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92-423: Contemplative practices range from simple prayerful meditation of holy scripture (i.e. Lectio Divina ) to contemplation on the presence of God, resulting in theosis (spiritual union with God) and ecstatic visions of the soul's mystical union with God . Three stages are discerned in contemplative practice, namely catharsis (purification), contemplation proper, and the vision of God. Contemplative practices have

184-500: A spectator . Both Greek θεωρία and Latin contemplatio primarily meant looking at things, whether with the eyes or with the mind. According to William Johnston, until the sixth century the practice of what is now called mysticism was referred to by the term contemplatio , c.q. theoria . According to Johnston, "[b]oth contemplation and mysticism speak of the eye of love which is looking at, gazing at, aware of divine realities." Several scholars have demonstrated similarities between

276-451: A Benedictine monastery consisted of three elements: liturgical prayer, manual labor and Lectio Divina , a quiet prayerful reading of the Bible. This slow and thoughtful reading of Scripture , and the ensuing pondering of its meaning, was their meditation . This spiritual practice is called "divine reading" or "spiritual reading" – i.e. lectio divina . Benedict wrote "Idleness

368-403: A Puritan theologian, championed the practice. By the middle of 19th century, the historical critical approach to biblical analysis which had started over a century earlier, and focused on determining the historicity of gospel episodes, had taken away some of the emphasis on spreading Lectio Divina outside monastic communities. However, the early part of the 20th century witnessed a revival in

460-418: A further distinction, within contemplation, between contemplation acquired by human effort and infused contemplation. In early Christianity the term "mystikos" referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures. The liturgical dimension refers to

552-501: A lasting influence on Eastern Christian thought, further develops the idea that the spiritual realities can be found through allegorical readings of the scriptures (along the lines of Jewish aggadah tradition), but he focuses his attention on the cross and on the importance of imitating Christ through the cross, especially through spiritual combat and asceticism. Origen stresses the importance of combining intellect and virtue ( theoria and praxis ) in our spiritual exercises, drawing on

644-532: A part of the body ( contemplatio ). In Christian teachings, this form of meditative prayer leads to an increased knowledge of Christ . Unlike meditative practices in Eastern Christianity  – for instance, hesychasm , where the Jesus Prayer is repeated many times – Lectio Divina uses different Scripture passages at different times. Although a passage may be repeated a few times, Lectio Divina

736-726: A prayer inviting the Holy Spirit to guide the reading of the Scripture that is to follow. The biblical basis for the preparation goes back to 1 Corinthians 2:9–10 which emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit in revealing the Word of God. As in the statement by John the Baptist in John 1:26 that "in the midst of you standeth one whom ye know not," the preparatory step should open the mind to finding Christ in

828-533: A prominent place in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy , and have gained a renewed interest in Western Christianity. The Greek theoria (θεωρία) meant "contemplation, speculation, a looking at, things looked at", from theorein (θεωρεῖν) "to consider, speculate, look at", from theoros (θεωρός) "spectator", from thea (θέα) "a view" + horan (ὁρᾶν) "to see". It expressed the state of being

920-400: A type of " insight ", theoria was the act of perceiving in the wording and "story" of Scripture a moral and spiritual meaning," and may be regarded as a form of allegory. The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers on Origen ( c.  185  – c.  253 ) and Clement of Alexandria (150–215 AD). Clement was an early Christian humanist who argued that reason is

1012-520: Is another four-step approach, that by Saint Clare of Assisi shown in the Table 1, which is used by the Franciscan order . Saint Clare's method is more visual than Guigo II 's which seems more intellectual in comparison. Saint Teresa of Avila 's method of "recollection" which uses book passages to keep focus during meditation has similarities to the way Lectio Divina uses a specific Scriptural passage as

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1104-721: Is briefly revealed in his heavenly glory, also become important images for meditation. Moreover, many of the Christian texts build on Jewish spiritual foundations, such as chokmah , shekhinah . But different writers present different images and ideas. The Synoptic Gospels (in spite of their many differences) introduce several important ideas, two of which are related to Greco-Judaic notions of knowledge/ gnosis by virtue of being mental acts: purity of heart, in which we will to see in God's light; and repentance , which involves allowing God to judge and then transform us. Another key idea presented by

