often eaten by cattle. Green manure can be grown between harvesting
740-410: A dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses . Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, but also as livestock forage and silage , and as soil-enhancing green manure . Well-known legumes include beans , chickpeas , peanuts , lentils , lupins , mesquite , carob , tamarind , alfalfa , and clover . Legumes produce a botanically unique type of fruit –
814-433: A huge role in the evolution of many Cicer perennials. Further studies of genetic exchange and crossbreeding between Cicer perennials could potentially benefit the traits of contemporary food-bearing crops and provide extensive knowledge for innovation. The genus, Cicer , is composed of many species with different characteristics that make it an interesting candidate for a food crop. Currently, only one species of Cicer ,
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#1733085303894888-427: A more sustainable food option than annual crops. As seen, the genetic and evolutionary relationships of the species play a crucial role in developing hybrids between the species, and can be used to determine further relationships. Legume Legumes ( / ˈ l ɛ ɡ j uː m , l ə ˈ ɡ j uː m / ) are plants in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as
962-461: A plant-based protein source in the world marketplace. Products containing legumes grew by 39% in Europe between 2013 and 2017. There is a common misconception that adding salt before cooking prevents them from cooking through. Legumes may not soften because they are old, or because of hard water or acidic ingredients in the pot; salting before cooking results in better seasoning . Legumes are
1036-490: A potential food source. Another perennial species, Cicer anatolicum , resists chickpea ascochyta blight superior to the cultivated chickpea. Access to this resistance is barred due to hybridization barriers. A detailed study on endogenous hormones showed that interspecific hybrid production could occur if hormone profiles between the cultivated chickpea and the perennial are synchronized. Further experimentation on hormone profiles could open up hybridization barriers between
1110-1557: A serious pest to broad beans and other beans. Common hosts for this pest are fathen, thistle and dock. Pea weevil and bean weevil damage leaf margins leaving characteristics semi-circular notches. Stem nematodes are very widespread but will be found more frequently in areas where host plants are grown. Common legume diseases include anthracnose , caused by Colletotrichum trifolii ; common leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae ; crown wart caused by Physoderma alfalfae ; downy mildew caused by Peronospora trifoliorum ; fusarium root rot caused by Fusarium spp.; rust caused by Uromyces striatus ; sclerotina crown and stem rot caused by Sclerotinia trifoliorum ; Southern blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii ; pythium (browning) root rot caused by Pythium spp.; fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum ; root knot caused by Meloidogyne hapla . These are all classified as biotic problems. Abiotic problems include nutrient deficiencies, (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, copper, magnesium, manganese, boron, zinc), pollutants (air, water, soil, pesticide injury, fertilizer burn), toxic concentration of minerals, and unfavorable growth conditions. Seed viability decreases with longer storage time. Studies done on vetch , broad beans , and peas show that they last about 5 years in storage. Environmental factors that are important in influencing germination are relative humidity and temperature. Two rules apply to moisture content between 5 and 14 percent:
1184-963: A significant source of protein , dietary fibre , carbohydrates , and dietary minerals ; for example, a 100 gram serving of cooked chickpeas contains 18 percent of the Daily Value (DV) for protein, 30 percent DV for dietary fiber, 43 percent DV for folate and 52 percent DV for manganese . Legumes are an excellent source of resistant starch ; this is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate ) used by intestinal cells for food energy . Forage legumes are of two broad types. Some, like alfalfa , clover , vetch ( Vicia ), stylo ( Stylosanthes ), or Arachis , are sown in pasture and grazed by livestock. Others, such as Leucaena or Albizia , are woody shrubs or trees that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide fodder. Legume-based feeds improve animal performance over
1258-487: A slower rate, so that the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of the aquifer can neutralize the produced acid. In such cases, the total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of the water can be increased from the dissolution of minerals from the acid-neutralization reaction with the minerals. Sulfuric acid is used as a defense by certain marine species, for example, the phaeophyte alga Desmarestia munda (order Desmarestiales ) concentrates sulfuric acid in cell vacuoles. In
