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90-607: The Chowdur are thought to belong to the original Turkmen group and the left flank of Oghuz Khan's army. They lived by the Caspian Sea since approximately the beginning of the second millennium. Abul Ghazi tells us they arrived in Mangyshlak as early as the 11th century. Prior to the rise of Toghrul Bek (the first Seljuk ruler, 1038 until 1063), many tribes followed the lead of their tribal leaders Kilik bek, Kazan bek and Karaman bek and settled in Mangyshlak. Most of them were members of

180-543: A bourgeois revolution . In the 1920s, the Nationalist Party issued a theory of three political stages based on Sun Yatsen 's writings: The most obvious criticism is the near-identical nature of "political tutelage" and of a "constitutional democracy" consisting only of the one-party rule until the 1990s. Against this, Chen Shui-bian proposed his own four-stage theory . Postmodern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject narrative history and instead focus on

270-405: A cyclical pattern . In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a morally upright founder, but his successors cannot help but become increasingly corrupt and dissolute. This immorality removes the dynasty's divine favor and is manifested by natural disasters (particularly floods ), rebellions, and foreign invasions. Eventually, the dynasty becomes weak enough to be replaced by a new one, whose founder

360-400: A dragon named Kiyant. Oghuz armed himself and went to kill the dragon. He set a trap for the dragon by hanging a freshly killed deer in a tree, then killed the great dragon with a bronze lance and cut off its head with a steel sword. After Oghuz killed Kiyant, he became a people's hero. He formed a special warrior band from the forty sons of forty Turkic begs (lords, chiefs), thus gathering

450-647: A "two-tracked or multi-tracked world history". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analyzing the Six Dynasties 220–589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. His conclusion was that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China's history from that point on. There

540-559: A final banquet. (Abū’l-Ghāzī identifies the lineage symbols, tamga seals and ongon spirit guiding birds, as well as specifying the political hierarchy and seating order at banquets for these sons and their 24 sons). Then he said: My sons, I walked a lot; I saw many battles; I threw so many arrows and lances; I rode many horses; I made my enemies cry; I made my friends smile; I paid my debt to Tengri; Now I am giving my land to you. According to Abulgazi , Oguz Khan could have lived four thousand years before Prophet Muhammad during

630-715: A forest; Khulan will walk on the hunting ground; More seas and more rivers; Sun is our flag and sky is our tent. Then, he sent letters to the Kings of the Four Directions, saying: "I am the Khan of the Turks. And I will be Khan of the Four Corners of the Earth. I want your obedience." Altun Khan (Golden Khan), on the right corner of the earth, submitted his obedience, but Urum ( Roman ), Khan of

720-399: A great effort was made by official historians to establish a legitimate precursor whose fall allowed a new dynasty to acquire its mandate. Similarly, regardless of the particular merits of individual emperors, founders would be portrayed in more laudatory terms, and the last ruler of a dynasty would always be castigated as depraved and unworthy – even when that was not the case. Such a narrative

810-496: A historical norm for this region, and of dynasties successively reigning on the Son of Heaven's throne allowed Chinese elites describing historical process in China in simplified categories providing the basis for the concept of modern "unitary China" within the borders of the former Qing Empire, which was also ruled by Chinese emperors. However, deeper analysis reveals that, in fact, there was not

900-404: A new dynasty would employ scholars to compile a final history from the records of the previous one, using a broad variety of sources. Around the turn of the millennium, father–son imperial librarians Liu Xiang and Liu Xin edited and catalogued a large number of early texts, including each individual text listed by name above. Much transmitted literature surviving today is known to be ultimately

990-479: A new type of historiography that Liang regarded as more scientific. Liu Yizheng published several specialized history works including History of Chinese Culture . This next generation became professional historians, training and teaching in universities. They included Chang Chi-yun , Gu Jiegang , Fu Sinian , and Tsiang Tingfu , who were PhDs from Columbia University ; and Chen Yinke , who conducted his investigations into medieval Chinese history in both Europe and