1196-523: Is considered the most important of ancient philosophers, and his philosophical system provides the basis of most later mystical forms. Plotinus (c. 205 – 270 AD) provided the non-Christian, neo-Platonic basis for much Christian, Jewish and Islamic mysticism . For Plato , what the contemplative ( theoros ) contemplates ( theorei ) are the Forms , the realities underlying the individual appearances, and one who contemplates these atemporal and aspatial realities

1288-516: Is contemplation. ... Contemplation is therefore the end of action" and "Such is the life of the divinity and of divine and blessed men: detachments from all things here below, scorn of all earthly pleasures, the flight of the lone to the Alone." The Christian scriptures, insofar as they are the founding narrative of the Christian church, provide many key stories and concepts that become important for Christian mystics in all later generations: practices such as

1380-522: Is derived from contemplation. The first hypostasis, the One, is contemplation (by the nous, or second hypostasis) in that "it turns to itself in the simplest regard, implying no complexity or need"; this reflecting back on itself emanated (not created) the second hypostasis, Intellect (in Greek Νοῦς, Nous ), Plotinus describes as "living contemplation", being "self-reflective and contemplative activity par excellence", and

1472-629: Is described as a "loving contemplation", and, according to Thomas Keating , the Greek Fathers of the Church, in taking over from the Neoplatonists the word theoria , attached to it the idea expressed by the Hebrew word da'ath , which, though usually translated as "knowledge", is a much stronger term, since it indicates the experiential knowledge that comes with love and that involves the whole person, not merely

1564-502: Is enriched with a perspective on ordinary things superior to that of ordinary people. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as contemplation of the stars, with practical effects in everyday life similar to those that Plato saw as following from contemplation of the Forms. In the Enneads of Plotinus (c.204/5–270 CE), a founder of Neoplatonism , everything is contemplation ( theoria ) and everything

1656-460: Is less interested in knowledge, preferring to emphasize the hiddenness, the "mystery" of God's plan as revealed through Christ. But Paul's discussion of the Cross differs from John's in being less about how it reveals God's glory and more about how it becomes the stumbling block that turns our minds back to God. Paul also describes the Christian life as that of an athlete, demanding practice and training for

1748-454: Is not a theological analysis of biblical passages but viewing them with Christ as the key to their meaning. For example, given Jesus' statement in John 14:27 : "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give unto you", an analytical approach would focus on the reason for the statement during the Last Supper , the biblical context, etc. In Lectio Divina , however, the practitioner "enters" and shares

1840-486: Is not essentially repetitive in nature. these are the things God has revealed to us by his Spirit. The Spirit searches all things, even the deep things of God The first step is the reading of Scripture. In order to achieve a calm and tranquil state of mind, preparation before Lectio Divina is recommended. The biblical reference for preparation via stillness is Psalm 46:10 : "Be still, and know that I am God." An example would be sitting quietly and in silence and reciting

1932-573: Is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is often shaped by cultural issues. For instance, Caroline Bynum has shown how, in the late Middle Ages, miracles attending the taking of the Eucharist were not simply symbolic of the Passion story, but served as vindication of the mystic's theological orthodoxy by proving that the mystic had not fallen prey to heretical ideas, such as the Cathar rejection of

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2024-469: Is not simply about the sensation of God as an external object, but more broadly about ...new ways of knowing and loving based on states of awareness in which God becomes present in our inner acts. William James popularized the use of the term " religious experience " in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience . It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies knowledge. Wayne Proudfoot traces

2116-509: Is stressed in the Anglican Communion as well. Historically, Lectio Divina has been a "community practice" performed by monks in monasteries. Although it can be taken up individually, its community element should not be forgotten. Lectio Divina has been likened to "feasting on the Word": first, the taking of a bite ( lectio ); then chewing on it ( meditatio ); savoring its essence ( oratio ) and, finally, "digesting" it and making it

