202-401: [REDACTED] British Empire [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire The Battle of Chunuk Bair ( Turkish : Conk Bayırı Muharebesi ) was a World War I battle fought between the Ottoman defenders and troops of the British Empire over control of the peak in August 1915. The capture of Chunuk Bair, ( Turkish : Çanak Bayır Basin Slope, now Conk Bayırı ), the secondary peak of
404-577: A British ship. The Ottomans had reclaimed the east side of the summit and were reinforced by the arrival of the 8th Division from Helles. As the extent of the Allied offensive became apparent, General Otto Liman von Sanders , the commander of the Ottoman forces in the Dardanelles, appointed his most competent officer, Colonel Mustafa Kemal , the commander for the defence of Suvla and Sari Bair. As darkness fell on
606-530: A New Zealand assault against the peak looked slim. Johnston requested to wait until nightfall. Nevertheless, General Godley ordered Johnston to attack. Two hundred yards beyond where the New Zealanders were positioned on the Apex was another knoll called "The Pinnacle" from which it was a straight climb to the summit. Off the side of the spur to the north was a small, sheltered plateau known as The Farm. Johnston told
808-465: A contest of ideologies between the two nations. It was not only Britain's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe . The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy , which won
1010-550: A crossing around Damieh and then drove towards Es Salt, where a charge by the 8th Light Horse Regiment secured the town. The brigade held the town until 3 May when they were ordered to withdraw back to the Jordan following setbacks elsewhere. The brigade's return to the western bank was supported by aircraft from No. 3 Squadron AFC . Summer was spent by the Jordan River amidst oppressive heat and vector borne diseases, during which there
1212-612: A decisive victory over a French Imperial Navy - Spanish Navy fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815. Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands , Malta (which it had occupied in 1798), Mauritius , St Lucia ,
1414-690: A dependency of the New South Wales colony. From 16 June 1840 New South Wales laws applied in New Zealand. This transitional arrangement ended with the Charter for Erecting the Colony of New Zealand on 16 November 1840. The Charter stated that New Zealand would be established as a separate Crown colony on 3 May 1841 with Hobson as its governor. During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill
1616-606: A form that attempted to be more inclusive by showcasing the empire as a family of newly birthed nations with common roots. The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule . Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule
1818-474: A full squadron, equipped with 12 machine guns. A light horse training regiment was also established for each brigade, to provide trained reinforcements, while other supporting elements including signals, logistic, engineer, medical and veterinary support units were also assigned. In the early part of 1916, the brigade was employed in a defensive capacity to prevent an Ottoman attack on the Suez Canal , working to
2020-472: A hopeless attack. He said his battalion would take Chunuk Bair at night. In 2018 New Zealand military historian Ian McGibbon challenged the "myth" that Colonel Malone had refused a direct order to make a daytime attack, holding that Malone and Johnston both disagreed with Godley's order for the Auckland Battalion to attack in daylight, which dissention Johnston had reluctantly accepted. McGibbon said that
2222-568: A minor settlement, and other treaty ports including Shanghai . During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773 , Pitt's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the company's affairs and established
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#17330846093682424-537: A more traditional cavalry role. Meanwhile, the Anzac Mounted Division remained a mounted rifle formation. In September, the British Empire forces launched their attack. The Australian Mounted Division, including the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, launched a cavalry advance along the coast driving towards Damascus, while the Anzac Mounted Division undertook a secondary effort further inland. Commencing 19 September,
2626-541: A perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen . The American Revolution began with a rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self-government. In response, Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The following year, in 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence proclaiming the colonies' sovereignty from
2828-567: A plan for another attack. He sent up reinforcements including the British 13th (Western) Division ; the 7th Battalion of The Gloucestershire Regiment and the pioneers of 8th Battalion, the Welch Regiment, led by Lieutenant-Colonel Bald. The Auckland and Canterbury Infantry Battalions were removed from the plan of attack. They were replaced by the Otago and Wellington Infantry Battalions, which would lead
3030-649: A play Once on Chunuk Bair in 1982. A film version Chunuk Bair ( Daybreak Pictures ) was released in 1991. There is a detailed fictional description of the battle from the point of view of an Ottoman Turkish soldier in Birds Without Wings by Louis de Bernieres, author of Captain Corelli's Mandolin . Once on Chunuk Bair was performed on the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Chunuk Bair in Christchurch, New Zealand. It
3232-472: A rapid escalation in the number of slaves transported. British ships carried a third of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic—approximately 3.5 million Africans —until the abolition of the trade by Parliament in 1807 (see § Abolition of slavery ). To facilitate the shipment of slaves, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island , Accra and Bunce Island . In
3434-524: A security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break-up of the empire. A second Home Rule bill was defeated for similar reasons. A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising . By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend
3636-812: A series of Anglo-Mysore wars in Southern India with the Sultanate of Mysore under Hyder Ali and then Tipu Sultan . Defeats in the First Anglo-Mysore war and stalemate in the Second were followed by victories in the Third and the Fourth . Following Tipu Sultan's death in the fourth war in the Siege of Seringapatam (1799) , the kingdom became a protectorate of the company. The East India Company fought three Anglo-Maratha Wars with
3838-655: A way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies . Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer ) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign . British immigration to the Cape Colony began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers , resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own—mostly short-lived— independent republics , during
4040-551: Is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the first and second empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations , published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to
4242-544: The 3rd Light Horse Brigade , in concert with an attack on the summit of Chunuk Bair by soldiers from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade (Colonel Francis Johnston ), who would traverse Rhododendron Spur, the Apex and the Farm. Hill 971 would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade. The Ottoman senior commanders did not expect an attack at Chunuk Bair as it felt that
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#17330846093684444-698: The Acts of Union 1707 . The 18th century saw the newly united Great Britain rise to be the world's dominant colonial power, with France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage. Great Britain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire continued the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714 and was concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht . Philip V of Spain renounced his and his descendants' claim to
4646-656: The American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire". England's early efforts at colonisation in the Americas met with mixed success. An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits. Colonies on the Caribbean islands of St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) rapidly folded. The first permanent English settlement in
4848-827: The Americas and Asia . A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left Britain the dominant colonial power in North America . Britain became a major power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company 's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The American War of Independence resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. While retaining control of British North America (now Canada ) and territories in and near
5050-559: The Auckland battalion to attack and at 11:00 am, they did. About 100 made it as far as the Pinnacle, where they desperately tried to dig in. Around 300 fell as casualties between there and the Apex. Johnston told the Wellington battalion to continue the attack. The battalion's commander, Lieutenant Colonel William Malone refused, stating that he was not willing to order his men to carry out
5252-753: The Australian Imperial Force (AIF), which served in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I . The brigade was initially formed as a part-time militia formation in the early 1900s in Victoria . In 1914, the brigade was re-constituted as part of the AIF. The brigade first saw action while serving with the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Gallipoli campaign where they were noted for their attack during