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1080-404: A palace fire in the preceding centuries narrowed the sources available for this work. Because of this highly praised and frequently copied work, Sima Qian is often regarded as the father of Chinese historiography . The Twenty-Four Histories , the official histories of the dynasties considered legitimate by imperial Chinese historians, all copied Sima Qian's format. Typically, rulers initiating

1170-451: A small subset of Chinese history, particularly the daily lives of ordinary people in particular locations or settings. Zooming out from the dynastic cycle but maintaining focus on power dynamics, the following general periodization, based on the most powerful groups and the ways that power is used, has been proposed for Chinese history: From the beginning of CCP rule in 1949 until the 1980s, Chinese historical scholarship focused largely on

1260-596: A strong orientalist bent, regarding all Asian states as generally the same while finding reasons for European polities not fitting the pattern. While Wittfogel's theories were not popular among Marxist historians in China, the economist Chi Ch'ao-ting used them in his influential 1936 book, Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control . The book identified key areas of grain production which, when controlled by

1350-436: A strong political power, permitted that power to dominate the rest of the country and enforce periods of stability. Convergence theory, including Hu Shih and Ray Huang 's involution theory, holds that the past 150 years have been a period in which Chinese and Western civilization have been in the process of converging into a world civilization. Such a view is heavily influenced by modernization theory but, in China's case, it

1440-560: A succession of dynasties ruled the same unitary China, but there were different states in certain regions of East Asia, some of which have been termed by later historiographers as the Empire ruled by the Son of the Heaven. As early as the 1930s, the American scholar Owen Lattimore argued that China was the product of the interaction of farming and pastoral societies, rather than simply the expansion of

1530-510: A tool of legitimization of the sixteenth century onwards: Oghuz Khan, he has given the name, which means "saint", in his childhood because he was seen on the right path (i.e. God's). Because he recognized the Oneness of God, he fought with his father, and Oghuz's army killed the latter. This happened during Prophet Abraham 's times. According to a Turkic legend, Oghuz was born in Central Asia as

1620-505: A tree. He married her as well and had three more sons whom he named Gök (Sky), Dağ (Mountain), and Deniz (Sea) (in Turkmen). After his sons were born, Oghuz Khan gave a great toy (feast) and invited all of his begs (lords). At the feast, he gave this order to his lords: I have become your Khan; Let's all take swords and shields; Kut (divine power) will be our sign; Gray wolf will be our uran ( battle cry ); Our iron lances will be

1710-413: Is able to rectify many of society's problems and begin the cycle anew. Over time, many people felt a full correction was not possible, and that the golden age of Yao and Shun could not be attained. This teleological theory implies that there can be only one rightful sovereign under heaven at a time. Thus, despite the fact that Chinese history has had many lengthy and contentious periods of disunity,

1800-520: Is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of Shijie Datong or "Great Unity". It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians, as postmodern Western historians discount overarching narratives, and nationalist Chinese historians feel similar about narratives failing to account for some special or unique characteristics of Chinese culture. Closely related are colonial and anti-imperialist narratives. These often merge or are part of Marxist critiques from within China or

1890-749: Is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history. Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong , historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them. There are several problems associated with imposing Marx's European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China's history but never as

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1980-561: Is published in the People's Republic of China is based on a Marxist interpretation of history . These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo , and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are: The official historical view within

2070-1009: Is rapidly evolving, with much new scholarship, often based on the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial. For example, an active topic concerns whether the typical Chinese peasant in 1900 was seeing his life improve. In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous quantities of primary source material that have not yet been analyzed. Scholars are using previously overlooked documentary evidence, such as masses of government and family archives, and economic records such as census tax rolls, price records, and land surveys. In addition, artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to manuals, and children's books are analyzed for clues about day-to-day life. Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by postmodernism , and has questioned modernist narratives of China's backwardness and lack of development. The desire to challenge