2208-570: Is that the mind and heart be illumined by the Holy Spirit, that is, by the same Spirit who inspired the Scriptures, and that they be approached with an attitude of 'reverential hearing'." Since the latter part of the 20th century, the popularity of Lectio Divina has increased outside monastic circles and many lay Catholics, as well as some Protestants, practice it, at times keeping a "Lectio journal" in which they record their thoughts and contemplations after each session. The importance of Lectio Divina

2300-609: Is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God. Bernard McGinn defines Christian mysticism as: [T]hat part, or element, of Christian belief and practice that concerns the preparation for, the consciousness of, and the effect of [...] a direct and transformative presence of God. McGinn argues that "presence" is more accurate than "union," since not all mystics spoke of union with God, and since many visions and miracles were not necessarily related to union. McGinn also argues that we should speak of "consciousness" of God's presence, rather than of "experience", since mystical activity

2392-438: Is the enemy of the soul. Therefore, the brethren should have specified periods of manual labor as well as for prayerful reading [ lectio divina ]." The Rule of Saint Benedict (chapter #48) stipulated specific times and manners for Lectio Divina . The entire community in a monastery was to take part in the readings during Sunday, except those who had other tasks to perform. Early in the 12th century, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux

2484-566: Is to this day the pillar of prayer in Carmel. Lectio Divina was practiced by St. Dominic de Guzman , founder of the Dominican order . In the 14th century, Gerard of Zutphen built on "Guigo's Ladder" to write his major work On Spiritual Ascents . Zutphen warned against considered meditation without reading of Scripture, and taught that the reading prepares the mind, so meditation will not fall into error. Similarly, he taught that meditation prepares

2576-453: Is understood as "a gift of the Holy Spirit that enables us to know Christ" through meditating on the scriptures and on the cross of Christ. (This understanding of gnosis is not the same as that developed by the Gnostics , who focused on esoteric knowledge that is available only to a few people but that allows them to free themselves from the evil world.) These authors also discuss the notion of

2668-520: Is understood as dialogue with God, that is, as loving conversation with God who has invited us into an embrace. The constitution Dei verbum which endorsed Lectio Divina for the general public, as well as in monastic settings, quoted Saint Ambrose on the importance of prayer in conjunction with Scripture reading and stated: And let them remember that prayer should accompany the reading of Sacred Scripture, so that God and man may talk together; for "we speak to Him when we pray; we hear Him when we read

2760-546: The Eucharist , baptism and the Lord's Prayer all become activities that take on importance for both their ritual and symbolic values. Other scriptural narratives present scenes that become the focus of meditation: the crucifixion of Jesus and his appearances after his resurrection are two of the most central to Christian theology; but Jesus' conception, in which the Holy Spirit overshadows Mary, and his transfiguration , in which he

2852-624: The Medieval Academy of America in 1997–1998. Bynum attended Radcliffe College before completing a bachelor's degree with high honors in history at the University of Michigan in 1962, and master's and doctoral degrees from Harvard University in 1969. Her honors include the Jefferson Lecture , a MacArthur Fellowship , and fourteen honorary degrees including degrees from the University of Chicago in 1992, Harvard University in 2005,

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2944-788: The Stoics and Essenes with the active lives of virtue and community worship found in Platonism and the Therapeutae . Using terms reminiscent of the Platonists, Philo described the intellectual component of faith as a sort of spiritual ecstasy in which our nous (mind) is suspended and God's spirit takes its place. Philo's ideas influenced the Alexandrian Christians, Clement , and Origen , and through them, Gregory of Nyssa . Inspired by Christ's teaching and example, men and women withdrew to

3036-658: The United States . She is a University Professor emerita at Columbia University and Professor emerita of Western Medieval History at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. She was the first woman to be appointed University Professor at Columbia. She is former Dean of Columbia's School of General Studies, served as president of the American Historical Association in 1996, and President of

