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144-538: The medieval history of the monastery appears in the Chronicon Vulturnense , an illuminated manuscript. A monk of the monastery, Iohannes, composed the Chronicle in circa 1130, using sources from the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries which were available to him, probably in the monastery archives, as well as hagiographic inclusions about some of the historic figures. The aims of the Chronicle may have been to codify

288-513: A synod at Melfi confirming Richard as Count of Aversa and Prince of Capua, and Richard swore allegiance to the papacy for his holdings. The Drengots then made Capua their headquarters for ruling Aversa and Gaeta. Richard and Jordan expanded their new Gaetan and Capuan territories northwards toward Latium , into the Papal States . In 1066 Richard marched on Rome, but was easily repelled. Jordan's tenure as Richard's successor marked an alliance with

432-660: A German prison; this ended the Lombard revolt. In 1024, Norman mercenaries under Ranulf Drengot were in the service of Guaimar III when he and Pandulf IV besieged Pandulf V in Capua. In 1026, after an 18-month siege, Capua surrendered and Pandulf IV was reinstated as prince. During the next few years Ranulf would attach himself to Pandulf, but in 1029 he joined Sergius IV of Naples (whom Pandulf expelled from Naples in 1027, probably with Ranulf's assistance). In 1029, Ranulf and Sergius recaptured Naples. In early 1030 Sergius gave Ranulf

576-519: A brief illness. Upon learning of Gregory V's death, Otto III installed his long-time tutor Gerbert of Aurillac as Pope Sylvester II . The use of this papal name was not without cause: it recalled the first pope of this name, who had allegedly created the "Christian Empire" together with Emperor Constantine the Great. This was part of Otto III's campaign to further link himself with both the Roman Empire and

720-403: A brilliant, energetic, pious leader, Otto was portrayed by nineteenth century historians as a whimsical, overidealistic dreamer who failed in his duty towards Germany. Modern historians generally see him in a positive light, but several facets of the emperor remain enigmatic and debates on the true intentions behind his Imperial Renovation ( renovatio imperii Romanorum ) program continue. Otto III

864-625: A century later and based on William's work. Some scholars have combined the Salerno and Gargano tales, and John Julius Norwich suggested that the meeting between Melus and the Normans had been arranged by Guaimar. Melus had been in Salerno just before his visit to Monte Gargano. Another story involves the exile of a group of brothers from the Drengot family . One of the brothers, Osmund (according to Orderic Vitalis ) or Gilbert (according to Amatus and Peter

1008-682: A county, Loritello , in 1061 and continued his expansion into Lombard Abruzzo. He conquered the Lombard county of Teate (modern Chieti ) and besieged Ortona , which became the goal of Norman efforts in that region. Loritello soon reached as far north as the Pescara and the Papal States. In 1078 Robert allied with Jordan of Capua to ravage the Papal Abruzzo, but after a 1080 treaty with Pope Gregory VII they were obligated to respect papal territory. In 1100 Robert of Loritello extended his principality across

1152-659: A detachment of the elite Varangian Guard was sent to Italy to fight the Normans. The armies met at the Ofanto near Cannae , the site of Hannibal 's victory over the Romans in 216 BC, and the Battle of Cannae was a decisive Byzantine victory; Amatus wrote that only ten Normans survived from a contingent of 250. After the battle, Ranulf Drengot (one of the Norman survivors) was elected leader of their company. Boioannes protected his gains by building

1296-593: A disparate group into the semblance of a nation. In 1035, the same year William the Conqueror would become Duke of Normandy , Tancred of Hauteville 's three eldest sons ( William "Iron Arm" , Drogo and Humphrey ) arrived in Aversa from Normandy . In 1037, or the summer of 1038 (sources differ), Norman influence was further solidified when Emperor Conrad II deposed Pandulf and invested Ranulf as Count of Aversa. In 1038 Ranulf invaded Capua, expanding his polity into one of

1440-468: A fortress at San Marco d'Alunzio . Roger returned in late 1061 and captured Troina . In June 1063 he defeated a Muslim army at the Battle of Cerami , securing the Norman foothold on the island. Robert returned in 1064, bypassing Castrogiovanni on his way to Palermo ; this campaign was eventually called off. In 1068 Roger struck another defeat against the Muslims at the Battle of Misilmeri . In August 1071,

1584-511: A fortress at the Apennine pass, guarding the entrance to the Apulian plain . In 1019 Troia (as the fortress was known) was garrisoned by Boioannes' Norman troops, an indication of Norman willingness to fight on either side. With Norman mercenaries on both sides, they would obtain good terms for the release of their brethren from their captors regardless of outcome. Alarmed by the shift in momentum in

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1728-602: A group of 40 or a much-larger force of around 250) under "Rodulfus" (Rudolf), fleeing Richard II, came to Pope Benedict VIII of Rome. The pope sent them to Salerno (or Capua ) to seek mercenary employment against the Byzantines because of the latter's invasion of papal Beneventan territory. There, they met the Beneventan primates (leading men): Landulf V of Benevento , Pandulf IV of Capua , (possibly) Guaimar III of Salerno and Melus of Bari. According to Leo's chronicle, "Rudolf"

1872-517: A hymn in honour of the Frankish family. The rest of the monks were obliged to swear an oath of loyalty. Charlemagne conceded fiscal and jurisdictional privileges to the community, making it one of the most independent and powerful abbeys of Europe. The abbots Iosue, Talaricus and Epiphanius in the early ninth century increased the numbers of monks to over 300 and expanded the territories and possessions all over central and southern Italy. Between 779 and 873

2016-616: A lieutenant of the king. When Boniface VII died in 985, Pope John XV was chosen to succeed him. Although the details of the election are unknown, it is likely that Crescentius II played a key role in the process. For a number of years, Crescentius II exercised authority over the city, severely limiting the autonomy of the pope in the process. When the Empress Theophanu was in Rome between 989 and 991, Crescentius II nominally subordinated himself to her, though he maintained his position as ruler of

2160-555: A monastery in Germany, where he would die in 1001. Crescentius II retreated again to the Tomb of Hadrian, the traditional stronghold of the Crescentii , and was then besieged by Otto III's imperial army. Towards the end of April, the stronghold was breached, and Crescentius II was taken prisoner and executed by decapitation . His body was put on public display at Monte Mario . Otto III made Rome

2304-420: A monastery, but only at the end of the tenth century were they able to reestablish the community in a permanent way, and then with the aid of the emperors Otto II and Otto III . The location of the monastery was transferred to a new, more defensible position on the east side of the river. In 1115 Pope Paschal II consecrated the new abbey church. The twelfth-century Norman conquest of Abruzzo eventually led to

2448-515: A monk from Monte Cassino excavated the area to the east of the river, where the later medieval monastery was built. The San Vincenzo Project began in 1980, led by Richard Hodges , then of the University of Sheffield , and the Soprintendenza archaeologica del Molise . Excavation continued between 1980-1986, in the area around the so-called Crypt of Epiphanius and the monastery on the west side of