5454-500: The Battle of Beersheba was fought. Shortly before the battle, Brigadier General Lachlan Chisholm Wilson took command of the brigade. During the fighting, the 8th Light Horse Regiment provided a screen, the rest of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was detached from the Imperial Mounted Division to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division attack the high ground around Tel el Saba; this took most of the day, but ultimately helped set
5656-503: The Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light. The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by British prime minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion prime ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy. 3rd Light Horse Brigade The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was a mounted infantry brigade of
5858-828: The Battle of the Nek . After being withdrawn to Egypt in February 1916 they were involved in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign until the end of the war. They were attached to a number of different formations being part of the Anzac Mounted Division in March 1916 and the Australian Mounted Division in June 1917, who they remained with until the end of the war. After the war, the AIF light horse regiments were demobilised and disbanded; however,
6060-632: The British economy . Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions . With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony was designated an official British colony for freed slaves. Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline. The Slavery Abolition Act , passed
6262-823: The Caribbean in the British West Indies , British colonial expansion turned towards Asia, Africa , and the Pacific . After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory in Southeast Asia . The " Great Game " and " Scramble for Africa " also ensued. The period of relative peace (1815–1914) during which
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6464-764: The First Anglo-Afghan War was a disaster for Britain. When Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and the Middle East led Britain and France to enter the war in support of the Ottoman Empire and invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities. The ensuing Crimean War (1854–1856), which involved new techniques of modern warfare ,
6666-658: The Government of India Act 1858 , establishing the British Raj , where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India . India became the empire's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown", and was the most important source of Britain's strength. A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on
6868-458: The Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s. In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho people and the Zulu Kingdom . Eventually, the Boers established two republics that had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852–1877; 1881–1902) and
7070-422: The Khedivate of Egypt into the 20th century, it was officially a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and not part of the British Empire. The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position, but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople , which made the Canal officially neutral territory. With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in
7272-414: The Mahdist Army in 1896 and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made an Anglo-Egyptian condominium , but a British colony in reality. British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes , pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa , to urge a " Cape to Cairo " railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral-rich south of
7474-447: The Maratha Confederacy . The First Anglo-Maratha War ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war status quo . The Second and Third Anglo-Maratha wars resulted in British victories. After the surrender of Peshwa Bajirao II on 1818, the East India Company acquired control of a large majority of the Indian subcontinent. Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented
7676-542: The Middle East . Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies , some of which were formally reclassified as Dominions by the 1920s. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War , during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although
7878-407: The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , under the command of Major General Harry Chauvel . At this time, the brigade was provided with a British Territorial horsed artillery battery, the 1/1st Inverness-shire Battery , which was detached from the British IV Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery (T.F.) . Until July 1916, the brigade was supported by a machine gun section, but this was then expanded to
8080-409: The Orange Free State (1854–1902). In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899–1902). In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III , linking the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean . Initially the Canal was opposed by the British; but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became
8282-411: The Royal African Company was granted a monopoly on the supply of slaves to the British colonies in the Caribbean. The company would transport more slaves across the Atlantic than any other, and significantly grew England's share of the trade, from 33 per cent in 1673 to 74 per cent in 1683. The removal of this monopoly between 1688 and 1712 allowed independent British slave traders to thrive, leading to
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8484-500: The Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia , felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax , so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784. The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English speaking ) and Lower Canada (mainly French-speaking ) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with
8686-443: The Seychelles , and Tobago ; Spain ceded Trinidad ; the Netherlands ceded Guiana , Ceylon and the Cape Colony , while the Danish ceded Heligoland . Britain returned Guadeloupe , Martinique , French Guiana , and Réunion to France; Menorca to Spain; Danish West Indies to Denmark and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution , goods produced by slavery became less important to
8888-441: The Treaty of Paris of 1763 had important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, France's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert's Land, and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French-speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its victory over France in India,
9090-417: The Victorian gold rush , making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world. The British also expanded their mercantile interests in the North Pacific. Spain and Britain had become rivals in the area, culminating in the Nootka Crisis in 1789. Both sides mobilised for war, but when France refused to support Spain it was forced to back down, leading to the Nootka Convention . The outcome
9292-454: The War of 1812 , and invaded Canadian territory. In response, Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent , ensuring Canada's future would be separate from that of the United States. Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year. Forced to find an alternative location after
9494-409: The attack at the Nek on 7 August, while the 9th was placed in reserve. Planned as a feint to draw attention away from efforts elsewhere, the attack proved costly for the light horsemen. Due to poor coordination, efforts to support the attack broke down, and the preparatory artillery barrage ended before the attack began, allowing the defending Ottoman troops to return to their firing positions before
9696-485: The attack on Hill 60 , which secured a link between Anzac Cove and Suvla. For his actions during this battle, Lieutenant Hugo Throssell later received the Victoria Cross . For the remainder of the campaign, the brigade undertook defensive duties. Hughes became ill late in the Gallipoli campaign and was evacuated. In his stead, the brigade major , John Antill , assumed command of the brigade in early October 1915. By mid-December all three regiments were withdrawn from
9898-399: The dominions , colonies , protectorates , mandates , and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was the largest empire in history and, for a century, was
10100-545: The metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation". Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy , Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively. Britain's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with
10302-413: The privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave-raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of establishing an Atlantic slave trade . This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo-Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that
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#173308460936810504-440: The protectionism of Spain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith's view that political control was not necessary for economic success. The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence. The 14,000 Loyalists who went to
10706-399: The spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability. Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant the two countries entered the Nine Years' War as allies, but the conflict—waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo-Dutch alliance—left