2160-624: Is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China . The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty ( c. 1600–1046 BC). Many written examples survive of ceremonial inscriptions, divinations and records of family names, which were carved or painted onto tortoise shell or bones . The uniformly religious context of Shang written records makes avoidance of preservation bias important when interpreting Shang history. The first conscious attempt to record history in China may have been

2250-700: The Begdili tribe of the Oghuz Turks. The dynasty was founded by commander Anush Tigin Gharchai , a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans, who was appointed as governor of Khwarezm . His son, Qutb ad-Din Muhammad I , became the first hereditary Shah of Khwarezm . Qara Qoyunlu was a tribal confederation of Oguz Turkic nomadic tribes from the Oguz tribe of Yiva, which existed in

2340-684: The Caspian Sea and Aral Sea in their Yabghu Khaganate of the Oghuz confederacy. During the 11th century, they established the Great Seljuk Empire under the command of the Seljuk chieftains Toghrul Beg and Chaghri Beg . There are certain historical sources that state that the Anushteginids, who ruled vast parts of Central Asia from 1077 to 1231 under the title of Khwarazmshahs , descended from

2430-640: The Goguryeo tombs in Chinese territory. The absolute independence of Goguryeo is a central aspect of Korean identity, because, according to Korean legend, Goguryeo was independent of China and Japan, compared to subordinate states such as the Joseon dynasty and the Korean Empire . The legacy of Genghis Khan has been contested between China, Mongolia, and Russia, all three states having significant numbers of ethnic Mongols within their borders and holding territory that

2520-547: The Han people . Lattimore did not accept the more extreme Sino-Babylonian theories that the essential elements of early Chinese technology and religion had come from Western Asia , but he was among the scholars to argue against the assumption they had all been indigenous. Both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China hold the view that Chinese history should include all

2610-588: The Nationalist period . A significant amount of new writing includes texts written for a general (as opposed to only academic) audience. There has been an increasingly nuanced portrayal of Chiang Kai-shek , particularly in more favorably evaluating his leadership during the Second Sino-Japanese War and highlighting his position as one of the Big Four allied leaders. Recently released archival sources on

2700-406: The T'ung-chih [ Tongzhi ] Restoration demonstrated with a rare clarity that even in the most favorable circumstances there is no way in which an effective modern state can be grafted onto a Confucian society. Yet in the decades that followed, the political ideas that had been tested and, for all their grandeur, found wanting, were never given a decent burial." In a different view of modernization,

2790-652: The Warring States period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC. The first systematic Chinese historical text, the Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji ), was written by Sima Qian ( c.   145 or 135–86   BC) based on work by his father, Sima Tan , during the Han dynasty . It covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author's own lifetime. Two instances of systematic book-burning and

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2880-632: The ethnic groups of the lands held by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak , with these ethnicities forming part of the Zhonghua minzu (Chinese nation). This view is in contrast with Han chauvinism promoted by the Qing-era Tongmenghui . This expanded view encompasses internal and external tributary lands, as well as conquest dynasties in the history of a China seen as a coherent multi-ethnic nation since time immemorial, incorporating and accepting

2970-606: The imperial examination . Some world-systems analysts , such as Janet Abu-Lughod , claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed. The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio , writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan . Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed

3060-405: The khan , he went to the steppes by himself to praise and pray to Tengri . While praying, he saw a circle of light coming from the sky with a supernaturally beautiful girl standing in the light. Oghuz fell in love with the girl and married her. He had three sons whom he named Gün (Sun), Ay (Moon), and Yıldız (Star) (all in Turkmen). Later, Oghuz went hunting and saw another mesmerizing girl inside

3150-565: The legend of Oghuz Khan to describe their ethnic and tribal origins. The various versions of the narrative preserved in many different manuscripts have been published in numerous languages as listed below in the references. The narratives about him are often entitled Oghuzname , of which there are several traditions, describing his many feats and conquests, some of these tend to overlap with other Turkic epic traditions such as Seljukname and The Book of Dede Korkut . The name of Oghuz Khan has been associated with Maodun , also known as Mete Han;