2592-800: A new monastic community, the Benedictine nuns of the Connecticut Abbey of Regina Laudis who had to leave the monastery in 2015. During the earthquake of 2016 another monastic foundation brought eight young benedictin nuns to the Abbey of S. Vincenzo, willing to continue monastic life in the millenary abbey. 41°38′56.02″N 14°05′01.00″E  /  41.6488944°N 14.0836111°E  / 41.6488944; 14.0836111 Norman conquest of southern Italy Timeline The Norman conquest of southern Italy lasted from 999 to 1194, involving many battles and independent conquerors. In 1130,

2736-524: A newly arrived band of Normans, sent by Pope Benedict, who met him (with or without Guaimar's aid) at Monte Gargano. Tornikios sent an army, led by Leo Passianos , against the Lombard-Norman coalition. Passianos and Melus met on the Fortore at Arenula ; the battle was either indecisive ( William of Apulia ) or a victory for Melus ( Leo of Ostia and Amatus). Tornikios then took command, leading his forces into

2880-520: A nun in the abbey. Sophia refused to accept the authority of the Bishop of Hildesheim, instead recognizing only that of the Archbishop of Mainz. The conflict escalated until it was brought before the royal court of Otto III and Theophanu. The royal intervention eased the tensions between the parties by providing that both bishops would anoint Sophia, while anointing the remaining nuns of the abbey would be left to

3024-524: A peace settlement. With Otto III in control of the city, Gregory V was reinstated as pope. John XVI fled, but the Emperor's troops pursued and captured him, cut off his nose and ears, cut out his tongue, broke his fingers, blinded him, and then brought him before Otto III and Gregory V for judgement. At the intercession of Saint Nilus the Younger , one of his countrymen, Otto III spared John XVI's life and sent him to

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3168-680: A rebellion by the Roman aristocracy, which forced him to flee the city. While marching to reclaim the city in 1002, Otto suffered a sudden fever and died in Castle Paterno in Faleria at the age of 21. With no clear heir to succeed him, his early death threw the Empire into political crisis. Otto was a charismatic figure associated with several legends and notable figures of his time. Opinions on Otto III and his reign vary considerably. Recognized in his own day as

3312-774: A second encounter near Civita . This second battle was a victory for Melus, although Lupus Protospatharius and the anonymous chronicler of Bari recorded a defeat. A third battle (a decisive victory for Melus) took place at Vaccaricia, modern Vaccareccia  [ it ] in Rieti ; the region from the Fortore to Trani was in his hands, and in September Tornikios was replaced by Basil Boioannes (who arrived in December). According to Amatus, there were five consecutive Lombard and Norman victories by October 1018. At Boioannes ' request,

3456-537: A short while. Prior to his sudden death in December 983, Otto II had installed Pietro Canepanova as pope. Calling himself Pope John XIV , Canepanova was a non-Roman from Lombardy who had served as Otto II's chancellor in Italy. After Otto II's death, John XIV intervened in the dispute between Henry II of Bavaria and Theophanu over the regency, issuing an edict ordering Henry to turn Otto over to his mother. During that turmoil,

3600-572: A single state. Compared to the conquest of England, it was unplanned and disorganised, but equally complete. There is little evidence for Viking activity in Italy as a precursor to the arrival of the Normans in 999, but some raiding is recorded. Ermentarius of Noirmoutier and the Annales Bertiniani provide contemporary evidence for Vikings based in Frankia (France) proceeding to Iberia and then to Sicily around 860. In 860, according to an account by

3744-468: A site which had been occupied in the pre-Roman period by Samnite peoples, and which had a villa or estate in the early to mid-fifth century. The late-antique fortified estate was abandoned in the fifth century, then in the mid-fifth century, a funerary church was constructed. According to the Chronicon Vulturnense , the monastery was founded by three noblemen from Benevento named Paldo, Tato and Taso, in 731. The story goes that they were advised to found

3888-568: Is 999, although it may be assumed that they had visited before then. In that year, according to some traditional sources of uncertain origin, Norman pilgrims returning from the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem via Apulia stayed with Prince Guaimar III in Salerno . The city and its environs were attacked by Saracens from Africa demanding payment of an overdue annual tribute. While Guaimar began to collect

4032-487: Is thus recognized as the founder of the independent Polish state and the first ruler of Poland, and his son, Boleslaus I, was the first to be crowned King of Poland. Mieszko I remained a powerful ally of Otto I for the remainder of his life. Although he was a pagan, in 965 he married the Christian Dobrawa , daughter of Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia . He then converted to Christianity in 966, bringing Poland closer to

4176-619: The Annales Ecclesiastici of Baronius in the 17th century, the Salernitan story became the accepted history. Although its factual accuracy was questioned periodically during the following centuries, it has been accepted (with some modifications) by most scholars since. Another historical account of the arrival of the first Normans in Italy, the "Gargano tradition", appears in primary chronicles without reference to any previous Norman presence. According to this account Norman pilgrims at

4320-754: The katepano , John Curcuas , was killed in battle. In March 1010 his successor, Basil Mesardonites , disembarked with reinforcements and besieged the rebels in the city. The Byzantine citizens negotiated with Basil and forced the Lombard leaders, Melus and his brother-in-law Dattus , to flee. Basil entered the city on 11 June 1011, reestablishing Byzantine authority. He did not follow his victory with severe sanctions, only sending Melus' family (including his son, Argyrus ) to Constantinople . Basil died in 1016, after years of peace in southern Italy. Leo Tornikios Kontoleon arrived as Basil's successor in May of that year. After Basil's death, Melus revolted again; this time, he used

4464-692: The Archbishop of Mainz , was ex officio the secular Archchancellor of Germany . Though Theophanu was regent, Willigis was given considerable leeway in administering the kingdom. One of the Empress's greatest achievements was her success in maintaining German supremacy over Bohemia , as Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia , was forced to accept the authority of Otto III. In 986 the five-year-old Otto III celebrated Easter at Quedlinburg. The four major dukes of Germany (Henry II of Bavaria, Conrad I of Swabia, Henry III of Carinthia, and Bernard I of Saxony) also paid tribute to

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4608-468: The Bishop of Utrecht , ahead of him in order to attempt a peace negotiation between him and the conspirators. The negotiations failed when the conspirators refused to swear allegiance to anyone other than Otto III, with Bernard I, Duke of Saxony , maintaining allegiance to the child king. In response to his failure to gain control over Saxony, Henry II promised to hold future peace negotiations and then headed for

4752-576: The County of Aversa as a fief; that seigniory was long considered to be the first Norman lordship in southern Italy, although this primacy is currently attributed to the county of Ariano  [ it ] which was officially recognized by the Emperor Henry II since 1022. Sergius also gave his sister, the widow of the duke of Gaeta, in marriage to Ranulf. In 1034, however, Sergius' sister died and Ranulf returned to Pandulf. According to Amatus: For

4896-519: The Duchy of Bavaria . With his long-standing familial ties in the region, many bishops and counts recognized him as the rightful heir to the throne. Henry III, Duke of Bavaria , who had been installed as Duke by Otto II, refused to recognize Henry II and remained loyal to Otto III. With his successes and failures in Saxony and Bavaria, Henry II's claims depended on gaining support in the Duchy of Franconia , which

5040-617: The Fortore , taking Bovino and Dragonara . The conquest of the Molise is poorly documented. Boiano (the principal town) may have been conquered the year before the Battle of Civitate by Robert Guiscard, who had encircled the Matese massif. The county of Boiano was bestowed on Rudolf of Moulins . His grandson, Hugh , expanded it eastward (occupying Toro and San Giovanni in Galdo ) and westward (annexing