10908-475: The "Sugar Revolution" transformed the Caribbean economy in the mid-17th century. Large sugarcane plantations were first established in the 1640s on Barbados, with assistance from Dutch merchants and Sephardic Jews fleeing Portuguese Brazil . At first, sugar was grown primarily using white indentured labour , but rising costs soon led English traders to embrace the use of imported African slaves. The enormous wealth generated by slave-produced sugar made Barbados
11110-480: The "jugular vein of the Empire". In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha 's 44 per cent shareholding in the Suez Canal for £4 million (equivalent to £480 million in 2023). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882. Although Britain controlled
11312-422: The 10th Hampshires and 6th Royal Irish Rifles from the 29th Brigade. Most of the 10th Division had landed at Suvla on 7 August. This force would climb to Hill Q from the Farm. At the same time, the New Zealanders on the right from Chunuk Bair and units of General Herbert Cox 's Indian Brigade on the left would also attack the hill. The plan failed when Baldwin's battalions became lost in the dark trying to find
11514-428: The 10th Light Horse Regiment was pushed forward to assist the 9th, and they succeeded in shoring up the line. The heavy resistance resulted in the Anzac Mounted Division being withdrawn to Oghratina, while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade held the left flank around Hod Abu Dhahab overnight. Command of the brigade passed to John Royston after Antill was selected to command an infantry brigade on the Western Front. Meanwhile,
11716-428: The 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by China in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China. In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War , and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island , at that time
11918-419: The 3rd Light Horse Brigade ceased to exist. Within the new structure, the 16th Light Horse Regiment became part of the 2nd Cavalry Brigade , while the 6th was assigned to the 4th Cavalry Brigade . The 22nd Light Horse was reconstituted in Tasmania as part of the 12th Mixed Brigade with its former personnel being used to raise the 1st and 21st Light Horse Regiments in its former locations. During World War I,
12120-459: The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was reconstituted in New South Wales, and consisted of the 7th (New South Wales Lancers), 9th (New South Wales Mounted Rifles) and the 11th (Australian Horse). The 7th was based around Parramatta , Sydney , Penrith and Windsor ; the 9th was centred around Sydney, Camden , and Dubbo , with several other minor depots; and the 11th was based at several depots including Goulburn , Cooma , and Bega, New South Wales . At
12322-422: The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was sent against Atawineh. Coming under heavy fire, the dismounted troopers advanced close to the redoubt and secured a number of prisoners before being halted by defensive fire and ordered to halt. Elsewhere, the infantry attack stalled, despite some gains, and eventually, with darkness falling and ammunition running low, the attack was called off. In June, the Imperial Mounted Division
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#173308460936812524-415: The 6th Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment , and 5th Battalion, Wiltshire Regiment , who were massacred and driven off the summit in the early morning of 10 August, by an Ottoman counter-attack led by Mustafa Kemal . The British August Offensive at Anzac Cove and Suvla was an attempt to try to break the stalemate that the Gallipoli Campaign had become. The capture of Chunuk Bair was the only success for
12726-447: The AIF in Australia, albeit largely on paper only as they had been reduced significantly due to large-scale enlistment in the AIF, and a lack of funds and resources for training. By 1919, a 3rd Light Horse Brigade had been formed in the militia, consisting of the 6th (New South Wales Mounted Rifles) , 16th (Hunter River Lancers), and 22nd Light Horse Regiments, which were based Orange , Maitland , and Bathurst , in New South Wales. In
12928-533: The Allies of the campaign but it was fleeting as the position proved untenable. The Ottomans recaptured the peak for good a few days later. The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Cape Helles front, led General Ian Hamilton , commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF) to pursue a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range and capture the high ground of Hill 971 and Chunuk Bair. Both sides had been reinforced, with Hamilton's original five divisions increased to 15 divisions and
13130-531: The Americas the following year but did not return; it is unknown what happened to his ships. No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , during the last decades of the 16th century. In the meantime, Henry VIII 's 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire". The Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies. In 1562, Elizabeth I encouraged
13332-414: The Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown by Captain John Smith , and managed by the Virginia Company ; the Crown took direct control of the venture in 1624, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia . Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company's flagship , while attempts to settle Newfoundland were largely unsuccessful. In 1620, Plymouth
13534-406: The Anzac Mounted Division, and the brigade subsequently received the 1/1 Nottingham Battery , which was detached from the XIX Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery (T.F.) . The focus for the brigade's operations throughout 1917 was the capture of the town of Gaza. The First Battle of Gaza was fought on 26 March. During the attack, the Imperial Mounted Division was tasked with forming a screen to encircle
13736-415: The Apex and were replaced by two New Army battalions, the 6th Battalion of the South Lancashire Regiment and some of the 5th Battalion of the Wiltshire Regiment from Baldwin's force. On the morning of 10 August Mustafa Kemal led an overwhelming Ottoman counter-attack. If Chunuk Bair, the one Allied success of the August offensive, was recaptured, the battle was effectively over. His plan lacked subtlety but
13938-619: The Australian Mounted Division undertook occupation duties in Tripoli , near the coast, until it returned to Egypt in early 1919. The brigade's individual regiments were used to quell unrest during the Egyptian revolt ; commencing in March. The brigade continued patrols until late June 1919, when the troops were withdrawn from Zagazig back to Moascar for embarkation. The individual regiments embarked for Australia in early July. The horses remained behind due to cost and quarantine issues, and were either destroyed or undertook further service in Egypt or Syria. Throughout late 1918 and early 1919,
14140-412: The Australian and New Zealand forces in the Middle East were reorganised. There were a large number of reinforcements that had arrived in Egypt at this time, and while the infantry was to be deployed to the Western Front , the mounted units were to remain in the Middle East. This resulted in the establishment of the Anzac Mounted Division , which consisted of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades, and
14342-479: The British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 per cent in 1650 to around 80 per cent in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 per cent to 40 per cent over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies). The transatlantic slave trade played a pervasive role in British economic life, and became a major economic mainstay for western port cities. Ships registered in Bristol , Liverpool and London were responsible for
14544-542: The British Empire as the new United States of America . The entry of French and Spanish forces into the war tipped the military balance in the Americans' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783. The loss of such a large portion of British America , at the time Britain's most populous overseas possession,
14746-466: The British Empire became the global hegemon was later described as Pax Britannica (Latin for "British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectively controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions , such as Asia and Latin America . It also came to dominate
14948-589: The British defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as a major military and political power in India. France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states , ending French hopes of controlling India. In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased
15150-645: The English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget to the costly land war in Europe. The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philip V of Spain , a grandson of the King of France , raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and
15352-440: The Farm which they did not reach until after dawn, around 6:00 am. The only force to reach Hill Q was Allanson's battalion of Gurkhas. They suffered the same fate as Colonel Malone, shelled by their own artillery, and their stay on the hill was brief. With the offensive once again stalled, the New Zealanders on Chunuk Bair had to endure another day of Ottoman harassment. As night fell the remaining New Zealanders moved back to
15554-673: The French throne, and Spain lost its empire in Europe. The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia , and from Spain, Gibraltar and Menorca . Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean . Spain ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell African slaves in Spanish America ) to Britain. With