3128-573: The University of Michigan and the University of Pennsylvania in 2007. She taught at Harvard University from 1969 to 1976, the University of Washington from 1976 to 1988, Columbia University from 1988 to 2003, and the Institute for Advanced Study from 2003 to 2011. In 2015, she was the Robert Janson-La Palme Visiting Lecturer in the Department of Art and Archaeology at Princeton University . Bynum's work has focused on

3220-512: The " Living Word ". The second movement in Lectio Divina thus involves meditating upon and pondering on the scriptural passage. When the passage is read, it is generally advised not to try to assign a meaning to it at first, but to wait for the action of the Holy Spirit to illuminate the mind, as the passage is pondered upon. The English word ponder comes from the Latin pondus which relates to

3312-708: The "two ways", that is, the way of life and the way of death; this idea has biblical roots, being found in both the Sermon on the Mount and the Torah . The two ways are then related to the notion of purity of heart, which is developed by contrasting it against the divided or duplicitous heart and by linking it to the need for asceticism, which keeps the heart whole/pure. Purity of heart was especially important given perceptions of martyrdom, which many writers discussed in theological terms, seeing it not as an evil but as an opportunity to truly die for

3404-498: The Cross . The progression from Bible reading, to meditation, to prayer, to loving regard for God, was first formally described by Guigo II , a Carthusian monk and prior of Grande Chartreuse who died late in the 12th century. The Carthusian order follows its own Rule, called the Statutes, rather than the Rule of St Benedict. Guigo II's book The Ladder of Monks is subtitled "a letter on

3496-587: The Greek idea of theoria and the Indian idea of darśana (darshan), including Ian Rutherford and Gregory Grieve. "Mysticism" is derived from the Greek μύω, meaning "to conceal," and its derivative μυστικός , mystikos , meaning "an initiate." In the Hellenistic world, a "mystikos" was an initiate of a mystery religion . "Mystical" referred to secret religious rituals and use of the word lacked any direct references to

3588-477: The Synoptics in stressing knowledge or John in stressing love. In his letters, Paul also focuses on mental activities, but not in the same way as the Synoptics, which equate renewing the mind with repentance. Instead, Paul sees the renewal of our minds as happening as we contemplate what Jesus did on the cross, which then opens us to grace and to the movement of the Holy Spirit into peoples' hearts. Like John, Paul

3680-432: The Synoptics is the desert, which is used as a metaphor for the place where we meet God in the poverty of our spirit. The Gospel of John focuses on God's glory in his use of light imagery and in his presentation of the cross as a moment of exaltation; he also sees the cross as the example of agape love, a love which is not so much an emotion as a willingness to serve and care for others. But in stressing love, John shifts

3772-519: The Word of God" in an attentive mode. It states "Contemplative prayer is silence , the 'symbol of the world to come' or 'silent love.' Words in this kind of prayer are not speeches; they are like kindling that feeds the fire of love. In this silence, unbearable to the 'outer' man, the Father speaks to us his incarnate Word, who suffered, died, and rose; in this silence the Spirit of adoption enables us to share in

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3864-490: The ancient tradition of Lectio Divina : the diligent reading of Sacred Scripture accompanied by prayer brings about that intimate dialogue in which the person reading hears God who is speaking, and in praying, responds to him with trusting openness of heart [cf. Dei verbum , n. 25]. If it is effectively promoted, this practice will bring to the Church – I am convinced of it – a new spiritual springtime. In his November 6, 2005 Angelus address, Benedict XVI emphasized

3956-455: The centerpiece of a session of meditation and contemplation. It is likely that Teresa did not initially know of Guigo II's methods, although she may have been indirectly influenced by those teachings via the works of Francisco de Osuna which she studied in detail. Caroline Bynum Caroline Walker Bynum , FBA (born May 10, 1941, in Atlanta , Georgia ) is a Medieval scholar from

4048-404: The contemplative life" and is considered the first description of methodical prayer in the western mystical tradition. In Guigo's four stages one first reads, which leads to think about (i.e. meditate on) the significance of the text; that process in turn leads the person to respond in prayer as the third stage. The fourth stage is when the prayer, in turn, points to the gift of quiet stillness in