1332-510: A vapor pressure of <1 mmHg at 40 °C. In the solid state, sulfuric acid is a molecular solid that forms monoclinic crystals with nearly trigonal lattice parameters. The structure consists of layers parallel to the (010) plane, in which each molecule is connected by hydrogen bonds to two others. Hydrates H 2 SO 4 · n H 2 O are known for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6.5, and 8, although most intermediate hydrates are stable against disproportionation . Anhydrous H 2 SO 4
1406-442: Is a common laboratory demonstration. The sugar darkens as carbon is formed, and a rigid column of black, porous carbon called a carbon snake may emerge. Similarly, mixing starch into concentrated sulfuric acid gives elemental carbon and water. The effect of this can also be seen when concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper. Paper is composed of cellulose , a polysaccharide related to starch. The cellulose reacts to give
1480-556: Is a notable exception in that it is not dehydrated by sulfuric acid but, to the contrary, dehydrates sulfuric acid to sulfur trioxide . Upon addition of sulfuric acid to water, a considerable amount of heat is released; thus, the reverse procedure of adding water to the acid is generally avoided since the heat released may boil the solution, spraying droplets of hot acid during the process. Upon contact with body tissue, sulfuric acid can cause severe acidic chemical burns and secondary thermal burns due to dehydration. Dilute sulfuric acid
1554-484: Is a strong acid: The product of this ionization is HSO − 4 , the bisulfate anion. Bisulfate is a far weaker acid: The product of this second dissociation is SO 2− 4 , the sulfate anion. Concentrated sulfuric acid has a powerful dehydrating property, removing water ( H 2 O ) from other chemical compounds such as table sugar ( sucrose ) and other carbohydrates , to produce carbon , steam , and heat. Dehydration of table sugar (sucrose)
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#17330853038941628-429: Is a very polar liquid, having a dielectric constant of around 100. It has a high electrical conductivity , a consequence of autoprotolysis , i.e. self- protonation : The equilibrium constant for autoprotolysis (25 °C) is: The corresponding equilibrium constant for water , K w is 10 , a factor of 10 (10 billion) smaller. In spite of the viscosity of the acid, the effective conductivities of
1702-547: Is also a key substance in the chemical industry . It is most commonly used in fertilizer manufacture but is also important in mineral processing , oil refining , wastewater processing , and chemical synthesis . It has a wide range of end applications, including in domestic acidic drain cleaners , as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries , as a dehydrating compound, and in various cleaning agents . Sulfuric acid can be obtained by dissolving sulfur trioxide in water. Although nearly 100% sulfuric acid solutions can be made,
1776-421: Is an exception to this rule. Another species that occurs outside of the typical monophylies is C. cuneatum , an annual species more closely related to the perennial species C. canariense than any other annual species. These outsteps in the common trend of the phylogenies indicate that there may be close relatives that present as candidates for further cultivation. There is significant evolutionary distance between
1850-506: Is by the help of scientific experimentation. Cicer canariense , a perennial species, has a lowered field emergence due to a hard seed coats. However, various methods such as chemical scarification with concentrated sulphuric acid as well as hot water treatment can be used to improve germination . In one particular study, physical dormancy was overcome most effectively by mechanical scarification and sulphur immersion. More studies regarding crop development could introduce this species as
1924-499: Is called acid mine drainage (AMD) or acid rock drainage (ARD). The Fe can be further oxidized to Fe : The Fe produced can be precipitated as the hydroxide or hydrous iron oxide : The iron(III) ion ("ferric iron") can also oxidize pyrite: When iron(III) oxidation of pyrite occurs, the process can become rapid. pH values below zero have been measured in ARD produced by this process. ARD can also produce sulfuric acid at
1998-402: Is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulfur dioxide in the presence of water – i.e. oxidation of sulfurous acid . When sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned, sulfur dioxide is the main byproduct (besides the chief products carbon oxides and water). Sulfuric acid is formed naturally by the oxidation of sulfide minerals, such as pyrite : The resulting highly acidic water
2072-493: Is prepared by slowly adding 98% sulfuric acid to an equal volume of water, with good stirring: the temperature of the mixture can rise to 80 °C (176 °F) or higher. Sulfuric acid contains not only H 2 SO 4 molecules, but is actually an equilibrium of many other chemical species, as it is shown in the table below. Sulfuric acid is a colorless oily liquid, and has a vapor pressure of <0.001 mmHg at 25 °C and 1 mmHg at 145.8 °C, and 98% sulfuric acid has
2146-428: Is reserved for legume crops harvested solely for the dry seed. This excludes green beans and green peas , which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are mainly grown for oil extraction ( oilseeds like soybeans and peanuts ), and seeds which are used exclusively for sowing forage ( clovers , alfalfa ). However, in common usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made, and many of