15756-528: The Jordan Valley. The weight of the attack fell against other formations, but in the wake of the Battle of Abu Tellul the 3rd Light Horse Brigade relieved the 1st Light Horse Brigade in the forward areas. In August, further sword training took place, and the Australian Mounted Division was finally issued with swords in preparation for a renewed offensive, during which they would be employed in
15958-635: The Lancashire battalion on the summit, few of whom survived (510 men were reported missing). The Wiltshires were unarmed and un-equipped and were scattered everywhere. On the right flank, the Ottomans captured the Pinnacle, driving the New Army troops before them. New Zealand machine gunners positioned at the Apex shot down the Ottomans as they tried to continue down the spur. The gunners could not discriminate friend from foe and killed many New Army troops who were amongst
16160-653: The Left Assaulting Column would divide at Aghyl Dere and half would advance across Damakjelik Spur and Azma Dere to the Abdul Rahman Spur and then attack Hill 971, the other part of the force would move to the right up Damakjelik Spur to Hill Q. To prevent delays, a Right Covering Force was to take Destroyer Hill, Table top, Old No 3 Post and Bauchop's Hill and the Left Covering Force was to reach Walden Point, cross Aghyl Dere and take Damakjelik Bair. After
16362-710: The Malone Memorial Gate, commemorating Lieutenant-Colonel Malone was constructed in Stratford, New Zealand in 1923 and a plaque unveiled in the New Zealand Parliament's Grand Hall in 2005. A memorial to honour New Zealand soldiers who died in the campaign was unveiled on Chunuk Bair in May 1925. One Victoria Cross was awarded for actions at Chunuk Bair to Corporal Cyril Bassett , who repaired phone lines while under fire. New Zealand writer Maurice Shadbolt produced
16564-549: The Māori population. The UK government finally decided to act, dispatching Captain William Hobson with instructions to take formal possession after obtaining native consent. There was no central Māori authority able to represent all New Zealand so, on 6 February 1840, Hobson and many Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi in the Bay of Islands; most other chiefs signing in stages over
16766-634: The Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Dutch Republic and England. A deal between the two nations left
16968-400: The New Zealanders attacking from Chunuk Bair down onto the rear of the Ottoman trenches on Battleship Hill. Despite the delay to the New Zealand attack, the Battle of the Nek went ahead nonetheless, with huge casualties. The opportunity for a swift victory at Chunuk Bair had been lost. With the failure of attack of the Nek and the realisation that Chunuk Bair was in danger of being overrun,
17170-428: The Ottomans got up to the trenches, the fighting continued with the bayonet. The Ottomans overran part of the New Zealand trench and took some prisoners. In full daylight, reinforcements were only reaching the summit at a trickle. The fight raged all day until the trenches were clogged with the New Zealand dead. Around 5:00 pm, Malone was killed by a misdirected artillery shell, fired from either Anzac artillery or
17372-536: The Ottomans reinforced the peak. At 7:30 am, the New Zealanders were just 500 yards (460 m) away from the summit, but Ottoman and German reinforcements started arriving in heavy numbers. The commander of the Ottoman 9th Division , German Lieutenant-Colonel Hans Kannengiesser , had reached the summit and was preparing its defence. Kemal, the Ottoman colonel who had warned of the possibility of an attack, arrived soon after Kannengiesser. He ordered several regiments to
17574-468: The Pacific between 1769 and 1777, James Cook visited New Zealand . He was followed by an assortment of Europeans and Americans which including whalers, sealers, escaped convicts from New South Wales, missionaries and adventurers. Initially, contact with the indigenous Māori people was limited to the trading of goods, although interaction increased during the early decades of the 19th century with many trading and missionary stations being set up, especially in
17776-650: The Pacific for the extension of the North American fur trade . Alexander Mackenzie of the North West Company led the first, starting out in 1792, and a year later he became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande , reaching the ocean near present-day Bella Coola . This preceded the Lewis and Clark Expedition by twelve years. Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie's companion, John Finlay , founded
17978-554: The Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826). From its base in India, the company had been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to Qing China since
18180-640: The Sari Bair range, was one of the two objectives of the Battle of Sari Bair . British units that reached the summit of Chunuk Bair early on 8 August 1915 to engage the Turks were the Wellington Battalion of the New Zealand and Australian Division , 7th (Service) Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment ; and 8th (Service) Battalion, Welch Regiment , both of the 13th (Western) Division . The troops were reinforced in
18382-557: The Seven Years' War therefore left Britain as the world's most powerful maritime power . During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent. This was summarised at the time by the colonists' slogan " No taxation without representation ",
18584-740: The Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas . In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert's Land , which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada . Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France . Two years later,
18786-507: The Table Top, the New Zealanders climbed onto the ridge, leaving about 1,000 yards (910 m) to travel to the summit. The three battalions travelling along the north side of the spur were in position by 4:30 am, shortly before dawn. They advanced to a knoll dubbed "The Apex" which was only about 500 yards (460 m) from the summit where at the time there were only a handful of Ottoman infantry, about 20. The Canterbury battalion on
18988-533: The Welch pioneers and 350 amongst the Gloucesters, including all the officers of the battalion. For the wounded, the suffering was only beginning. Some took three days to travel from the higher reaches of Rhododendron Spur to the beach, a little over a kilometre away. Godley remained at his headquarters near the beach, largely ignorant of the state of the fighting. His plan for 9 August was to take Hill Q. The main force for
19190-432: The advantage. Tasked with a flanking role, the brigade was ill-prepared for this action, lacking the experience of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, and deploying without necessary combat clothing and equipment; late in the afternoon on 5 August, the brigade attacked an Ottoman strongpoint to the south of Katia around Hamisah, capturing over 400 prisoners and a quantity of equipment, including several machine guns. After
19392-641: The afternoon by two squads of the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment , also part of the New Zealand and Australian Division. The first troops on the summit were severely depleted by Ottoman return fire and were relieved at 10:30 pm on 8 August by the Otago Battalion (NZ), and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment , New Zealand and Australian Division. The New Zealand troops were relieved by 8:00 pm on 9 August by
19594-427: The age of the brigade's commander, upon arrival, the brigade was assigned to hold part of the defensive perimeter that had been established around the beachhead at Anzac Cove. The regiments were pushed into the line around Walker's Ridge and Russell's Top, assuming control of positions previously held by the New Zealanders, and undertook mainly defensive roles throughout the remainder of the campaign. During this time,
19796-642: The annexation of the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1664, following the capture of New Amsterdam , which was renamed New York . Although less financially successful than colonies in the Caribbean, these territories had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far greater numbers of English emigrants, who preferred their temperate climates. The British West Indies initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies. Settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628), but struggled until
19998-555: The apprenticeship system was abolished in 1838. The British government compensated slave-owners. Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century" by some historians, around 10 million sq mi (26 million km ) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire. Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia . Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted
20200-416: The area. By 10:00 am, the peaks had around 500 Ottoman reinforcements, whereas only hours ago, there had been just 20 sleeping soldiers. However, these reinforcements were spotted by Australian artillery observers, who pinned down movements by the Ottomans, some of whom fled down from the summit to better cover. In daylight, after an exhausting climb and faced by stiffening opposition, the prospects for
20402-580: The armies of the Dominions , as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies. The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day . Canadians viewed
20604-517: The assault was a brigade commanded by Brigadier-General Anthony Baldwin . Baldwin commanded the 38th Brigade of the 13th Division but the situation was so confused that the force he led towards Hill Q contained only one of his normal battalions, the 6th East Lancashires . He also had the 9th Worcestershires and 9th Warwicks from the 39th Brigade and the 5th Wiltshires from the 40th Brigade (who would later be redirected to reinforce Chunuk Bair). Plus he led two 10th (Irish) Division battalions;