4140-481: The deserts of Sketes where, either as solitary individuals or communities, they lived lives of austere simplicity oriented towards contemplative prayer . These communities formed the basis for what later would become known as Christian monasticism . The Eastern church then saw the development of monasticism and the mystical contributions of Gregory of Nyssa , Evagrius Ponticus , and Pseudo-Dionysius . Monasticism, also known as anchoritism (meaning "to withdraw")

4232-470: The deserts of Palestine and Egypt, they produced early models of Christian monastic life that persisted in the Eastern Church. These early communities gave rise to the tradition of a Christian life of "constant prayer" in a monastic setting. Although the desert monks gathered to hear Scripture recited in public, and would then recite those words privately in their cells, sometimes meditating on them; this

4324-499: The divine saying." Pope Benedict XVI emphasized the importance of using Lectio Divina and prayers on Scripture as a guiding light and a source of direction and stated "It should never be forgotten that the Word of God is a lamp for our feet and a light for our path." Contemplation takes place in terms of silent prayer that expresses love for God. The Catechism of the Catholic Church defines contemplative prayer as "the hearing

4416-512: The fact that it was said at the Last Supper, and the context within the biblical episode. Other theological analysis may follow, e.g. the cost at which Jesus the Lamb of God provided peace through his obedience to the will of the Father, etc. However, these theological analyses are generally avoided in Lectio Divina , where the focus is on Christ as the key that interprets the passage and relates it to

4508-443: The following concepts: In Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery , Da'at (knowledge) became gnosis , and poverty became an important component of monasticism . The term theoria was used by the ancient Greeks to refer to the act of experiencing or observing, and then comprehending through nous . The influences of Greek thought are apparent in the earliest Christian mystics and their writings. Plato (428–348 BC)

4600-450: The foundation of Lectio Divina came from Origen in the 3rd century, with his view of "Scripture as a sacrament". In a letter to Gregory of Neocaesarea Origen wrote: "[W]hen you devote yourself to the divine reading ... seek the meaning of divine words which is hidden from most people". Origen believed that The Word (i.e. Logos ) was incarnate in Scripture and could therefore touch and teach readers and hearers. Origen taught that

4692-531: The goal of spiritual growth away from knowledge/ gnosis , which he presents more in terms of Stoic ideas about the role of reason as being the underlying principle of the universe and as the spiritual principle within all people. Although John does not follow up on the Stoic notion that this principle makes union with the divine possible for humanity, it is an idea that later Christian writers develop. Later generations will also shift back and forth between whether to follow

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4784-590: The image of Moses and Aaron leading the Israelites through the wilderness, and he describes our union with God as the marriage of our souls with Christ the Logos , using the wedding imagery from the Song of Songs . Alexandrian mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism and Neoplatonism and therefore share some of the same ideas, images, etc. in spite of their differences. Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE – c.  50 CE)

4876-442: The increasing tendency to locate the mystical in the psychological realm of personal experiences – serves to exclude it from political issues as social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the world, serve to accommodate the individual to the status quo through the alleviation of anxiety and stress. Mystical experience

4968-644: The influence of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (late 5th to early 6th century) the mystical theology came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the Bible, and "the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyond the theology of divine names." Pseudo-Dionysius' apophatic theology , or "negative theology", exerted a great influence on medieval monastic religiosity. It was influenced by Neo-Platonism , and very influential in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology . In western Christianity it

5060-403: The knowledge of God's word . In the view of one commentator, it does not treat Scripture as texts to be studied, but as the living word. Traditionally, Lectio Divina has four separate steps: read; meditate; pray; contemplate. First a passage of Scripture is read, then its meaning is reflected upon. This is followed by prayer and contemplation on the Word of God. The focus of Lectio Divina

5152-425: The liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God. The 9th century saw the development of mystical theology through the introduction of the works of sixth-century theologian Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite , such as On Mystical Theology . His discussion of the via negativa was especially influential. Under

5244-566: The material world as evil, contrary to orthodox teaching that God took on human flesh and remained sinless. Thus, the nature of mystical experience could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological issues of the time. The idea of mystical realities has been widely held in Christianity since the second century AD, referring not simply to spiritual practices, but also to the belief that their rituals and even their scriptures have hidden ("mystical") meanings. The link between mysticism and