2220-428: Is substantially less hazardous without the oxidative and dehydrating properties; though, it is handled with care for its acidity. Sulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical; a country's sulfuric acid production is a good indicator of its industrial strength. Many methods for its production are known, including the contact process , the wet sulfuric acid process , and the lead chamber process . Sulfuric acid
2294-412: Is that C. reticulatum may offer only limited adaptive allelic variation for improving the chickpea crop. Also, the narrow range of the C. reticulatum suggests that the prospects for improving the adaptive range of domesticated chickpea are quite limited. The patchy distribution of the wild plant, the small number of seeds produced per plant, and the relatively low allelic variation within populations (of
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2368-448: Is their versatility, often assuming multiple roles concurrently. The extent of these roles is contingent upon the stage of maturity at which they are harvested. Grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds, for humans and animals to eat, or for oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include beans , lentils , lupins , peas , and peanuts . Legumes are a key ingredient in vegan meat and dairy substitutes . They are growing in use as
2442-418: Is therefore a necessary ingredient in the production of proteins. Hence, legumes are among the best sources of plant protein. When a legume plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest , all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated into amino acids inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are converted to nitrate ( NO − 3 ), making
2516-413: Is to examine the relationships between perennial and annual species of Cicer both morphologically and genetically to identify possible candidate species. Unfortunately, research shows stark morphological differences between perennial and annual species of Cicer which hints at difficulty that could result from attempting to cross these species into a hybridized species. More specifically, a study examining
2590-466: The H 3 SO + 4 and HSO − 4 ions are high due to an intramolecular proton-switch mechanism (analogous to the Grotthuss mechanism in water), making sulfuric acid a good conductor of electricity. It is also an excellent solvent for many reactions. The hydration reaction of sulfuric acid is highly exothermic , dilution. As indicated by its acid dissociation constant , sulfuric acid
2664-742: The black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia ), Kentucky coffeetree ( Gymnocladus dioicus ), Laburnum , and the woody climbing vine Wisteria , have poisonous elements. Neanderthals and early modern humans used wild pulses when cooking meals 70,000 to 40,000 years ago. Traces of pulse production have been found around the Ravi River ( Punjab ), the seat of the Indus Valley civilisation , from c. 3300 BC. Meanwhile, evidence of lentil cultivation has also been found in Egyptian pyramids and cuneiform recipes . Dry pea seeds have been discovered in
2738-466: The molecular formula H 2 SO 4 . It is a colorless, odorless, and viscous liquid that is soluble with water. Pure sulfuric acid does not occur naturally due to its strong affinity to water vapor ; it is hygroscopic and readily absorbs water vapor from the air . Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong oxidant with powerful dehydrating properties, making it highly corrosive towards other materials, from rocks to metals. Phosphorus pentoxide
2812-405: The polyculture practice known as coconut-soybean intercropping . Grain legumes are grown in coconut ( Cocos nuficera ) groves in two ways: intercropping or as a cash crop. These are grown mainly for their protein, vegetable oil and ability to uphold soil fertility. However, continuous cropping after 3–4 years decrease grain yields significantly. A common pest of grain legumes that is noticed in
2886-448: The stratosphere , the atmosphere's second layer that is generally between 10 and 50 km above Earth's surface, sulfuric acid is formed by the oxidation of volcanic sulfur dioxide by the hydroxyl radical : Because sulfuric acid reaches supersaturation in the stratosphere, it can nucleate aerosol particles and provide a surface for aerosol growth via condensation and coagulation with other water-sulfuric acid aerosols. This results in
2960-418: The stratospheric aerosol layer . The permanent Venusian clouds produce a concentrated acid rain, as the clouds in the atmosphere of Earth produce water rain. Jupiter 's moon Europa is also thought to have an atmosphere containing sulfuric acid hydrates. Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur , oxygen and water via the conventional contact process (DCDA) or the wet sulfuric acid process (WSA). In