20806-503: The beach to the peak of Chunuk Bair. The Ottomans had outposts at specific points along the spur: at the Table Top, Destroyer Hill and nearest the beach at Old No. 3 Outpost. There was also an Ottoman outpost on Bauchop's Hill to the north. All these outposts had to be cleared by the covering force, the four understrength regiments of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , before the main assault column could proceed up
21008-424: The brigade attempted to cross the upper Jordan River at Jisr Benat Yakub but found the bridge there had been destroyed; after forcing an alternate crossing another skirmish was fought against rearguard forces. On 29 September, the rearguard held up the advance again around Sasa, and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was committed to an attack in the evening, clearing the way for the 4th Light Horse Brigade to roll up part of
21210-491: The brigade briefly existed as a part-time militia formation in New South Wales until 1921 when its regiments were reorganised into cavalry brigades. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was initially raised as part of the militia in the early 1900s, being formed sometime between 1902 and 1905. That formation was raised in Victoria , and consisted of three Australian Light Horse regiments – the 7th, 8th and 9th – all of which bore
21412-405: The brigade continued operations against the Ottoman rearguard elements, and by 12 August the oasis area had been cleared. The brigade remained in the forward areas until 21 August. A period of patrolling and small scale raids followed as the front was slowly advanced towards the frontier with Palestine. By the end of the year, the British Empire forces were in a position to undertake an advance into
21614-508: The brigade took part in a series of actions as part of the wider Battle of Megiddo and Battle of Sharon . On 21 September, the brigade took part in the capture of Jenin , during which they drew swords to rout a large group of Ottoman troops that had been fleeing the battle zone. The brigade then advanced from Nazareth to capture Tiberias , near the Sea of Galilee, where they fought a brief action against withdrawing rearguard forces. Two days later,
21816-456: The brigade undertook training at Mena Camp. Training focused initially on individual skills, before progressing to collective training at squadron, regimental and eventually brigade level. The brigade's first commander was Colonel (later Brigadier General) Frederic Godfrey Hughes , a pre-war officer in the part-time militia. During the early part of the war, the brigade was attached to the New Zealand and Australian Division . In mid-May 1915,
22018-660: The brigade was deployed to Gallipoli as reinforcements for the infantry that had landed in April, who had become pinned around a small perimeter around a beachhead at Anzac Cove ; deployed in a dismounted role, the brigade was assigned as corps troops directly under the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps . About a quarter of the strength of each light horse regiment remained in Egypt with their horses; however, additional reinforcements were provided prior to their arrival at Gallipoli, to bring them up to strength. Although there were concerns about
22220-568: The bulk of British slave trading. For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven. At the end of the 16th century, England and the Dutch Empire began to challenge the Portuguese Empire 's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint-stock companies to finance
22422-516: The business of establishing its own overseas colonies. The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint-stock companies , most notably the East India Company , to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after
22624-481: The canal was expected, and the mounted troops were deployed to harass the advancing Ottoman forces. On the night of 3–4 August, the Battle of Romani began when an Ottoman force ran into positions occupied by the 1st Light Horse Brigade . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was in the No. 2 Section of the canal zone during the initial fighting at Romani, but was hurriedly pushed forward to Dueidar, although this proved too slow to press
22826-539: The charging Ottomans, as the Leinsters were rushed up to the Apex to reinforce. At the north side of Rhododendron Spur, the Ottomans descended from Chunuk Bair to the small plateau of the Farm and overran Baldwin's brigade, the Warwicks being almost annihilated, the 6th Royal Irish Rifles losing half its number and Baldwin being killed; the survivors retreating to Cheshire Ridge. The Turkish infantry were exhausted and fell back to
23028-463: The city. A period of rest followed during the winter months, during which a defensive line was occupied before operations recommenced in February 1918. The British Empire troops pushed their line east towards the Jordan River to occupy the western part of the valley , and in late April and early May, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade took part in raid on Es Salt . During the action, the brigade forced
23230-581: The coasts of Africa and Brazil to China , and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France . Although England tended to trail behind Portugal, Spain, and France in establishing overseas colonies, it carried out its first modern colonisation, referred to as the Munster Plantations , in 16th century Ireland by settling it with English and Welsh Protestant settlers. England had already colonised part of
23432-465: The colony was abandoned two years later. The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland: a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise. The episode had major political consequences, helping to persuade the government of the Kingdom of Scotland of the merits of turning the personal union with England into a political and economic one under the Kingdom of Great Britain established by
23634-479: The conditions for the 4th Light Horse Brigade 's charge. Late in the afternoon, the brigade was sent to assist the attack from the east, where resistance continued until late in the day when the garrison began to flee, resulting in the capture of the town and most of its vital water wells. The breakthrough at Beersheba paved the way for the opening of the Southern Palestine Offensive ; after Gaza
23836-457: The continent. During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company , occupied and annexed territories named after him, Rhodesia . The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report , which proposed unification and self-government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837. This began with
24038-489: The contributions of New Zealand and Australian forces to particular First World War battles. Musician PJ Harvey sings about the aftermath of this battle in the song "On Battleship Hill" from her 2011 album Let England Shake . The Battle of Chunuk Bair was featured in the Gallipoli miniseries in 2015. 40°15′7.2″N 26°18′30.6″E / 40.252000°N 26.308500°E / 40.252000; 26.308500 British Empire The British Empire comprised
24240-555: The country following the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. Several people who helped establish the Munster plantations later played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country Men . In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration. That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with
24442-525: The covering forces had captured their objectives by 10:30 p.m. the attacking columns would advance at 10:30 p.m. to reach the ridge an hour before dawn. Once Hill Q and Hill 971 had been captured, the Left Assaulting Column was to dig in and the Right Assaulting Column would consolidate Chunuk Bair and capture Battleship Hill, assisted by dawn attacks on the Nek and Baby 700 from the Nek from Russell's Top, by dismounted Australian light horse from
24644-493: The days before the attack, the brigade undertook reconnaissance work near Wadi el Ghuzze. The Ottoman position was located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) inland from the coast, around the edge of the dunes. It was strongly defended and despite efforts to reinforce the attack with tanks and gas, the direct attack proved costly and unsuccessful. The Imperial Mounted Division was heavily committed, undertaking several dismounted attacks against two south-eastern redoubts, during which
24846-477: The decline of the empire. India , Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence in 1947 as part of a larger decolonisation movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and the handover of Hong Kong to China on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire, though fourteen overseas territories that are remnants of
25048-425: The defences, but defensive fire checked their efforts and forced them to dismount. Using fire and manoeuvre techniques, a general advance began but it was carried out over too narrow a front, and after two hours was subjected to a heavy counter-attack. This triggered a withdrawal, during which a heavy artillery bombardment killed many of the 8th Light Horse Regiment's horses that were being led back by hand. In response,
25250-589: The early part of the war, each comprising three regiments, a machine gun squadron, a field ambulance, a veterinary section, supply, artillery and other supporting sections. As well, two divisional cavalry regiments were formed. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade was raised as part of the 3rd Contingent that was hastily put together at the beginning of October 1914. Brigade headquarters opened in Melbourne in early November, with equipment issuing, training and troop organisation beginning at Broadmeadows on 6 November. The brigade