5336-454: The meditator. So rather than "dissecting peace" in an analytical manner, the practitioner of Lectio Divina "enters peace" and shares the peace of Christ. The focus will thus be on achieving peace via a closer communion with God rather than a biblical analysis of the passage. Similar other passages may be "Abide in my love", "I am the Good Shepherd", etc. In the Christian tradition, prayer

5428-497: The mental activity of weighing or considering. To ponder on the passage that has been read, it is held lightly and gently considered from various angles. Again, the emphasis is not on analysis of the passage but to keep the mind open and allow the Holy Spirit to inspire a meaning for it. An example passage may be the statement by Jesus during the Last Supper in John 14:27 : "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give unto you". An analytical approach would focus on why Jesus said that,

5520-589: The message in Scriptural texts. The "primordial role" of Origen in interpreting Scripture was acknowledged by Pope Benedict XVI . Origen's methods were then learned by Ambrose of Milan , who towards the end of the 4th century taught them to Saint Augustine , thereby introducing them into the monastic traditions of the Western Church thereafter. In the 4th century, as the Desert Fathers began to seek God in

5612-407: The methods that they employed had precedents in the biblical period both in Hebrew and Greek. A text that combines these traditions is Romans 10:8–10 where Apostle Paul refers to the presence of God's word in the believer's "mouth or heart". It was the recitation of the biblical text that provided the rationale for Lectio Divina . With the motto Ora et labora ("Pray and work"), daily life in

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5704-461: The mind for contemplation. By the beginning of the 16th century, the methods of "methodical prayer" had reached Spain and St. John of the Cross taught the four stages of Guigo II to his monks. During the century, Protestant Reformers such as John Calvin continued to advocate the Lectio Divina . A Reformed version of the Lectio Divina was also popular among the Puritans : Richard Baxter ,

5796-467: The mind, which Holmes refers to as speculative practice, or the heart/emotions, which he calls affective practice. Combining the speculative/affective scale with the apophatic/cataphatic scale allows for a range of categories: Lectio Divina In Western Christianity , Lectio Divina ( Latin for "Divine Reading") is a traditional monastic practice of scriptural reading, meditation and prayer intended to promote communion with God and to increase

5888-450: The mind. Among the Greek Fathers, Christian theoria was not contemplation of Platonic Ideas nor of the astronomical heavens of Pontic Heraclitus, but "studying the Scriptures", with an emphasis on the spiritual sense. Later, contemplation came to be distinguished from intellectual life, leading to the identification of θεωρία or contemplatio with a form of prayer distinguished from discursive meditation in both East and West. Some make

5980-424: The most important aspect of human existence and that gnosis (not something we can attain by ourselves, but the gift of Christ) helps us find the spiritual realities that are hidden behind the natural world and within the scriptures. Given the importance of reason, Clement stresses apatheia as a reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within God's love, which is seen as a form of truth. Origen, who had

6072-409: The passage being read. Following the preparation the first movement of Lectio Divina is slow and gradual reading of the scriptural passage, perhaps several times. The biblical basis for the reading goes back to Romans 10:8–10 and the presence of God's word in the believer's "mouth or heart". The attentive reading begins the process through which a higher level of understanding can be achieved. In

6164-440: The peace of Christ rather than "dissecting" it. In some Christian teachings, this form of meditative prayer is understood as leading to an increased knowledge of Christ . The roots of scriptural reflection and interpretation go back to Origen in the 3rd century, after whom Ambrose taught them to Augustine of Hippo . The monastic practice of Lectio Divina was first established in the 6th century by Benedict of Nursia and

6256-624: The period before Jesus was highly corporate and public, based mostly on the worship services of the synagogues, which included the reading and interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures and the recitation of prayers, and on the major festivals. Thus, private spirituality was strongly influenced by the liturgies and by the scriptures (e.g., the use of the Psalms for prayer), and individual prayers often recalled historical events just as much as they recalled their own immediate needs. Of special importance are