3034-810: The Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave , an archaeological site in Peru , and dated to around the second millennium BCE. Genetic analyses of the common bean Phaseolus show that it originated in Mesoamerica , and subsequently spread southward, along with maize and squash, traditional companion crops. In the United States, the domesticated soybean was introduced in 1770 by Benjamin Franklin after he sent seeds to Philadelphia from France. The International Year of Pulses 2016
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3108-498: The acid produced in the lead chamber itself (<70% to avoid contamination with nitrosylsulfuric acid ) and tower acid being the acid recovered from the bottom of the Glover tower. They are now obsolete as commercial concentrations of sulfuric acid, although they may be prepared in the laboratory from concentrated sulfuric acid if needed. In particular, "10 M" sulfuric acid (the modern equivalent of chamber acid, used in many titrations ),
3182-447: The chickpea pods and limitations in increasing tolerance to abiotic stresses such as terminal drought and extreme temperatures. To fix these limitations, the introduction of alleles controlling the traits of interest from wild germplasm is essential in order to increase the genetic diversity of cultivated chickpeas. Currently, the chickpea's immediate ancestor, C. reticulatum , and its interfertile sister species Cicer echinospermum , are
3256-406: The common ancestors of the modern perennial and annual species, but this research gives hope that there may be a possibility of cultivating a perennial species as a food crop. Hybridization, or the reproduction of two species to create distinctive offspring, is especially important in developing new food crops from existing species. Because of the phylogenetic and genetic data studied and produced in
3330-837: The conversion of H 2 SO 4 to [H 3 SO 4 ] by the HF/ SbF 5 system. Even dilute sulfuric acid reacts with many metals via a single displacement reaction, like other typical acids , producing hydrogen gas and salts (the metal sulfate). It attacks reactive metals (metals at positions above copper in the reactivity series ) such as iron , aluminium , zinc , manganese , magnesium , and nickel . Concentrated sulfuric acid can serve as an oxidizing agent , releasing sulfur dioxide: Lead and tungsten , however, are resistant to sulfuric acid. Hot concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes carbon (as bituminous coal ) and sulfur : Benzene and many derivatives undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution with sulfuric acid to give
3404-412: The corresponding sulfonic acids : Sulfuric acid can be used to produce hydrogen from water : The compounds of sulfur and iodine are recovered and reused, hence the process is called the sulfur–iodine cycle . This process is endothermic and must occur at high temperatures, so energy in the form of heat has to be supplied. The sulfur–iodine cycle has been proposed as a way to supply hydrogen for
3478-606: The corresponding sulfate or bisulfate. Sulfuric acid reacts with sodium chloride , and gives hydrogen chloride gas and sodium bisulfate : Aluminium sulfate , also known as paper maker's alum, is made by treating bauxite with sulfuric acid: Sulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts. Reaction with sodium acetate , for example, displaces acetic acid , CH 3 COOH , and forms sodium bisulfate : Similarly, treating potassium nitrate with sulfuric acid produces nitric acid . When combined with nitric acid , sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and
3552-474: The few partial successes of the perennial and annual crosses, which have proven especially difficult. Furthermore, the species crossed, C. cuneatum and C. canariense were previously determined as sister species during evolutionary analysis in previous research. Such research is at the forefront of developing a perennial food crop for Cicer that is related to its modern cultivar, the chickpea. Perennial crops have an advantage to food production because they are
3626-447: The food chain that would better use pulse-based proteins, further global production of pulses, better use crop rotations and address challenges in the global trade of pulses. Sulphuric acid Sulfuric acid ( American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name ) or sulphuric acid ( Commonwealth spelling ), known in antiquity as oil of vitriol , is a mineral acid composed of the elements sulfur , oxygen , and hydrogen , with
3700-515: The genetic origin of the proteins responsible for this resistance. Drought resistance is another opposition to overcome for many Cicer perennials. About 90% of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum ) in the world is grown with very little rainfall and where drought is a significant constraint to growth. A study assessed the resistance of drought of many perennials compared to annuals. When tested, the perennial wild Cicer species recovered after wilting and drying out and also tolerated high temperatures. Of all
3774-433: The genus Cicer is C. arietinum , commonly known as the chickpea. The wild progenitor of C. arietinum is Cicer reticulatum . Since the chickpea has descended from this wild plant, there is a possibility that this wild progenitor can offer other forms of edible chickpeas after domestication. In wild chickpea ( C. reticulatum ), a considerable proportion of the mature pods remain intact, and this characteristic leads to