25452-427: The east of the canal. In late March, the 8th Light Horse Regiment undertook a reconnaissance patrol to Muksheib to ascertain available water supplies there. While the defences were built up in the north, the light horsemen undertook a series of raids in the southern Sinai, to channel the Ottoman troops towards the main defensive positions. These raids were tasked with attacking outposts and destroying water sources. Over
25654-403: The eastern Sinai, following the establishment of a railway and pipeline through the northern Sinai. In late December, the brigade took part in the Battle of Maghdaba , after a 40-kilometre (25 mi) advance across the desert. On 23 December, the brigade carried out a flanking move to the north of the town, to cut off the garrison, while other elements of the Anzac Mounted Division attacked from
25856-633: The empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War , Britain's colonies in East Asia and Southeast Asia were occupied by the Empire of Japan . Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies , the damage to British prestige and the British economy helped accelerate
26058-531: The empire remain under British sovereignty . After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined the Commonwealth of Nations , a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom, retain the same person as monarch , currently King Charles III . The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England , following
26260-494: The evening of 8 August, the fighting subsided and the Wellington Battalion was relieved. Out of the 760 men of the battalion who had reached the summit, 711 had become casualties. Whereas Malone had resisted sending his men on a suicidal charge when told to follow the Auckland Battalion on 7 August, a day later the outcome would be the same. The New Army battalions had also suffered greatly. There were 417 casualties amongst
26462-570: The exception of international relations . Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self-government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901 . The term "dominion status" was officially introduced at the 1907 Imperial Conference . As the dominions gained greater autonomy, they would come to be recognized as distinct realms of the empire with unique customs and symbols of their own. Imperial identity, through imagery such as patriotic artworks and banners, began developing into
26664-476: The first couple of years after the war, plans were made to reorganise the home forces to meet the needs of peacetime while providing a strong base upon which to mobilise if necessary. By 1921, when the AIF was officially disbanded, plans were approved to raise two cavalry divisions, each of three brigades, utilising a mix of voluntary enlistment and compulsory service. At this time, the brigades were designated as cavalry brigades, rather than light horse brigades, and
26866-658: The first permanent European settlement in British Columbia , Fort St. John . The North West Company sought further exploration and backed expeditions by David Thompson , starting in 1797, and later by Simon Fraser . These pushed into the wilderness territories of the Rocky Mountains and Interior Plateau to the Strait of Georgia on the Pacific Coast, expanding British North America westward. The East India Company fought
27068-399: The first wave set out. Attacking across the narrow front, the first wave of 150 men were all killed or wounded shortly after leaving their trenches. Nevertheless, three more waves were pushed forward before the attack was halted. Total casualties in the two regiments amounted 234 killed and 138 wounded. On 27 August, the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments were sent as reinforcements to support
27270-562: The following months. William Hobson declared British sovereignty over all New Zealand on 21 May 1840, over the North Island by cession and over the South Islnd by discovery (the island was sparsely populated and deemed terra nullius ). Hobson became Lieutenant-Governor, subject to Governor Sir George Gipps in Sydney, with British possession of New Zealand initially administered from Australia as
27472-571: The following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of the territories administered by the East India Company and Ceylon, where slavery was ended in 1844). Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship". Facing further opposition from abolitionists,
27674-413: The foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23 percent of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35.5 million km (13.7 million sq mi), 24 per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its constitutional , legal , linguistic , and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it
27876-679: The government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement , and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788. Unusually, Australia was claimed through proclamation. Indigenous Australians were considered too uncivilised to require treaties, and colonisation brought disease and violence that together with the deliberate dispossession of land and culture were devastating to these peoples. Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840, to Tasmania until 1853 and to Western Australia until 1868. The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold, mainly because of
28078-452: The high ground to the north-west, which helped stabilise the line around Hill 405. The 10th Light Horse Regiment, forming the divisional reserve, also helped fill a gap in the line late in the day. Despite some progress in entering the town, the attempt to capture Gaza failed when the order to withdraw was given as night fell due to concerns about the arrival of Ottoman reinforcements. A second attempt at capturing Gaza came on 19 April. In
28280-426: The increasingly healthy profits of colonial trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces —a series of Anglo-Dutch Wars —which would eventually strengthen England's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch. In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from
28482-424: The intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution. Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars , as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy . The United States Congress declared war,
28684-426: The intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic. In 1583, he embarked on a second attempt. On this occasion, he formally claimed the harbour of the island of Newfoundland, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England and was succeeded by his half-brother, Walter Raleigh , who
28886-402: The key to unlocking the Ottoman defence. Once the town was captured, Chauvel withdrew the bulk of his forces towards El Arish to replenish supplies and rest, and to keep them out of range of Ottoman reinforcements; meanwhile, two regiments from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade formed a rearguard to delay the Ottomans and prevent them from retaking Rafa. In February and March 1917, the Desert Column
29088-436: The larger trade, by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch. During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent , as the English East India Company and its French counterpart , struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire . The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which
29290-415: The light horsemen undertook patrolling operations, manned outposts, carried out sniping and worked to dig trenches and lay down wire obstacles. In August, the Allies attempted to break the deadlock on the Gallipoli peninsula, launching the August Offensive in an effort to secure the heights around Sari Bair, Chunuk Bair and Baby 700. During this effort, the 8th and 10th Light Horse Regiments took part in
29492-455: The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government looked for an alternative, eventually turning to Australia . On his first of three voyages commissioned by the government, James Cook reached New Zealand in October 1769. He was the first European to circumnavigate and map the country. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries , traders and adventurers but no attempt
29694-509: The lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the " Scramble for Africa " by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims. The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan . A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated
29896-465: The main fighting at Romani, the brigade was involved in flanking operations around Hod el Sagi, and then later supported the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade during the Battle of Bir el Abd on 9 August, tasked with advancing to Salmana on the El Arish road, in an effort to threaten the Ottoman left flank. The Ottoman defences proved too strong, though, and initial efforts by the brigade proved slow. The troopers advanced on horseback, attempting to rush
30098-495: The main ridge and the Farm plateau became part of no man's land. The loss of Chunuk Bair marked the end of the Battle of Sari Bair . Fighting would continue elsewhere until August 29 but there would be no more attempts to capture the heights. The Apex formed the new front line on Rhododendron Spur. In 1919 burial teams found the Farm still covered in the bones of the men from Baldwin's brigade; their remains were interred in The Farm Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery when it
30300-433: The most successful colony in the Americas, and one of the most densely populated places in the world. This boom led to the spread of sugar cultivation across the Caribbean, financed the development of non-plantation colonies in North America, and accelerated the growth of the Atlantic slave trade , particularly the triangular trade of slaves, sugar and provisions between Africa, the West Indies and Europe. To ensure that