3240-603: The three ages of the Greek poet Hesiod , the oldest Chinese historiography viewed mankind as living in a fallen age of depravity, cut off from the virtues of the past, as Confucius and his disciples revered the sage kings Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun . Unlike Hesiod's system, however, the Duke of Zhou 's idea of the Mandate of Heaven as a rationale for dethroning the supposedly divine Zi clan led subsequent historians to see man's fall as

3330-515: The 14-15th centuries in Western Asia , on the territory of modern Azerbaijan , Armenia , Iraq , northwestern Iran and eastern Turkey . The Aq Qoyunlu Sultans claimed descent from Bayindir Khan, through a grandson of Oghuz Khagan. Ottoman historian and ambassador to the Qara Qoyunlu, Şükrullah states that Ertuğrul's lineage goes to Gökalp, a son of Oghuz Khagan. The author states that

3420-579: The 17th-18th centuries Philip Johan von Strahlenberg , based on the Ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus and other historians, concludes that Oghuz Khan was the leader of the ancient Scythian peoples, under whose leadership they conquered vast territories in the Middle East , Southeast Europe and Egypt in ancient times. Stralenberg also notes that among the Central Asian peoples, Oghuz Khan enjoys

3510-545: The Chowdur dialect. It is considered one of the major dialects spoken in modern Turkmenistan along with Arsari, Goklen, Teke, Salir, Sarik, and Yomud. Oghuz Khagan Oghuz Khagan or Oghuz Khan ( Turkish : Oğuz Kağan or Oğuz Han ; Azerbaijani : Oğuz Xan or Oğuz Xaqan ; Turkmen : Oguz Han or Oguz Kagan ) is a legendary khan of the Turkic people and an eponymous ancestor of Oghuz Turks . Some Turkic cultures use

3600-589: The Chowdur ended up southeast of Khiva loosely confederated, but under the authority of the Yomud. There are indications that some Chowdur ended up in the mid Amu Darya region near north of Charjui. Under the Khiva Khanate during the nineteenth century, Choudur included the Igdir, Bozachi, Abdal, and Arabachi tribes. In 1743, the Yomud captured Khiva briefly and again in 1767, but that time they held it for three years. In 1770,

3690-791: The Imir, Dukur , Düker (Döger), Igdir, Chavuldur, Karkin, Salor or Agar (Ajar) tribes. In 1219, the Mongols crushed the Khwarazm Shah and his Turkmen / Azeri allies. Two years later, in 1221, the Mongol conquest pushed the Oghuz tribes including the Chowdur from the Syr Dara region into the Kara Kum area and along the Caspian Sea. Many Chowdur appear to have stayed on the Mangyshlak Peninsula from then through

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3780-448: The Japanese historian Naito Torajiro argued that China reached modernity during its mid-Imperial period , centuries before Europe. He believed that the reform of the civil service into a meritocratic system and the disappearance of the ancient Chinese nobility from the bureaucracy constituted a modern society. The problem associated with this approach is the subjective meaning of modernity. The Chinese nobility had been in decline since

3870-798: The Muhammad Amin Inaq of the Qungrats, defeated the Yomuds and founded the Qungrat dynasty. Part and parcel of this was the breakup of the Yomud which gave the Chowdur autonomy from the Yomud, but still under the Khiva/Khwarezem Khans. Turkmen living in the Murgab River delta ( Margiana oasis) traditionally farmed and herded karakul and fat-tailed sheep with some goats. Camels were herded separately. Herders ( chovdur in Turkmen) covered an area around

3960-619: The Nationalist era, including the Chiang Kai-shek diaries at Stanford University 's Hoover Institution , have contributed to a surge in academic publishing on the period. In China, historical scholarship remains largely nationalist and modernist or even traditionalist. The legacies of the modernist school (such as Lo Hsiang-lin ) and the traditionalist school (such as Qian Mu (Chien Mu) ) remain strong in Chinese circles. The more modernist works focus on imperial systems in China and employ