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#17330853038943848-401: The genus. One particularly successful cross between "the annual C. cuneatum and perennial C. canariense " showed a "partially fertile with intermediate morphology" F-1 generation. This success, however, is determined by which species provides each gamete and therefore presents some possible difficulties in cultivating the crop further. This cross is especially interesting because it is one of
3922-461: The life of the seed will last longer if the storage temperature is reduced by 5 degree Celsius. Secondly, the storage moisture content will decrease if temperature is reduced by 1 degree Celsius. Cultivated legumes encompass a diverse range of agricultural classifications, spanning forage , grain , flowering, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure, and timber categories. A notable characteristic of many commercially cultivated legume species
3996-432: The main crop and the planting of the next crop. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins , which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide. Industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively. Fallow or green manure legume species are cultivated to be tilled back into
4070-487: The main sources of new variation. Introgression is still possible from the more distantly related gene pools, but more research has to be done on this possibility. But the narrow variation of the wild progenitor ( C. reticulatum ) of the chickpea and the limited number of C. reticulatum accessions have caused a need to look for desired alleles in other more distantly related Cicer species Cicer perennials harbor great resistances in particular environments in comparison to
4144-406: The modern chickpea and Cicer anatolicum . Another barricade that could be overcome is the inability to cultivate specific Cicer perennials in different parts of the world. Many Cicer perennials and annual plants grow in different environments. So far, none of the perennial Cicer species have been grown successfully in a tropical or subtropical setting in which annual Cicer species grow. If
4218-467: The modern chickpea, is domesticated as a cultivar, but there are many other options researchers are considering for further domestication and expansion into perennial crops. One of the most promising options that could lead to the expansion into perennial crops is hybridization between annual and perennial species. However, hybridization is only possible and/or successful between certain species, which have not been determined. The first step in this expansion
4292-510: The nitrogen available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops. In many traditional and organic farming practices, crop rotation or polyculture involving legumes is common. By alternating between legumes and non-legumes, or by growing both together for part of the growing season, the field can receive a sufficient amount of nitrogenous compounds to produce a good result without adding nitrogenous fertilizer. Legumes are often used as green manure . Sri Lanka developed
4366-465: The past, a hybrid between perennial and annual Cicer species is promising. Many steps have been taken to improve the hybridization techniques and results between perennial and annual species, but it has proven difficult to create a viable offspring from these crosses. Not surprisingly, it has been relatively easy to hybridize annuals together and perennials together. Other research has shown some success with crossing specific annual and perennial species of
4440-461: The perennials tested crossbreeding with Cicer anatolicum should be tested because of its close genetic affinities to the annual species. These resistances and improvements in the Cicer perennial genome can be a potential reservoir of knowledge for the exploration of the genes that contribute to the perennials' traits. Drought and pest resistance along with scientific improvements in crop development play
4514-402: The pollen of perennial species can be preserved for use in the different parts of the world in which annual species grow, then crossability techniques can be performed more effectively. This difficulty in use of the perennial germplasm can be resolved by transshipping viable pollen across the ocean. If this issue were to be resolved, more Cicer perennials could be planted in various portions of
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#17330853038944588-440: The relatedness of perennial and annual species, both cultivated and wild, at 12 loci to see how closely they are related. The researchers were able to narrow down one perennial species, C. incisum , that was more closely related to annual plants than other perennial species. Research also showed similar results upon genetic and phylogenetic analyses. While most annual and perennial species tend to form monophyletic clades, C. incisum
4662-406: The resistances of other herbaceous species. Although some Cicer perennials are difficult to harvest, there have been studies to improve the germination of particular species. Various studies highlight the specific resistances and improvements in fitness of particular Cicer perennial species. For example, one way in which Cicer canariense , a perennial species, was able to improve its fitness