30502-443: The new attack. A 45-minute naval bombardment would start at 3:30 the next morning. Twelve machine guns would provide covering fire to the attacking forces. Following a naval bombardment of the peak and a delay, the Wellingtons, followed by the Gloucesters, reached Chunuk Bair virtually unopposed. The preceding barrage had driven most of the Ottoman defenders away as the ground was too hard and rocky for deep entrenchments. Chunuk Bair
30704-418: The north-west. The attack was heavily resisted, and the Australians lack artillery support to suppress the defenders; late in the day, as water for the horses became a concern the order was given for the Australians withdraw. At the last moment, elements from the 1st Light Horse Brigade secured a redoubt to the north-west, while the 10th Light Horse Regiment moved around the eastern flank and took two positions to
30906-428: The north. The first of several Church of England missionaries arrived in 1814 and as well as their missionary role, they soon become the only form of European authority in a land that was not subject to British jurisdiction: the closest authority being the New South Wales governor in Sydney. The sale of weapons to Māori resulted from 1818 on in the intertribal warfare of the Musket Wars , with devastating consequences for
31108-427: The northern flank advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain north of the Anzac perimeter. The division had been reinforced with most of the 13th (Western) Division (Lieutenant-General F. C. Shaw ), the 29th Indian Infantry Brigade and the Indian Mountain Artillery Brigade, to about 20,000 front-line infantry. The attack would be conducted by a Right Assaulting Column up Rhododendron Spur to Chunuk Bair and
31310-454: The other powers of Europe. In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession , which lasted for thirteen years. In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland , which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama . Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada , and affected by malaria ,
31512-495: The outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739, Spanish privateers attacked British merchant shipping along the Triangle Trade routes. In 1746, the Spanish and British began peace talks, with the King of Spain agreeing to stop all attacks on British shipping; however, in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid Britain lost its slave-trading rights in Latin America . In the East Indies, British and Dutch merchants continued to compete in spices and textiles. With textiles becoming
31714-421: The outbreak of the First World War. Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany's overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and German Samoa respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement . This agreement
31916-454: The outbreak of the war August 1914 the Australian Government decided to raise the all-volunteer Australian Imperial Force (AIF) consisting of 20,000 troops comprising an infantry division and a light horse brigade of three regiments to be used at the discretion of Britain. These regiments were raised from volunteers for overseas service, as the provisions of the Defence Act did not allow conscripts to be deployed overseas. Nevertheless, many of
32118-434: The passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada . Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies. With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament , the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into Canada, a confederation enjoying full self-government with
32320-409: The peninsula, as part of the general withdrawal that followed the decision to abandon the position. The brigade was tasked with holding the line while the evacuation took place; a party of 40 men from the 8th Light Horse Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Maygar were among the last to leave. They were subsequently returned to Egypt, sailing via Mudros . After the evacuation from Gallipoli,
32522-410: The period 11–14 April, a squadron from the 9th Light Horse Regiment, along with a small number of men from the 8th Light Horse Regiment, undertook a raid on Jifjafa , advancing 80 kilometres (50 mi) east of the Suez Canal to attack a bore drilling site; the raid proved successful and resulted in the destruction of the well and capture of the small Ottoman garrison force. By late July an attack on
32724-448: The power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire , Qajar dynasty and Qing dynasty . This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game". As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India. In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan , but
32926-403: The process of demobilising the AIF continued, although this would not be complete until 1921. At this time, the militia formations that had remained in Australia for home service were reorganised to realign them with the recruitment areas that had contributed to the AIF regiments, and to replicate the AIF's organisational structure and designations. These formations had continued to exist alongside
33128-417: The recruits were drawn from the various militia light horse formations created as a consequence of the Kitchener Report 1910 and the introduction of Universal Training, although they were assigned to freshly raised units that were separate to the light horse regiments raised as part of the militia. Initial enlistments outstripped expectations and, as a result, a total of three light horse brigades were created in
33330-405: The region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente . The destruction of the Imperial Russian Navy by the Imperial Japanese Navy at the Battle of Tsushima during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 limited its threat to the British. The Dutch East India Company had founded the Dutch Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as
33532-450: The role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica , and a foreign policy of " splendid isolation ". Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam , which has been described by some historians as an " Informal Empire ". British imperial strength
33734-400: The rugged terrain was unsuitable for an attack. However, the commanding officer of the section, Mustafa Kemal , commander of the Ottoman 19th Division , anticipated an attack. He felt that the peak of Chunuk Bair was especially vulnerable. He was unable to convince his superiors to significantly strengthen the defences. The approach to the peak was made along Rhododendron Spur, which ran from
33936-461: The six original Ottoman divisions having grown to a force of 16 divisions. The British planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps (Lieutenant-General Frederick Stopford ), at Suvla , 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Anzac, followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north-west to Hill 971 . At Anzac an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by the New Zealand and Australian Division (Major-General Alexander Godley ) on
34138-423: The size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the Presidency Armies , the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys , led by British officers. The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years' War (1756–1763) involving France, Britain, and the other major European powers. The signing of
34340-403: The sole claim that Malone refused a direct order was made by NCO Charlie Clark in 1981. Malone had argued with a British officer, Major Arthur Temperley, who was Johnston's brigade major but junior to Malone. Two charges had been made before Godley finally called off the daytime attack. Hundreds of Anzacs lay dead and wounded before the peak. Godley spent the rest of the day of 7 August devising
34542-415: The south side of the spur was lost and delayed. Overall commander of the attack, Colonel Johnston, made the decision to wait for the last battalion to arrive before making the attack, disobeying original orders to not halt for any reason. The attack on Chunuk Bair was the main element in a wider offensive. At 4:30 am a supporting attack was planned at the Nek against Baby 700, intended to coincide with
34744-401: The south. This triggered the collapse of the Ottoman defence and allowed for a general advance. In early January 1917, another action was fought to capture Rafa . Initially, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was held back in reserve, but as the dismounted attack stalled, they too were committed. At the point that the attack broke down, the New Zealanders captured one of the redoubts which proved to be
34946-450: The sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired. The company's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion in 1857, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline. The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the company and assumed direct control over India through
35148-439: The spur to the summit. The Auckland Mounted Rifles cleared Old No. 3 Outpost and the Wellington Mounted Rifles took Destroyer Hill and the Table Top. The Otago Mounted Rifles and Canterbury Mounted Rifles captured Bauchop's Hill, which was named after the Otago's commander, Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Bauchop , who was killed during the attack. The fighting was heavy as the Ottomans had several machine guns in positions and
35350-419: The subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule. Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect. On each of his three voyages to
35552-418: The successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead an expedition to discover a northwest passage to Asia via the North Atlantic. Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the first voyage of Christopher Columbus , and made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland . He believed he had reached Asia, and there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to