4050-513: The Opium wars and continues through the May Fourth period. In the 1950s, several of Fairbank's students argued that Confucianism was incompatible with modernity . Joseph Levenson and Mary C. Wright , and Albert Feuerwerker argued in effect that traditional Chinese values were a barrier to modernity and would have to be abandoned before China could make progress. Wright concluded, "The failure of

4140-504: The People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history. Because of the strength of the CCP and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction

4230-620: The Qin dynasty, and while the exams were largely meritocratic, performance required time and resources that meant examinees were still typically from the gentry . Moreover, expertise in the Confucian classics did not guarantee competent bureaucrats when it came to managing public works or preparing a budget. Confucian hostility to commerce placed merchants at the bottom of the four occupations , itself an archaism maintained by devotion to classic texts. The social goal continued to be to invest in land and enter

4320-703: The Timurid and the Shaybanid Uzbek periods, beginning the Turco-Mongol transformation of these originally Oghuz people. In the early 16th century, the Chowdur were a confederate or aymaq in the Salar Sayin Khani confederation. The Chowdur were primarily concentrated in the Mangyshlak Peninsula on the northeastern Caspian coast. The Kalmuks moved into the Mangyshlak Peninsula, the Sayin Khan confederation broke up and

4410-552: The United States. Other historians, such as Qian Mu , who was trained largely through independent study, were more conservative but remained innovative in their response to world trends. In the 1920s, wide-ranging scholars, such as Guo Moruo , adapted Marxism in order to portray China as a nation among nations, rather than having an exotic and isolated history. The ensuing years saw historians such as Wu Han master both Western theories, including Marxism, and Chinese learning. Like

4500-473: The battle. Then, Oghuz and his six sons carried out campaigns in Turkistan , India, Iran, Egypt, Iraq and Syria, with the grey wolf as their guide. He became the Khan of the Four Corners of the Earth. In his old age, Oghuz saw a dream. He called his six sons and sent them to the east and the west. His elder sons found a golden bow in the east. His younger sons found three silver arrows in the west. Oghuz Khan broke

4590-467: The building and maintenance of large-scale systems of irrigation, the need for such systems made bureaucratic despotism inevitable in Oriental lands. When Wittfogel published his Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power , critics pointed out that water management was given the high status China accorded to officials concerned with taxes, rituals, or fighting off bandits. The theory also has

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4680-409: The clans together. But his Chinese stepmother and half-brother, who was the heir to the throne, became intimidated by his power and convinced Qara Khan that Oghuz was planning to dethrone him. Qara Khan decided to assassinate Oghuz at a hunting party. Oghuz learned about this plan and instead killed his father and became the khan. His stepmother and half-brother fled to Chinese lands. After Oghuz became

4770-481: The contributions and cultures of non-Han ethnicities. The acceptance of this view by ethnic minorities sometimes depends on their views on present-day issues. The 14th Dalai Lama , long insistent on Tibet's history being separate from that of China, conceded in 2005 that Tibet "is a part of" China's " 5,000-year history " as part of a new proposal for Tibetan autonomy. Korean nationalists have virulently reacted against China's application to UNESCO for recognition of

4860-609: The creation of the New History of the Five Dynasties , which covered five dynasties in over 70 chapters. Toward the end of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century, scholars looked to Japan and the West for models. In the late 1890s, although deeply learned in the traditional forms, Liang Qichao began to publish extensive and influential studies and polemics that converted young readers to

4950-430: The driving force behind its recent history are still common. Such studies may consider the First Opium War as the starting point for China's modern period. Examples include the works of H.B. Morse , who wrote chronicles of China's international relations such as Trade and Relations of the Chinese Empire . The Chinese convention is to use the word jindai ("modern") to refer to a timeframe for modernity which begins with