5184-453: The Histories of Ralph Glaber , "Rodulfus" leaves Normandy after displeasing Count Richard (Richard II). The sources disagree about which brother was the leader on the southern trip. Orderic and William of Jumièges , in the latter's Gesta Normannorum Ducum , name Osmund; Glaber names Rudolph, and Leo, Amatus and Adhemar of Chabannes name Gilbert. According to most southern-Italian sources,

5328-600: The Mediterranean . These groups gathered in several places, establishing fiefdoms and states of their own, uniting and elevating their status to de facto independence within 50 years of their arrival. Unlike the Norman Conquest of England (1066), which took a few years after one decisive battle , the conquest of southern Italy was the product of decades and a number of battles, few decisive. Many territories were conquered independently, and only later were unified into

5472-742: The Muslim Emirate of Sicily at the Battle of Stilo . Otto II had been campaigning in Southern Italy with hopes of annexing the whole of Italy into the Holy Roman Empire . Otto II himself escaped the battle unharmed but many important imperial officials were among the battle's casualties. Following the defeat and at the insistence of the Empire's nobles, Otto II called an assembly of the Imperial Diet in Verona at Pentecost , 983, where he proposed to

5616-481: The Palatine Hill and planned to restore the ancient Roman Senate to its position of prominence. He revived the city's ancient governmental system, including appointing a City Patrician , a City Prefect , and a body of judges whom he commanded to recognize only Roman law . In order to strengthen his title to the Roman Empire and to announce his position as the protector of Christendom , Otto III took for himself

5760-606: The Slavic uprising on the Empire's eastern border made the Empire's political situation extremely unstable. With a minor on the throne, the Empire was thrown into confusion and Otto III's mother Theophanu assumed the role of regent for her young son. Otto III's cousin Henry II had been deposed as Duke of Bavaria by Otto II in 976 following his failed rebellion and imprisoned within the Bishopric of Utrecht . Following Otto II's death, Henry

5904-453: The Tomb of Hadrian , out of fear of retribution. The new supreme pontiff crowned Otto III as emperor on 21 May 996, in Rome at St. Peter's Basilica . The Emperor and Pope then held a synod at St. Peter's on 25 May to serve as the Empire's highest judicial court . The Roman nobles who had rebelled against Pope John XV were summoned before the synod to give an account of their actions. A number of

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6048-694: The emir of Syracuse in single combat, and a Lombard contingent, led by Arduin . The Varangians were first used as mercenaries in Italy against the Arabs in 936. Runestones were raised in Sweden in memory of warriors who died in Langbarðaland ( Land of the Lombards ), the Old Norse name for southern Italy. Later, several Anglo-Danish and Norwegian nobles participated in the Norman conquest of southern Italy, like Edgar

6192-463: The papacy . Crowned as emperor, Otto III put down the Roman rebellion and installed his cousin as Pope Gregory V , the first pope of German descent. After the Emperor had pardoned him and left the city, Crescentius II again rebelled, deposing Gregory V and installing John XVI as pope. Otto III returned to the city in 998, reinstalled Gregory V, and executed both Crescentius II and John XVI. When Gregory V died in 999, Otto III installed Sylvester II as

6336-608: The patron of Otto Orseolo , the son of Venetian Doge Pietro II Orseolo . He then pledged to support Otto Orseolo as the next Doge of Venice, leading to a period of good relations between the Holy Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice after years of conflict under Otto II. Reaching Pavia for Easter , 996, Otto III was declared King of Italy and crowned with the Iron Crown of the Lombards . The king failed, however, to reach Rome before Pope John XV died of fever . While Otto III

6480-556: The Abruzzi (which Guiscard's relatives had been appropriating). After the Battle of Civitate, the Normans began the conquest of the Adriatic coast of Benevento. Geoffrey of Hauteville , a brother of the Hauteville counts of Melfi, conquered the Lombard county of Larino and stormed the castle Morrone in the region of Samnium-Guillamatum . Geoffrey's son, Robert , united these conquests into

6624-485: The Archbishop of Piacenza, John Philagathos, to Constantinople as his representative to arrange a marriage between himself and a Byzantine princess following the example of his father, Otto II, who solidified his claim to the throne by marrying the Byzantine Theophanu. For a while the discussions were about Zoe Porphyrogenita . The Lutici federation of West Slavic Polabian tribes had remained quiet during

6768-507: The Bishop of Hildesheim alone. In 989 Theophanu and Otto III made a royal expedition to Italy to visit the grave of Otto II in Rome. After crossing the Alps and reaching Pavia in northern Italy, the Empress had her longtime confidant John Philagathos appointed as Archbishop of Piacenza . After a year in Italy, the royal court returned to Germany, where Theophanu died in Nijmegen on 15 June 991, at

6912-525: The Byzantines again in the Battle of Montemaggiore near Cannae (avenging the Norman defeat in the 1018 Battle of Cannae ). Although the catapan summoned a large Varangian force from Bari, the battle was a rout; many of Michael's soldiers drowned in the Ofanto while retreating. On 3 September 1041 at the Battle of Montepeloso , the Normans (nominally under Arduin and Atenulf) defeated Byzantine catepan Exaugustus Boioannes and brought him to Benevento . Around that time, Guaimar IV of Salerno began to attract

7056-675: The Capuan counties of Venafro , Pietrabbondante and Trivento in 1105). After roughly a century of Arab control (following the Saracen defeat of Byzantine forces in 965), Sicily was inhabited by a mix of Christians, Arab Muslims, and Muslim converts at the time of its conquest by the Normans. It had originally been under the rule of the Aghlabids and then the Fatimids , but in 948 the Kalbids wrested control of

7200-460: The Christian states of Bohemia and the Empire. Dobrawa died in 977, and Mieszko I then strengthened his alliance with the Empire by marrying Oda , the daughter of the Saxon Margrave Dietrich of Haldensleben in 978, and by marrying his son Bolesłaus I of Poland to a daughter of Margrave Rikdag of Meissen. Following the death of Otto I in 973, Mieszko I sided with Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, against Otto II during Henry's failed revolt in 977. After

7344-419: The Church. Like his grandfather before him, Otto III strongly aspired to be the successor of Charlemagne . In 1000, he visited Charlemagne's tomb in Aachen , removing relics from it and transporting them to Rome. Otto III also carried back parts of the body of Bishop Adalbert of Prague, which he placed in the church of San Bartolomeo all'Isola he had built on the Tiber Island in Rome. Otto III also added

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7488-443: The Czech territory. To strengthen the Bohemian-Polish alliance, Boleslaus I's daughter Dobrawa was married to the pagan Mieszko I of Poland in 965. The marriage helped bring Christianity to Poland. He died in 972 and was succeeded as Duke by his oldest son Boleslaus II . After initially siding with Henry II against Otto II during Henry's failed revolt in 977, Boleslaus II swore loyalty to Otto II. When Otto II died suddenly in 983 and

7632-405: The Deacon), murdered William Repostel (Repostellus) in the presence of Robert I, Duke of Normandy after Repostel allegedly boasted about dishonouring his murderer's daughter. Threatened with death, the Drengot brother fled with his siblings to Rome and one of the brothers had an audience with the pope before joining Melus (Melo) of Bari. Amatus dates the story to after 1027, and does not mention