6348-525: The practice, and books and articles on Lectio Divina aimed at the general public began to appear by the middle of the century. In 1965, one of the principal documents of the Second Vatican Council , the dogmatic constitution Dei verbum ("Word of God") emphasized the use of Lectio Divina . On the 40th anniversary of Dei verbum in 2005, Pope Benedict XVI reaffirmed its importance and stated: I would like in particular to recall and recommend

6440-474: The prayer of Jesus." The role of the Holy Spirit in contemplative prayer has been emphasized by Christian spiritual writers for centuries. In the 12th century, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux compared the Holy Spirit to a kiss by the Eternal Father which allows the practitioner of contemplative prayer to experience union with God. In the 14th century, Richard Rolle viewed contemplation as the path that leads

6532-585: The presence of God, called contemplation . Guigo named the four steps of this "ladder" of prayer with the Latin terms lectio , meditatio , oratio , and contemplatio . In the 13th century the Carmelite Rule of St. Albert prescribed to Carmelites the daily prayerful pondering on the Word of God, namely to ruminate day and night the Divine Law. Lectio Divina alongside the daily celebration of liturgy

6624-409: The reading of Scripture could help move beyond elementary thoughts and discover the higher wisdom hidden in the "Word of God". In Origen's approach, the major interpretive element of Scripture is Christ . In his view all Scriptural texts are secondary to Christ and are only revelations in as much as they refer to Christ as The Word of God . In this view, using Christ as the "interpretive key" unlocks

6716-495: The role of the Holy Spirit in Lectio Divina : In his annual Lenten addresses to the priests of the Diocese of Rome, Pope Benedict – mainly after the 2008 Synod of Bishops on the Bible – emphasized Lectio Divina 's importance, as in 2012, when he used Ephesians 4:1–16 on a speech about certain problems facing the Church. Beforehand, he and Pope John Paul II had used a question-and-answer format. "One condition for Lectio Divina

6808-490: The roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential. McGinn's emphasis on

6900-554: The sake of God—the ultimate example of ascetic practice. Martyrdom could also be seen as symbolic in its connections with the Eucharist and with baptism. Theoria enabled the Fathers to perceive depths of meaning in the biblical writings that escape a purely scientific or empirical approach to interpretation. The Antiochene Fathers, in particular, saw in every passage of Scripture a double meaning, both literal and spiritual. As Frances Margaret Young notes, "Best translated in this context as

6992-460: The sake of the prize; later writers will see in this image a call to ascetical practices . The texts attributed to the Apostolic Fathers , the earliest post-Biblical texts we have, share several key themes, particularly the call to unity in the face of internal divisions and perceptions of persecution, the reality of the charisms , especially prophecy, visions, and Christian gnosis , which

7084-540: The soul to union with God in love, and considered the Holy Spirit as the center of contemplation. From a theological perspective, God's grace is considered a principle, or cause, of contemplation, with its benefits delivered through the gifts of the Holy Spirit . While the Lectio Divina has been the key method of meditation and contemplation within the Benedictine , Cistercian and Carthusian orders, other Catholic religious orders have used other methods. An example

7176-455: The story of Jacob's ladder —and sought to fend off the demon of acedia ("un-caring"), a boredom or apathy that prevents us from continuing on in our spiritual training. Anchorites could live in total solitude (" hermits ", from the word erēmitēs , "of the desert") or in loose communities (" cenobites ", meaning "common life"). Monasticism eventually made its way to the West and was established by

7268-461: The stress on "experience" is accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, instead of the shared life on the community. It also fails to distinguish between episodic experience, and mysticism as a process that is embedded in a total religious matrix of liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals and practices. Richard King also points to disjunction between "mystical experience" and social justice: The privatisation of mysticism – that is,

7360-437: The third hypostatic level has theoria . Knowledge of the one is achieved through experience of its power, an experience that is contemplation ( theoria ) of the source of all things. Plotinus agreed with Aristotle's systematic distinction between contemplation ( theoria ) and practice ( praxis ): dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abstention from practical, active life. Plotinus explained: "The point of action