5040-406: The dual challenges of interactions with the outside world and modernization in the post-1700 era. Long abandoned as a research focus among most Western scholars due to postmodernism's influence, this remains the primary interest for most historians inside China. The late 20th century and early 21st century have seen numerous studies of Chinese history that challenge traditional paradigms. The field

5130-431: The floods of the Yellow River . The hydraulic empire produces wealth from its stability; while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers. In Europe abundant rainfall meant less dependence on irrigation. In the Orient natural conditions were such that the bulk of the land could not be cultivated without large-scale irrigation works. As only a centralized administration could organize

5220-431: The former Soviet Union, or are postmodern critiques such as Edward Said 's Orientalism , which fault traditional scholarship for trying to fit West, South, and East Asia's histories into European categories unsuited to them. With regard to China particularly, T.F. Tsiang and John Fairbank used newly opened archives in the 1930s to write modern history from a Chinese point of view. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu then edited

5310-473: The former, the direction and sequence of conquests, etc.), which was first noticed by N.Ya. Bichurin (Collection of information, pp. 56–57). Oghuz Khan is sometimes considered the legendary founder of most Turkic people, and ancestor of the Oghuz subbranch. Even today, subbranches of Oghuz are classified in order of the legendary six sons and 24 grandsons of Oghuz Khan. In history, Turkmen dynasties often rebelled or claimed sovereignty by saying their rank

5400-494: The foundation of the prophets and those who know the secrets of the meanings (human) works narrate that this great lineage (of the house of Osman) comes from Oghuz son of Kara Han, who was one of the children of Bulcas, son of Yafes , son of Noah , peace be upon him! As follows: Ertugrul son of Suleyman Shah son of Kaya Alp son of Kızıl Buğa ... son of Bulcas son of Yafes son of Noah. Cem Sultan , Bayezid II 's brother, linked their genealogy to Oghuz Khagan that would prevail as

5490-407: The frontier, held an assembly. When they had consulted each other and understood the custom of Oghuz (Khan), they appointed Osman khan. Bayezid I advanced this claim against Timur , who denigrated the Ottoman lineage. According to Ottoman historian Neşri , Osman had a grandfather with a king's name and came from a lineage of the senior branch of Oghuz family : The experts in the knowledge of

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5580-415: The gentry, ideas more like those of the physiocrats than those of Adam Smith . With ideas derived from Marx and Max Weber , Karl August Wittfogel argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems . Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals , dikes , and waterways to increase agriculture . Yu the Great , one of China's legendary founders, is known for his control of

5670-488: The golden bow into three pieces and gave each to his three older sons Gün, Ay, and Yıldız. He said, "My older sons, take this bow and shoot your arrows to the sky like this bow." He gave the three silver arrows to his three younger sons Gök, Dağ and Deniz and said, "My younger sons, take these silver arrows. A bow shoots arrows and you are to be like the arrow." Then, he passed his lands on to his sons, Bozoks (Gray Arrows - elder sons) and Üçoks (Three Arrows - younger sons) at

5760-433: The history of China from 403 BC to the beginning of the Song dynasty in 959. This style broke the nearly thousand-year tradition of Sima Qian, which employed annals for imperial reigns but biographies or treatises for other topics. The more consistent style of the Zizhi Tongjian was not followed by later official histories. In the mid 13th century, Ouyang Xiu was heavily influenced by the work of Xue Juzheng . This led to

5850-422: The indigenous underdogs of frontier history". Scholarly interest in writing about Chinese minorities from non-Chinese perspectives is growing. So too is the rejection of a unified cultural narrative in early China. Historians engaging with archaeological progress find increasingly demonstrated a rich amalgam of diverse cultures in regions the received literature positions as homogeneous. Most Chinese history that

5940-401: The influential volume China's Response to the West (1953). This approach was attacked for ascribing the change in China to outside forces. In the 1980s, Paul Cohen , a student of Fairbank's, issued a call for a more "China-Centered history of China". The schools of thought on the 1911 Revolution have evolved from the early years of the Republic. The Marxist view saw the events of 1911 as