7776-405: The Elbe Slavs in order to secure Saxony's eastern border. When Otto III left Italy for Germany, the situation in Rome remained uncertain. In September 996, a few months after receiving a pardon from Otto III, Crescentius II met with the Archbishop of Piacenza, John Philagathos, a former adviser to the late Empress Theophanu, to devise a plan to depose the newly installed Pope Gregory V. In 997, with

7920-550: The Empire and made himself a papal vassal in return for the title of duke. During the 1050s and 1060s, there were two centres of Norman power in southern Italy: one at Melfi (under the Hautevilles) and another at Aversa (under the Drengots). Richard Drengot became ruler of the County of Aversa in 1049, beginning a policy of territorial aggrandisement to compete with his Hauteville rivals. At first he warred with his Lombard neighbours, who included Pandulf VI of Capua , Atenulf I of Gaeta and Gisulf II of Salerno . Richard pushed back

8064-444: The Empire's campaigns to put down the Great Slav Rising , led by the Polabian Lutici tribes during the 980s and 990s. Germany and the Duchy of Bohemia came into significant contact with one another in 929, when German King Henry I had invaded the Duchy to force Duke Wenceslaus I to pay regular tribute to Germany. When Wenceslaus I was assassinated in 935, his brother Boleslaus I succeeded him as Duke and refused to continue paying

8208-444: The Empire's lost territories throughout his reign with only limited success. While in the east, Otto III strengthened the Empire's relations with Poland , Bohemia , and Hungary . Through his affairs in Eastern Europe in 1000, he was able to extend the influence of Christianity by supporting mission work in Poland and through the crowning of Stephen I as the first Christian king of Hungary. Returning to Rome in 1001, Otto faced

8352-514: The German throne, with limited success. Among those who supported his claims were Duke Mieszko I of Poland and Duke Boleslaus II of Bohemia . Henry II was also supported by Archbishop Egbert of Trier , Archbishop Gisilher of Magdeburg , and Bishop Dietrich I of Metz . Those who opposed Henry II's claims fled to Quedlinburg in Saxony to conspire against him. When he became aware of this conspiracy, he moved his army towards Quedlinburg in hopes of crushing his opposition. Henry II sent Folcmar ,

8496-495: The Great , the Pope was granted secular authority over western Europe . These actions resulted in increased tensions between the Roman nobility and the Church, who had traditionally reserved the right to name the pope from among their own members. After his coronation, Otto III returned to Germany in December 996, staying along the Lower Rhine (especially in Aachen ) until April 997. His specific activities during this time are not known. In summer 997, Otto III campaigned against

8640-429: The Holy Roman Empire as a constituent state. Bohemia would be a major factor in the many battles along the Empire's eastern border. Boleslaus I helped Otto I crush an uprising of Slavs along the Lower Elbe in 953, and they joined forces again to defeat the Hungarians at the battle of Lechfeld in 955. In 973 Otto I established the bishopric of Prague , subordinated to the archbishopric of Mainz, in order to Christianize

8784-421: The Italians for the Normans has now reached such a pitch that it is almost impossible for any Norman, albeit a pilgrim, to journey in the towns of Italy, without being assailed, abducted, robbed, beaten, thrown in irons, even if fortunate enough not to die in a prison. The pope and his supporters, including the future Gregory VII , called for an army to oust the Normans from Italy. On 18 June 1053, Humphrey led

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8928-453: The Muslims. While still in central Italy, however, Otto II suddenly died on 7 December 983, and was buried in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome . Otto III was crowned as king on Christmas Day 983, three weeks after his father's death, by Willigis , the archbishop of Mainz , and by John X , the archbishop of Ravenna . News of Otto II's death first reached Germany shortly after his son's coronation. The unresolved problems in southern Italy and

9072-411: The Norman armies against the combined forces of the pope and the Holy Roman Empire . At the Battle of Civitate the Normans destroyed the papal army and captured Leo IX, imprisoning him in Benevento (which had surrendered). In 1054 Peter II , who succeeded Peter I in the region of Trani , captured the city from the Byzantines. Humphrey died in 1057; he was succeeded by Guiscard, who ended his loyalty to

9216-446: The Norman monk Dudo of Saint-Quentin , a Viking fleet, probably under Björn Ironside and Hastein , landed in Sicily, conquering it. Many Norsemen fought as mercenaries in Southern Italy, including the Varangian Guard led by Harald Hardrada , who later became king of Norway , who conquered Sicily between 1038 and 1040, with the help of Norman mercenaries, under William de Hauteville , who won his nickname Iron Arm by defeating

9360-414: The Normans began a second and successful siege of Palermo. The city of Palermo was entered by the Normans on 7 January 1072 and three days later the defenders of the inner-city surrendered. Robert invested Roger as Count of Sicily under the suzerainty of the Duke of Apulia. In a partition of the island with his brother Robert retained Palermo, half of Messina, and the largely Christian Val Demone (leaving

9504-405: The Normans in the South of Italy. Repostel's murder is dated by all the chronicles to the reign of Robert the Magnificent and after 1027, although some scholars believe "Robert" was a scribal error for "Richard" ( Richard II of Normandy , who was duke in 1017). The earlier date is necessary if the emigration of the first Normans was connected to the Drengots and the murder of William Repostel. In

9648-423: The Normans never desired any of the Lombards to win a decisive victory, in case this should be to their disadvantage. But now supporting the one and then aiding the other, they prevented anyone being completely ruined. Norman reinforcements and local miscreants, who found a welcome in Ranulf's camp with no questions asked, swelled Ranulf's numbers. There, Amatus observed that the Norman language and customs welded

9792-417: The Normans of Melfi). Henry did not confirm the other titles given during the 1042 council; he demoted Guiamar to "prince of Salerno", and Capua was bestowed upon Pandulf IV for the third (and final) time. Henry, whose wife Agnes had been mistreated by the Beneventans, authorised Drogo to conquer Benevento for the imperial crown; he did so in 1053. In 1048 Drogo commanded an expedition into Calabria via

9936-476: The Normans. In February 1042, Atenulf negotiated the ransom of Exaugustus and then fled with the ransom money to Byzantine territory. He was replaced by Argyrus , who was bribed to defect to the Byzantines after a few early victories. The revolt, originally Lombard, had become Norman in character and leadership. In September 1042, the three principal Norman groups held a council in Melfi which included Ranulf Drengot , Guaimar IV and William Iron Arm. William and

10080-449: The Roman aristocracy saw an opportunity to remove the non-Roman John XIV and install a pope from among themselves. The Antipope Boniface VII , who had spent nine years in exile in the Byzantine Empire , joined forces with Byzantine nobles in southern Italy and marched on Rome in April 984 in order to claim the papal throne for himself. With the aid of the sons of Crescentius the Elder — Crescentius II and John Crescentius — Boniface VII

10224-424: The Saxon Margrave Gero , to address the Polan threat, while Otto I traveled to Italy to be crowned as emperor. Gero defeated Mieszko I in 963 and forced him to recognize Otto I as his overlord. In return for submitting tribute to the newly crowned Emperor, Otto I granted Mieszko I the title of amicus imperatoris ("Friend of the Emperor") and acknowledged his position as dux Poloniae ("Duke of Poland"). Mieszko I