7452-434: The traditional Benedictine approach the passage is slowly read four times, each time with a slightly different focus. Although Lectio Divina involves reading, it is less a practice of reading than one of listening to the inner message of the Scripture delivered through the Holy Spirit . Lectio Divina does not seek information or motivation, but communion with God. It does not treat Scripture as text to be studied, but as

7544-425: The transcendental. In early Christianity the term mystikos referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures . The liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist , the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension

7636-402: The transformation that occurs through mystical activity relates to this idea of "presence" instead of "experience": This is why the only test that Christianity has known for determining the authenticity of a mystic and her or his message has been that of personal transformation, both on the mystic's part and—especially—on the part of those whom the mystic has affected. Parsons points out that

7728-438: The vision of the divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers , who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation. In subsequent centuries, especially as Christian apologetics began to use Greek philosophy to explain Christian ideas, Neoplatonism became an influence on Christian mystical thought and practice via such authors as Augustine of Hippo and Origen . Jewish spirituality in

7820-494: The way medieval people, especially women, understood the nature of the human body and its physicality in the context of larger theological questions and spiritual pursuits. Bynum's work centers around late-medieval Europe. Her focus on female piety has brought increased attention to the role of women in medieval Europe. In 2016 Bynum was elected a Fellow of the Ecclesiastical History Society. In July 2017, Bynum

7912-534: The work of John Cassian and Benedict of Nursia . Meanwhile, Western spiritual writing was deeply influenced by the works of such men as Jerome and Augustine of Hippo . Neo-Platonism has had a profound influence on Christian contemplative traditions. Neoplatonic ideas were adopted by Christianity, among them the idea of theoria or contemplation, taken over by Gregory of Nyssa for example. The Brill Dictionary of Gregory of Nyssa remarks that contemplation in Gregory

8004-419: Was a Jewish Hellenistic philosopher who was important for connecting the Hebrew Scriptures to Greek thought, and thereby to Greek Christians, who struggled to understand their connection to Jewish history. In particular, Philo taught that allegorical interpretations of the Hebrew scriptures provides access to the real meanings of the texts. Philo also taught the need to bring together the contemplative focus of

8096-455: Was a counter-current to the prevailing Cataphatic theology or "positive theology". Within theistic mysticism two broad tendencies can be identified. One is a tendency to understand God by asserting what he is and the other by asserting what he is not. The former leads to what is called cataphatic theology and the latter to apophatic theology . Urban T. Holmes III categorized mystical theology in terms of whether it focuses on illuminating

8188-458: Was instrumental in re-emphasizing the importance of Lectio Divina within the Cistercian order. Bernard considered Lectio Divina and contemplation guided by the Holy Spirit the keys to nourishing Christian spirituality. Seek in reading and you will find in meditation ; knock in prayer and it will be opened to you in contemplation — The four stages of Lectio Divina as taught by John of

8280-450: Was not yet fully what later became Lectio Divina, since it did not necessarily involve a meditative step. After Origen, Church Fathers such as St. Ambrose , St. Augustine , and St. Hilary of Poitiers used the terms Lectio Divina and Lectio Sacra to refer to the reading of Scripture. According to Jean Leclercq, OSB , the founders of the medieval tradition of Lectio Divina were Saint Benedict and Pope Gregory I . However,

8372-495: Was seen as an alternative to martyrdom, and was less about escaping the world than about fighting demons (who were thought to live in the desert) and about gaining liberation from our bodily passions in order to be open to the word of God. Anchorites practiced continuous meditation on the scriptures as a means of climbing the ladder of perfection—a common religious image in the Mediterranean world and one found in Christianity through

8464-517: Was then formalized as a four-step process by the Carthusian monk Guigo II during the 12th century. In the 20th century, the constitution Dei verbum of the Second Vatican Council recommended Lectio Divina to the general public and its importance was affirmed by Pope Benedict XVI at the start of the 21st century. Before the beginning of the Western monastic communities , a key contribution to

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