4736-563: The seed coat morphology at several specific gene loci compared annual and perennial species that showed very distinct differences between the two branches of Cicer . The research was able to create phylogenetic trees tracking the genetic divergence of Cicer species, and the data indicate "the rapid species differentiation of Monocicer including adaptation to the disturbed environment," showing much distance between annual species ( Monocicer ) and perennial species of Cicer . Further research into these relationships has been performed to analyze
4810-467: The soil in order to exploit the high levels of captured atmospheric nitrogen found in the roots of most legumes. Numerous legumes farmed for this purpose include Leucaena , Cyamopsis , and Sesbania species. Various legume species are farmed for timber production worldwide, including numerous Acacia species and Castanospermum australe . Some legume trees, like the honey locust ( Gleditsia ) can be used in agroforestry . Others, including
4884-452: The special ability of fixing nitrogen from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) into ammonia (NH 3 ). The chemical reaction is: Ammonia is converted to another form, ammonium ( NH + 4 ), usable by (some) plants by the following reaction: This arrangement means that the root nodules are sources of nitrogen for legumes, making them relatively rich in plant proteins . All proteins contain nitrogenous amino acids . Nitrogen
4958-443: The species being described as pre-adapted to domestication. This essentially means that the function of one of its traits can change, or evolve, as the progenitor is domesticated. This implies that traits such as texture, size, and most importantly, nutritional content can be adjusted in this species. Domesticated chickpea is considered vernalization insensitive (it can flower at all times of the year), whereas wild C. reticulatum shows
5032-445: The subsequent loss of SO 3 at the boiling point brings the concentration to 98.3% acid. The 98.3% grade, which is more stable in storage, is the usual form of what is described as "concentrated sulfuric acid". Other concentrations are used for different purposes. Some common concentrations are: "Chamber acid" and "tower acid" were the two concentrations of sulfuric acid produced by the lead chamber process , chamber acid being
5106-501: The third-largest land plant family in terms of number of species, behind only the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae , with about 751 genera and some 19,000 known species, constituting about seven percent of flowering plant species. Many legumes contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within root nodules of their root systems (plants belonging to the genus Styphnolobium are one exception to this rule). These bacteria have
5180-410: The tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania are minuscule flies that belong to the family Agromyzidae , dubbed "bean flies". They are considered to be the most destructive. The host range of these flies is very wide amongst cultivated legumes. Infestation of plants starts from germination through to harvest, and they can destroy an entire crop in early stage. Black bean aphids are
5254-535: The varieties used for dried pulses are also used for green vegetables, with their beans in pods while young. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae , are leguminous but are usually not called legumes by farmers, who tend to restrict that term to food crops. The FAO recognizes 11 primary pulses, excluding green vegetable legumes (e.g. green peas) and legumes used mainly for oil extraction (e.g., soybeans and groundnuts) or used only as seed (e.g., clover and alfalfa). Legumes are widely distributed as
5328-463: The wild progenitor) makes germplasm conservation ( conservation of seeds or tissues, otherwise known as the living genetic resources of plants) a bit difficult. When tried in the past, chickpea breeding has faced problems because of the lack of genetic diversity. This has caused limitations in efforts to improve resistance to diseases such as Ascochyta blight and Fusarium wilt. There have also been problems such as insects susceptible to breaking through
5402-453: The world. Another constraint that affects the Cicer species is the bollworm Helicoverpa armigera , which is one of the biggest problems for their survival. Host plant resistance is an effective method to resolve these pests. A study found that perennials such as C. canariense and C. microphyllum have high resistance to H. armigera compared to C. judaicum , an annual plant. More experimentation on cross-breeding could give clues on
5476-690: Was declared by the Sixty-eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was nominated to facilitate the implementation of the year in collaboration with governments, relevant organizations, non-governmental organizations and other relevant stakeholders. Its aim was to heighten public awareness of the nutritional benefits of pulses as part of sustainable food production aimed towards food security and nutrition . The year created an opportunity to encourage connections throughout
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