10368-641: The abolition of the bishopric of Merseburg , Otto III and Pope Gregory V began the process of reviving the Diocese. Otto I had established the Diocese in 968 following his victory over the Hungarians in order to Christianize the Polabian Slavs but it had been effectively destroyed in 983 with the Great Slav Rising following the death of Otto II that year. Otto III arranged for his imperial palace to be built on

10512-529: The active support of Byzantine Emperor Basil II , Crescentius II led a revolt against Gregory V, deposed him, and installed John Philagathos as Pope John XVI , an antipope , in April 997. Gregory fled to Pavia in northern Italy, held a synod, and excommunicated John. The new bishop of Piacenza, Siegfried , came north to meet Otto at Eschwege in July. Otto detached the city from the county of Piacenza and granted it to

10656-546: The administrative capital of his Empire and revived elaborate Roman customs and Byzantine court ceremonies. During his time in Italy, the Emperor and the Pope attempted to reform the Church, and confiscated church property was returned to the respective religious institutions. Additionally, after the death of the Bishop of Halberstadt in November 996, who had been one of the masterminds behind

10800-711: The age of 14. At an assembly of the Imperial Diet held in Solingen in September 994, Otto III was granted the ability to fully govern the kingdom without the need of a regent. With this, Adelaide retired to a nunnery she had founded at Selz in Alsace . Although she never became a nun, she spent the rest of her days there in the service of the Church and in acts of charity. As Otto III was still unmarried, from 995 until 997 his older sister Sophia accompanied him and acted as his consort. One of Otto III's first actions as an independent ruler

10944-593: The age of 31. She was buried in the Church of St. Pantaleon in Cologne . Because Otto III was still a child (only eleven when his mother died), his grandmother, the Dowager Empress Adelaide of Italy , became regent, together with Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, until he became old enough to rule on his own in 994. As Otto III grew in age, the authority of his grandmother gradually waned until 994 when Otto III reached

11088-551: The age of six onward, Otto III would receive education and training from Bernward of Hildesheim and Gerbert d'Aurillac . During the regency of Theophanu, the Great Gandersheim Conflict broke out, concerning control of Gandersheim Abbey and its estates. Both the Archbishop of Mainz and the Bishop of Hildesheim claimed authority over the abbey, including the authority to anoint the abbey's nuns . The conflict began in 989 when Otto III's older sister Sophia became

11232-401: The annual tribute to Germany. This action caused Henry I's son and successor Otto I to launch an invasion of Bohemia. Following the initial invasion, the conflict deteriorated into a series of border raids that lasted until 950 when Otto I and Boleslaus I signed a peace treaty. Boleslaus I agreed to resume paying tribute and to recognize Otto I as his overlord. The Duchy was then incorporated into

11376-546: The arrival of the Normans is sometimes known as the "Salerno (or Salernitan) tradition". The Salerno tradition was first recorded by Amatus of Montecassino in his Ystoire de li Normant between 1071 and 1086. Much of this information was borrowed from Amatus by Peter the Deacon for his continuation of the Chronicon Monasterii Casinensis of Leo of Ostia , written during the early 12th century. Beginning with

11520-530: The assassination of Catapan Nikephoros Dokeianos at Ascoli in 1040 the Normans elected Atenulf, brother of Pandulf III of Benevento , their leader. On 16 March 1041, near Venosa on the Olivento , the Norman army tried to negotiate with Catapan Michael Dokeianos ; although they failed, they still defeated the Byzantine army in the Battle of Olivento . On 4 May 1041 the Norman army, led by William Iron Arm, defeated

11664-479: The assembly to have the three-year-old Otto III elected as king of Germany and Italy , becoming Otto II's undoubted heir apparent . This was the first time a German ruler had been elected on Italian soil. After the assembly was concluded, Otto III traveled across the Alps in order to be crowned at Aachen, the traditional location of the coronation of the German kings. Otto II stayed behind to address military action against

11808-523: The bishop in perpetuity. Putting down the Slavic forces in eastern Saxony, Otto III began his second expedition into Italy in December 997. Accompanied by his sister Sophia into Italy, Otto III named his aunt Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg , as his regent in Germany, becoming the first non-duke or bishop to serve in that capacity. Otto III peacefully retook Rome in February 998 when the Roman aristocracy agreed to

11952-441: The borders of Salerno until there was little left of the once-great principality but the city of Salerno itself. Although he tried to extend his influence peacefully by betrothing his daughter to the oldest son of Atenulf of Gaeta, Richard later demanded the Lombard dower from the boy's parents when the boy died before the marriage. When the duke refused, Richard seized Aquino (one of Gaeta's few remaining fiefs) in 1058. However,

12096-533: The breakdown of the monastery's power. In 1349 a new earthquake destroyed the monastery and left the area open to the expansion of the abbey of Monte Cassino . The monastery was occupied by increasingly fewer monks, and from the fifteenth century it was governed externally. In 1669 the monastery and all its remaining properties were awarded to Monte Cassino . The monastery was bombed in World War II and severely damaged. In 1989 San Vincenzo al Volturno became home to

12240-431: The campaign. Guiamar sent 300 Norman knights from Aversa, including the three Hauteville brothers (who would achieve renown for their prowess in battle). William of Hauteville became known as William Bras-de-Fer ("William Iron Arm") for single-handedly killing the emir of Syracuse during that city's siege. The Norman contingent would leave before the campaign's end due to the inadequate distribution of Saracen loot. After

12384-541: The centre of the island by way of Rometta , which had remained loyal to at-Timnah. They passed through Frazzanò and the Pianura di Maniace (Plain of Maniakes), encountering resistance to their assault of Centuripe . Paternò fell quickly, and Robert brought his army to Castrogiovanni (modern Enna, the strongest fortress in central Sicily). Although the garrison was defeated the citadel did not fall, and with winter approaching Robert returned to Apulia. Before leaving, he built

12528-465: The child king. Imitating similar ceremonies carried out under Otto I in 936 and Otto II in 961, the dukes served Otto III as his ceremonial steward , chamberlain , cupbearer , and marshal , respectively. This service symbolized the loyalty of the dukes to Otto III and their willingness to serve him. Most significant was the submission of Henry II, who demonstrated his loyalty to his cousin despite his failed rebellion two years earlier. The next year, from

12672-401: The chronology of his conquest of Gaeta is confusing. Documents from 1058 and 1060 refer to Jordan (Richard's oldest son) as Duke of Gaeta , but these have been disputed as forgeries (since Atenulf was still duke when he died in 1062). After Atenulf's death, Richard and Jordan took over the rule of the duchy and allowed Atenulf's heir— Atenulf II —to rule as their subject until 1064 (when Gaeta

12816-455: The city of Breisach , but at the last minute, Henry's resolve weakened. Nevertheless, Lothair continued to campaign into German lands and succeeded in overrunning the Verdun by March 985. Henry II took the young Otto III and traveled to Saxony . There, Henry II invited all the great nobles of the kingdom to celebrate Palm Sunday at Magdeburg for 985. He then campaigned openly for his claim to