6030-410: The information was shown during a court of Jahan Shah , from a book written in Mongolian script . Yazıcıoğlu Ali , in early 15th century, traced Osman 's genealogy to Oghuz Khagan, through his senior grandson of his senior son, so giving the Ottoman sultans primacy among Turkish monarchs . Yazıcıoğlu quotes as follows: Ertugrul, from the tribe of Kayï , his son Osman Bey, and the beys on

6120-406: The inscription on the Zhou dynasty bronze Shi Qiang pan . This and thousands of other Chinese bronze inscriptions form our primary sources for the period in which they were interred in elite burials. The oldest surviving history texts of China were compiled in the Book of Documents (Shujing) . The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) , the official chronicle of the State of Lu , cover

6210-440: The late imperial system and its failures. However, in the 21st century, a highly favorable revisionism has emerged in the popular culture , in both the media and social media . Florian Schneider argues that nationalism in China in the early twenty-first century is largely a product of the digital revolution and that a large fraction of the population participates as readers and commentators who relate ideas to their friends over

6300-423: The left corner, did not. Oghuz declared war on Urum Khan and marched his army to the west. One night, a large male wolf with grey fur (which is an avatar of Tengri) came to his tent in an aura of light. He said, "Oghuz, you want to march against Urum, I want to march before your army." So, the grey sky-wolf marched before the Turkic army and guided them. The two armies fought near the river İtil (Volga). Oghuz Khan won

6390-411: The model. Such a view was common amongst European and American historians during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now criticized for being a Eurocentric viewpoint, since such a view permits an implicit justification for breaking the society from its static past and bringing it into the modern world under European direction. By the mid-20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that

6480-564: The notion of "changeless China" was untenable. A new concept, popularized by John Fairbank , was the notion of "change within tradition", which argued that China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions. This notion has also been subject to the criticism that to say "China has not changed fundamentally" is tautological , since it requires that one look for things that have not changed and then arbitrarily define those as fundamental. Nonetheless, studies seeing China's interaction with Europe as

6570-453: The oasis to the north. Each chovdur knew the wells, the temporary summer camps ( yazlag ) and the winter houses or camps ( gyshlag ) which were grouped in villages in the oasis. The gyshlags were all located in the cultivated areas, where herders could find late forage and reeds for shelters. The Chowdur tribe, particularly those members who settled in Khorezm oasis ' Kalinin district also speak

6660-519: The official Chinese-language histories of the Han-ruled Song and Ming dynasties, respectively. Recent Western scholars have reacted against the ethnically inclusive narrative in traditional and Chinese Communist Party (CCP)-sponsored history, by writing revisionist histories of China such as the New Qing History that feature, according to James A. Millward, "a degree of 'partisanship' for

6750-448: The officially sanctioned Marxist theory of class struggle . From the time of Deng Xiaoping (1978–1992) on, there has been a drift towards a Marxist-inspired Chinese nationalist perspective, and consideration of China's contemporary international status has become of paramount importance in historical studies. The current focus tends to be on specifics of civilization in ancient China, and the general paradigm of how China has responded to

6840-475: The period from 722 to 481 BC and are among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged as annals . The compilations of both of these works are traditionally ascribed to Confucius . The Zuo zhuan , attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468 BC. The anonymous Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work composed of sporadic materials on

6930-430: The preconception that 19th-century China was weak, for instance, has led to a scholarly interest in Qing expansion into Central Asia . Postmodern scholarship largely rejects grand narratives altogether, preferring to publish empirical studies on the socioeconomics, and political or cultural dynamics, of smaller communities within China. As of at least 2023, there has been a surge of historical writing about key leaders of

7020-513: The primary form of labor. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal , later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analyzed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term "bureaucratic feudalism". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with