35754-444: The territorial designation of the Victorian Mounted Rifles . The 7th was based in several locations including Seymour , Broadford and Mansfield ; the 8th was based in Wangaratta , Rutherglen , Beechworth and other smaller centres; and the 9th was based in Echuca , Ballarat , Bendigo and several other smaller depots. In 1912, an Army-wide reorganisation resulted in some regimental designations being redistributed. At this time,
35956-462: The town and protect the infantry attack from reinforcements; however, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was detached from the Imperial Mounted Division to reinforce the Anzac Mounted Division's attack to the north-west of the town, around El Meshaheran and El Mineh, in the early afternoon. Later, when the screen requested reinforcements after coming under attack from Ottoman reinforcements, the 8th and 9th Light Horse Regiments were sent back and secured some of
36158-446: The trenches were well protected. Ottoman wounded and prisoners were bayoneted after the fighting was over. In all the New Zealanders lost about 100 men in clearing the outposts. While the attack efforts were successful, the plan was now running two hours behind schedule, making it difficult to reach the summit before first light. The advance was initially made up the valleys, or deres , on either side of Rhododendron Spur and once past
36360-400: The troops on Chunuk Bair. By 5:00 am, the Ottomans counter-attacked the Wellingtonians. The slope of the hill was so steep that the Ottomans could get within 22 yards (20 m) of the trenches without being seen. The New Zealanders fought desperately to hold off the Ottomans, firing their rifles and those of their fallen companions until the wood of the stock was too hot to touch. When
36562-440: The voyages—the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company , chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade , an effort focused mainly on two regions: the East Indies archipelago , and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other. Although England eclipsed
36764-430: The withdrawing force, securing a large number of prisoners. In the final advance towards Damascus, the brigade was tasked with interdicting the Damascus – Homs road, but was delayed around the Barada Gorge, before entering Damascus and moving through the town to complete their task. They were involved in several minor actions to the north while the remainder of the Australian Mounted Division remained in Damascus. This
36966-405: Was a humiliation for Spain, which practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast. This opened the way to British expansion in the area, and a number of expeditions took place; firstly a naval expedition led by George Vancouver which explored the inlets around the Pacific North West, particularly around Vancouver Island . On land, expeditions sought to discover a river route to
37168-406: Was a lull in the fighting. During this time, the troopers rotated between occupying the defensive line, resting and training; the brigade received cavalry training during this time, and was instructed in the use of swords, but the weapons were not issued at this time and the troopers used bayonets during this training. In early July, Ottoman and German forces launched an attack on the troops holding
37370-418: Was brutally effective – overrun the defenders by sheer weight of numbers. Mustafa Kemal had stopped the advance of IX Corps at Suvla, with a counter-attack at dawn on 9 August and late in the day reconnoitred Chunuk Bair and planned an attack with six battalions. There were about 2,000 defenders on or below the summit of Chunuk Bair. Baldwin's brigade at the Farm numbered a further 3,000. The Ottomans swept over
37572-400: Was captured , the brigade took part in the pursuit of the withdrawing Ottoman forces and the advance towards Jerusalem, during which they played a supporting role in actions at Haeira and Sheria and Mughar Ridge , as the Australian Mounted Division advanced towards Summil. For the capture of Jerusalem , the 10th Light Horse Regiment was detached to the British 5th Mounted Brigade to enter
37774-482: Was constructed on the site after the Armistice. Charles Bean , the Australian official historian, wrote that the Ottomans had 9,200 casualties in four days at Chunuk Bair and Hill 971, from 1,800–2,000 on the 19th Division sector around Baby 700 and the top of Monash Valley and 6,930 losses in the 16th Division , mainly at Lone Pine. The total of Ottoman casualties at Anzac was about 18,000 men and British casualties were 12,000–13,000 men. A memorial arch,
37976-472: Was described as " the empire on which the sun never sets ", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories. During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France , and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in
38178-410: Was directed by Martin Howells. (see https://ww100.govt.nz/performance-of-'once-on-chunuk-bair'-christchurch Archived 8 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine ) Composer Dwayne Bloomfield was in 2001 inspired by this battle to write the original work for brass band Behold the Narrows from the Hill describing the battle. This was the first of several brass band works he has composed commemorating
38380-481: Was founded as a haven by Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims . Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive for many English would-be colonists to risk the arduous trans-Atlantic voyage : Maryland was established by English Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists . England's North American holdings were further expanded by
38582-472: Was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present-day North Carolina , but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail. In 1603, James VI of Scotland ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London , ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations' colonial infrastructures to
38784-411: Was hard to defend. It was only possible to scrape shallow trenches amongst the rocks, and the peak was exposed to fire from the main Ottoman line on Battleship Hill to the south and from Hill Q to the north. If the original plan for the offensive had worked, Hill Q would have been in Allied hands. Allanson's battalion of Gurkhas reached it briefly the following day but were in no position to offer relief to
38986-404: Was made to settle the country or establish possession. The coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch in 1606 , but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770, after leaving New Zealand, James Cook charted the eastern coast, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales . In 1778, Joseph Banks , Cook's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to
39188-429: Was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca , who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state. The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support. Over 2.5 million men served in
39390-458: Was organised into three regiments – the 8th , 9th and 10th – each consisting of approximately 520 fighting men organised into three squadrons. The 8th was recruited from Victoria, the 9th from Victoria and South Australia, and the 10th from Western Australia. These units were raised throughout September and October, and the brigade embarked for the Middle East in late 1914 and early 1915. After arriving in Egypt in February – March 1915,
39592-413: Was renamed the Australian Mounted Division, and a new Yeomanry Mounted Division was created as the Desert Column was expanded to a full corps, the Desert Mounted Corps . In the aftermath of the Second Battle of Gaza, British planners decided to attempt an indirect approach, focusing their efforts on Beersheba, about 50 kilometres (31 mi) from Gaza in an effort to turn the Ottoman flank. On 30 October,
39794-430: Was reorganised and expanded. The arrival of several brigades of British yeomanry troopers from Salonika resulted in the decision to raise a new division, the Imperial Mounted Division . In order to bolster these troops with an experienced element, the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was transferred from the Anzac Mounted Division to the newly formed Imperial Mounted Division. At this time, the Inverness-shire Battery remained with
39996-440: Was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World . At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire") were beginning to press for the establishment of England's own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from
40198-427: Was supported by the British prime minister , William Gladstone , who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation, many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose
40400-405: Was the brigade's last major action of the war. The brigade remained around Damascus until late in October when it began the advance towards Homs where the Australian Mounted Division was to replace the 4th Cavalry Division. On 30 October, the Ottomans surrendered, and the Armistice of Mudros came into effect, bringing an end to the fighting in the theatre. After the conclusion of hostilities,
40602-481: Was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia. The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia , Kazakhstan , and Turkmenistan . For a while, it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in
40804-401: Was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph , new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line . The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The company's army had first joined forces with
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