12960-466: The city. After taking the crown in 994, Otto III faced first a Slavic rebellion, which he put down, and then an attempt by Crescentius II to seize power in Italy. When Otto III turned his attention to Italy, he not only intended to be crowned Emperor but also to come to the aid of Pope John XV , who had been forced to flee Rome. Otto set out for Italy from Ratisbon in March 996. In Verona , he became

13104-409: The city. On 25 May, the navies of the count and the emir engaged in the harbour – where the latter was killed – while Jordan's forces besieged the city. The siege lasted throughout the summer, but when the city capitulated in March 1086 only Noto was still under Saracen dominion. In February 1091 Noto yielded as well, and the conquest of Sicily was complete. In 1091, Roger invaded Malta and subdued

13248-690: The early years of Otto III's reign, even during Henry II's failed rebellion. In 983, following Otto II's defeat at the battle of Stilo , the Slavs revolted against Imperial control , forcing the Empire to abandon its territories east of the Elbe River in the Northern March and the Billung March . With the process of Christianization halted, the Slavs left the Empire in peace, and with Henry II's rebellion put down, Theophanu launched multiple campaigns to re-conquer

13392-420: The emir of Syracuse ) in another surprise attack. Roger left Sicily in the summer of 1083 to assist his brother on the mainland; Jordan (whom he had left in charge) revolted, forcing him to return to Sicily and subjugate his son. In 1085, he was finally able to undertake a systematic campaign. On 22 May Roger approached Syracuse by sea, while Jordan led a small cavalry detachment 25 kilometres (15 miles) north of

13536-411: The establishment of a Norman dynasty in the south) gave him his daughter, Gaitelgrima , in marriage. Emperor Henry III confirmed the county of Aversa in its fidelity to him and made Drogo his vassal, granting him the title dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae (duke and master of Italy and count of the Normans of all Apulia and Calabria, the first legitimate title for

13680-470: The independent Duke of Gaeta) received Siponto and Monte Gargano . During their reign William and Guaimar began the conquest of Calabria in 1044, and built the castle of Stridula (near Squillace ). William was less successful in Apulia, where he was defeated in 1045 near Taranto by Argyrus (although his brother, Drogo, conquered Bovino ). At William's death, the period of Norman mercenary service ended with

13824-586: The island and held it until 1053. During the 1010s and 1020s, a series of succession crises paved the way for interference by the Zirids of Ifriqiya . Sicily was wracked by turmoil as petty fiefdoms battled each other for supremacy. Into this, the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his younger brother Roger Bosso came intending to conquer; the pope had conferred on Robert the title of "Duke of Sicily". Robert and Roger first invaded Sicily in May 1061, crossing from Reggio di Calabria and besieging Messina for control of

13968-562: The largest in southern Italy. In 1038 Byzantine Emperor Michael IV launched a military campaign into Muslim Sicily, with General George Maniaches leading the Christian army against the Saracens . The future king of Norway, Harald Hardrada , commanded the Varangian Guard in the expedition and Michael called on Guaimar IV of Salerno and other Lombard lords to provide additional troops for

14112-568: The last Lombard prince of Benevento died, and in 1078 the pope appointed Robert Guiscard to succeed him. In 1081, however, Guiscard relinquished Benevento. By then, the principality comprised little more than Benevento and its environs; it had been reduced in size by Norman conquests during the previous decades, especially after the Battle of Civitate and after 1078. At Ceprano in June 1080 the pope again gave Guiscard control of Benevento, an attempt to halt Norman incursions into it and associated territory in

14256-508: The leader of the Norman contingent at the Battle of Cannae in 1018 was Gilbert. If Rudolf is identified with the Rudolf of Amatus' history as a Drengot brother, he may have been the leader at Cannae. A modern hypothesis concerning the Norman arrival in the Mezzogiorno concerns the chronicles of Glaber, Adhemar and Leo (not Peter's continuation). All three chronicles indicate that Normans (either

14400-512: The lost eastern territories, beginning in 985. Even though he was only six at the time, Otto III personally participated in these campaigns. During the expedition of 986 against the Slavs, Otto III received the homage of Duke Mieszko I of Poland , who provided the Imperial army with military assistance and gave Otto III a camel . Although the Lutici were subdued for a time in 987, they continued to occupy

14544-475: The memory of the community and its history in the face of Norman expansion in southern Italy . The manuscript, written in a Beneventan hand and including numerous images, is housed at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana , BAV Barb. lat. 2724. The monastery has been the subject of long-running archaeological investigation, which took place in a number of campaigns. In the 1970s Dom Angelo Pantoni,

14688-469: The monastery on the banks of the Volturno by the abbot of the powerful Abbey of Farfa , north of Rome. Thomas of Maurienne, the abbot of Farfa, suggested the site because, according to the Chronicle , it was home to an oratory founded by Constantine I . The Chronicle's emphasis on the Beneventan origin of the founders suggests that the early monastery enjoyed the patronage of the dukes of Benevento . With

14832-539: The monastery was in constant dispute with the peasants of the Valle Trita over dues and labour. The Chronicle reports that in 848 the abbey was damaged by an earthquake. In 860, Sawdan , emir of Bari , was paid a handsome tribute not to sack the monastery. In 881, however, Saracens paid by the Duke of Naples , Athanasius , burned and raided the monastery. Surviving monks fled to Capua . They returned in 914 to reconstruct

14976-510: The new Duke of Carinthia . The regency of Theophanu , from 984 until her death in 991, was largely spared internal revolt. She struggled throughout to reinstate the Diocese of Merseburg , which her husband Otto II had absorbed into the Archdiocese of Magdeburg in 981. Theophanu also retained Otto II's court chaplains , in particular Count Bernward of Hildesheim and Archbishop Willigis, who, as

15120-562: The new pope. Otto III's actions throughout his life further strengthened imperial control over the Catholic Church . From the beginning of his reign, Otto III faced opposition from the Slavs along the eastern frontier. Following the death of his father in 983, the Slavs rebelled against imperial control , forcing the Empire to abandon its territories east of the Elbe river. Otto III fought to regain

15264-527: The nominal ruler of Germany, Otto III's minor status ensured his various regents held power over the Empire. His cousin Duke Henry II of Bavaria , initially claimed regency over the young king and attempted to seize the throne for himself in 984. When his rebellion failed to gain the support of Germany's aristocracy, Henry II was forced to abandon his claims to the throne and to allow Otto III's mother Theophanu to serve as regent until her death in 991. Otto III

15408-730: The northern Slavs and the Vikings, but he did successfully re-conquer Brandenburg in 993, and in 995 he subdued the Obotrite Slavs . In the fall of 995, after Otto III reached his majority, he again took to the field against the Lutici , this time aided by the Polish Duke Bolesław I the Brave . Then in 997 he had to deal with a new Lutician attack on Arneburg on the Elbe, which they managed to retake for

15552-523: The other leaders petitioned Guaimar to recognize their conquests, and William was acknowledged as the Norman leader in Apula (which included Melfi and the Norman garrison at Troia ). He received the title of Count of Apulia from Guiamar, and (like Ranulf) was his vassal. Guaimar proclaimed himself Duke of Apulia and Calabria, although he was never formally invested as such by the Holy Roman Emperor. William