7110-669: The reason being that there is a remarkable similarity between the biography of Oghuz Khagan in the Turkic mythology and the biography of Maodun found in the Chinese historiography , which was first noticed by the Russo- Chuvash sinologist Hyacinth . The Seljuks originated from the Kinik branch of the Oghuz Turks , who in the 9th century lived on the periphery of the Muslim world, north of

7200-620: The same fame as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar among Europeans . In scientific literature, the name of Maodun is usually associated with Oghuz Khagan. The reason for that is a striking similarity of the Oghuz-Kagan biography in the Turko-Persian manuscripts ( Rashid al-Din , Hondemir , Abulgazi ) with the Maodun biography in the Chinese sources (feud between the father and son and murder of

7290-591: The scientific method to analyze epochs of Chinese dynasties from geographical, genealogical, and cultural artifacts. For example, using Carbon-14 dating and geographical records to correlate climates with cycles of calm and calamity in Chinese history. The traditionalist school of scholarship resorts to official imperial records and colloquial historical works, and analyzes the rise and fall of dynasties using Confucian philosophy, albeit modified by an institutional administration perspective. After 1911, writers, historians and scholars in China and abroad generally deprecated

7380-477: The set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that " Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West" and assumed that China existed in a "qualitatively different historical world from Western society ". That is, there is an argument between those who see "unilinear, monistic world history" and those who conceive of

7470-456: The son of Qara Khan, leader of the Turkic people. He started talking as soon as he was born. He stopped drinking his mother's milk after the first time and asked for kymyz (an alcoholic beverage made with fermented horse milk) and meat. After that, he grew up supernaturally fast and in only forty days he became a young adult. At the time of his birth, the lands of the Turkic people were preyed upon by

7560-460: The structure, method, arrangement, sequence, caption, and commentary, dating back to the Warring States period . The Zizhi Tongjian was a pioneering reference work of Chinese historiography. Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered Sima Guang and other scholars to begin compiling this universal history of China in 1065, and they presented it to his successor Shenzong in 1084. It contains 294 volumes and about three million characters, and it narrates

7650-567: The time of the legendary ancient king Keyumars . French academician of the 18th century J.-S. Bailly refers the period of Khan's life to the 29th century B.C., the Russian geographer and historian of the 18th century P.Rychkov and Soviet historian O. Tumanovich - to the 7th century B.C. The French Encyclopedia of Diderot and d'Alembert mentions that Oghuz Khan lived long before the Persian king Cyrus II . Swedish geographer and cartographer of

7740-422: The version they edited down from a larger volume of material available at the time. In 190, the imperial capital was again destroyed by arson, causing the loss of significant amounts of historical material. The Shitong was the first Chinese work about historiography. It was compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 AD. The book describes the general pattern of the official dynastic histories with regard to

7830-474: Was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics. This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society as a traditional society needing to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption of Western society as

7920-476: Was conquered by the Khan. The Jin dynasty tradition of a new dynasty composing the official history for its preceding dynasty/dynasties has been seen to foster an ethnically inclusive interpretation of Chinese history. The compilation of official histories usually involved monumental intellectual labor. The Yuan and Qing dynasties, ruled by the Mongols and Manchus , faithfully carried out this practice, composing

8010-536: Was employed after the fall of the empire by those compiling the history of the Qing , and by those who justified the attempted restorations of the imperial system by Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun . Traditional Chinese historiography includes states ruled by other peoples (Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans etc.) in the dynastic history of China proper, ignoring their own historical traditions and considering them parts of China. Two historiographic traditions: of unity in East Asia as

8100-552: Was higher than the existing dynasty in this tribal classification. Oghuz Khan appears on the 100 manat banknote. Oğuz and Oğuzhan are a common masculine Turkish and Turkic given names, which come from Oghuz Khan. Mary Province 's district Oguzhan , in Turkmenistan , is named after him. The International airport in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan is named after Oghuz Khan. Chinese historiography Chinese historiography

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