15696-400: The papacy (which Richard had attempted), and the conquests of Capua ceased. When Jordan died in 1090, his young son Richard II and his regents were unable to hold Capua. They were forced to flee the city by a Lombard, Lando , who ruled it with popular support until he was forced out by the combined Hauteville forces in the siege of Capua in 1098; this ended Lombard rule in Italy. In 1077

15840-493: The pope. According to him, Gilbert's brothers were Osmund, Ranulf , Asclettin and Ludolf (Rudolf, according to Peter). Between 1016 and 1024, in a fragmented political context, the Lombard County of Ariano  [ it ] was usurped by a group of Norman knights headed by Gilbert and hired by Melus. The County, which replaced the pre-existing chamberlainship, is considered to be the first political body established by

15984-559: The privileges of the Holy See laid out by Otto I. Under the Diploma Ottonianum issued by Otto I, the Emperor could only veto papal candidates. Otto III, however, had nominated and successfully installed his own candidate. The Emperor also refused to acknowledge the Donation of Constantine , which Otto III declared a forgery. Under a decree supposedly issued by Roman Emperor Constantine

16128-420: The rebels, including Crescentius II, were banished for their crimes. Pope Gregory V, however, wished to inaugurate his papal reign with acts of mercy and pleaded for clemency from the Emperor, who issued pardons to those he convicted. In particular, while Crescentius II was pardoned by Otto III, he was deprived of his title of Patricius but was permitted to live out his life in retirement at Rome. Following

16272-431: The rest, including what was not yet conquered, to Roger). In 1077 Roger besieged Trapani , one of the two remaining Saracen strongholds in the west of the island. His son, Jordan , led a sortie which surprised guards of the garrison's livestock. With its food supply cut off, the city soon surrendered. In 1079 Taormina was besieged, and in 1081 Jordan, Robert de Sourval and Elias Cartomi conquered Catania (a holding of

16416-411: The revolt was put down, Mieszko I swore loyalty to Otto II. When Otto II died suddenly in 983 and was succeeded by the three-year old Otto III, Mieszko I again supported Henry II in his bid for the German throne. When Henry's revolt failed, Mieszko I swore loyalty to Otto III. Mieszko I's son Bolesław I succeeded him as Duke in 992, and Poland continued its alliance with the Empire. Polish forces joined

16560-566: The rise of the Franks and the development of the Papal states , the monastery's location on the border of Lombard and papal/Frankish territory became increasingly strategic. The abbots of the monastery in the late eighth century alternated between Franks and Lombards : Ambrosius Autpertus , elected 777, was a Frank; Poto, elected 781, was a Lombard. He was accused of disloyalty to the Franks for refusing to chant

16704-748: The rise of two Norman principalities owing nominal allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire: the County of Aversa (later the Principality of Capua ) and the County of Apulia (later the Duchy of Apulia ). In 1046 Drogo entered Apulia and defeated the catepan, Eustathios Palatinos , near Taranto while his brother Humphrey forced Bari to conclude a treaty with the Normans. Also that year, Richard Drengot arrived with 40 knights from Normandy and Robert "Guiscard" Hauteville arrived with other Norman immigrants. In 1047 Guaimar (who had supported Drogo's succession and

16848-548: The river Volturno. These scientific excavations continued through the 1980s and 1990s under the direction of Hodges and with the support of the British School at Rome , the abbey of Monte Cassino , and the Soprintendenza archaeologica del Molise. From 1999, the project has been directed by Federico Marazzi, of the Istituto Universitario Suor Orsola Benincasa, Naples . The monastery was founded on

16992-708: The shrine to Michael the Archangel at Monte Gargano in 1016 met the Lombard Melus of Bari , who persuaded them to join him in an attack on the Byzantine government of Apulia. As with the Salerno tradition, there are two primary sources for the Gargano story: the Gesta Roberti Wiscardi of William of Apulia (dated 1088–1110) and the Chronica monasterii S. Bartholomaei de Carpineto of a monk named Alexander, written about

17136-718: The skin of Saint Bartholomew to the relics housed there. Around 960, the Polish Piast dynasty under Mieszko I had extended the Duchy of Poland beyond the Oder River in an effort to conquer the Polabian Slavs , who lived along the Elbe River. This brought the Polans into Germany's sphere of influence and into conflict with Otto I's Kingdom of Germany , who also desired to conquer the Polabian Slavs. Otto I sent his trusted lieutenant,

17280-415: The south, Pope Benedict (who may have initiated Norman involvement in the war) went north in 1020 to Bamberg to confer with Holy Roman Emperor Henry II . Although the emperor took no immediate action, events the following year persuaded him to intervene. Boioannes (allied with Pandulf of Capua) marched on Dattus, who was garrisoning a tower in the territory of the Duchy of Gaeta with papal troops. Dattus

17424-416: The strategically vital Strait of Messina . Roger crossed the strait first, landing unseen overnight and surprising the Saracen army in the morning. When Robert's troops landed later that day, they found themselves unopposed and Messina abandoned. Robert immediately fortified the city and allied himself with the emir , Ibn al-Timnah, against his rival Ibn al-Hawas. Robert, Roger, and at-Timnah then marched into

17568-512: The support of existing Italian religious communities. For instance, he granted royal immunity to the Abbey of San Salvatore, a rich monastery along the shores of the Lago di Bientina in Tuscany. Through the election of Gregory V, Otto III exercised greater control over the Church than his grandfather Otto I had decades earlier. The Emperor quickly demonstrated his intention to withdraw Imperial support for

17712-548: The synod, Otto III appointed Gerbert of Aurillac, the Archbishop of Reims , to be his tutor. Counseled by Gerbert and Bishop Adalbert of Prague , Otto III set out to reorganize the Empire. Influenced by the ruin of ancient Rome and perhaps by his Byzantine mother, Otto III dreamed of restoring the glory and power of the Roman Empire , with himself at the head of a theocratic state . He also introduced some Byzantine court customs. To shore up his power in Italy, Otto III sought

17856-551: The territories in southern Italy united as the Kingdom of Sicily , which included the island of Sicily , the southern third of the Italian Peninsula (except Benevento , which was briefly held twice), the archipelago of Malta , and parts of North Africa . Itinerant Norman forces arrived in southern Italy as mercenaries in the service of Lombard and Byzantine factions, communicating swiftly back home news about opportunities in

18000-592: The throne for himself. According to Gerbert of Aurillac , Henry II adopted a Byzantine -style joint-kingship. Towards the end of 984, Henry II sought to form alliances between himself and other important figures in the Ottonian world, chief among them his cousin King Lothar of France . In exchange for Lothar's agreement to make Henry II king of Germany, Henry II agreed to relinquish Lotharingia to Lothar. The two agreed to join their armies on 1 February 985, in order to take

18144-863: The titles "the Servant of Jesus Christ ," "the Servant of the Apostles ", "Consul of the Senate and People of Rome," and "Emperor of the World". Between 998 and 1000, Otto III made several pilgrimages . In 999, he made a pilgrimage from Gargano to Benevento , where he met with the hermit monk Romuald and the Abbot Nilus the Younger (at that time a highly venerated religious figure) in order to atone for executing Crescentius II after promising his safety. During this particular pilgrimage, his cousin Pope Gregory V died in Rome after

18288-508: The tribute, the Normans ridiculed him and his Lombard subjects for cowardice, and they assaulted their besiegers. The Saracens fled. Booty was confiscated and a grateful Guaimar asked the Normans to stay. They refused, but promised to bring his rich gifts to their compatriots in Normandy and tell them about possibly lucrative military service in Salerno. Some sources have Guaimar sending emissaries to Normandy to bring back knights, and this account of

18432-542: The valley of Crati , near Cosenza . He distributed the conquered territories in Calabria and gave his brother, Robert Guiscard , a castle at Scribla to guard the entrance to the recently conquered territory; Guiscard would later abandon it for a castle at San Marco Argentano . Shortly thereafter he married the daughter of another Norman lord, who gave him 200 knights (furthering his military campaign in Calabria). In 1051 Drogo

18576-604: The walled city of Mdina . He imposed taxes on the islands, but allowed the Arab governors to continue their rule. In 1127 Roger II abolished the Muslim government, replacing it with Norman officials. Under Norman rule, the Arabic spoken by the Greek Christian islanders for centuries of Muslim domination became Maltese . Emperor Otto III Otto III (June/July 980 – 23 January 1002)

18720-428: The young king's attention. In September 991, when Otto III was eleven, Slavonic raiders captured the city of Brandenburg . In 992 this invasion, as well as an incursion of Viking raiders, forced Otto III to lead his army against the invaders, and he suffered a crushing defeat in this campaign. The next year, Germany suffered an outbreak of famine and pestilence. In 994 and 995, Otto III led fruitless campaigns against

18864-422: The Ætheling , who left England in 1086, and Jarl Erling Skakke , who won his nickname ("Skakke", meaning bent head) after a battle against Arabs in Sicily. On the other hand, many Anglo-Danish rebels fleeing William the Conqueror joined the Byzantines in their struggle against Robert Guiscard , duke of Apulia , in Southern Italy. The earliest reported date of the arrival of Norman knights in southern Italy

19008-452: Was Ralph of Tosni . If the first confirmed Norman military actions in the south involved Melus' mercenaries against the Byzantines in May 1017, the Normans probably left Normandy between January and April. On 9 May 1009, an insurrection erupted in Bari against the Catapanate of Italy , the regional Byzantine authority based there. Led by Melus , a local Lombard, the revolt quickly spread to other cities. Late that year (or early in 1010)

19152-432: Was a direct possession of the German kings. The Franconian nobles, led by Archbishop Willigis of Mainz (the Primate of Germany ) and Conrad I, Duke of Swabia , refused to abandon Otto III. Fearing outright civil war, Henry II relinquished Otto III to the joint-regency of his mother and grandmother on 29 June 985. In return for his submission, Henry II was restored as the Duke of Bavaria , replacing Henry III who became

19296-443: Was able to imprison John XIV in the Tomb of Hadrian . Four months later, on 20 August 984, John XIV died in his prison, either starved or poisoned, probably on the orders of Boniface. With Otto's regency seated in Germany, Crescentius II took the title of Patricius Romanorum ( Patrician of the Romans ) and became the effective ruler of Rome, although he did not act entirely independently of central authority, presenting himself as

19440-405: Was assassinated by Byzantine conspirators and was succeeded by his brother, Humphrey. Humphrey's first challenge was to deal with papal opposition to the Normans. The Norman knights' treatment of the Lombards during Drogo's reign triggered more revolts. During the unrest, the Italo-Norman John, Abbot of Fécamp was accosted on his return trip from Rome; he wrote to Pope Leo IX : The hatred of

19584-413: Was born in June or July 980 somewhere between Aachen and Nijmegen , in modern-day North Rhine-Westphalia . The only son of Emperor Otto II and Empress Theophanu , Otto III was the youngest of the couple's four children. Immediately prior to Otto III's birth, his father had completed military campaigns in France against King Lothar . On 14 July 982, Otto II's army suffered a crushing defeat against

19728-415: Was captured and, on 15 June 1021, received the traditional Roman poena cullei : he was tied up in a sack with a monkey, a rooster and a snake and thrown into the sea. In 1022, a large imperial army marched south in three detachments under Henry II, Pilgrim of Cologne and Poppo of Aquileia to attack Troia. Although Troia did not fall, the Lombard princes were allied with the Empire and Pandulf removed to

19872-523: Was fully incorporated into the Drengot principality). Richard and Jordan appointed puppet, usually Norman, dukes. When the prince of Capua died in 1057, Richard immediately besieged the comune . This chronology is also unclear. Pandulf was succeeded at Capua by his brother, Landulf VIII , who is recorded as prince until 12 May 1062. Richard and Jordan took the princely title in 1058, but apparently allowed Landulf to continue ruling beneath them for at least four years more. In 1059 Pope Nicholas II convened

20016-499: Was in Pavia, Crescentius II, fearing the king's march on Rome, reconciled with Otto III and agreed to accept his nominee as pope. While in Ravenna , Otto III nominated his cousin and court chaplain Bruno, who was then only twenty-three years old, and sent him to Rome with Archbishop Willigis to secure the city. In early May 996, Bruno was consecrated as Gregory V , the first pope of German nationality. Despite submitting to Otto III, Crescentius shut himself in his family's stronghold,

20160-535: Was married to Guida (daughter of Guy , Duke of Sorrento and Guaimar's niece), strengthening the alliance between the Normans and Guaimar. At Melfi in 1043, Guaimar divided the region (except for Melfi itself, which was to be governed on a republican model) into twelve baronies for the Norman leaders. William received Ascoli , Asclettin Drengot received Acerenza , Tristan received Montepeloso , Hugh Tubœuf received Monopoli , Peter received Trani , Drogo of Hauteville received Venosa and Ranulf Drengot (now

20304-576: Was released from prison. As Otto III's nearest male Ottonian relative, Henry II claimed the regency over his infant cousin. Archbishop of Cologne Warin granted Henry II the regency without substantial opposition. Only Otto III's mother Theophanu objected, along with his grandmother, the Dowager Empress Adelaide of Italy , and his aunt, Abbess Matilda of Quedlinburg . Adelaide and Matilda, however, were both in Italy and unable to press their objections. As regent, Henry II took actions aimed less at guardianship of his infant cousin and more at claiming

20448-401: Was the Holy Roman emperor and King of Italy from 996 until his death in 1002. A member of the Ottonian dynasty , Otto III was the only son of Emperor Otto II and his wife Theophanu . Otto III was crowned as king of Germany in 983 at the age of three, shortly after his father's death in Southern Italy while campaigning against the Byzantine Empire and the Emirate of Sicily . Though

20592-410: Was then still a child, so his grandmother, Adelaide of Italy , served as regent until 994. In 996, Otto III marched to Italy to claim the titles of king of Italy and Holy Roman emperor , which had been left unclaimed since the death of Otto II in 983. Otto III also sought to reestablish Imperial control over the city of Rome, which had revolted under the leadership of Crescentius II , and through it

20736-402: Was to appoint Heribert of Cologne as his chancellor over Italy, a position he would hold until Otto's death in 1002. Otto III followed in his grandfather Otto I's footsteps in the beginning of his reign, by appointing a new pope, Gregory V, and leaving Rome. Gregory V was expelled and Otto III returned to Rome in 998 where he stayed permanently until his death. In the summer of 995, Otto sent

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