128-469: (Redirected from Chinese Massacre ) Chinese massacre may refer to: Violence against Chinese people [ edit ] Main article: Sinophobia § Historical Sinophobia-led violence Chinese Massacre of 1871 (Los Angeles) , where 19 Chinese immigrants were lynched Rock Springs massacre in 1885, carried out by European-American miners against Chinese-American miners Torreón massacre in 1911, where
256-529: A "core imagery of apes, lesser men, primitives, children, madmen, and beings who possessed special powers", which developed during the 19th century as Western imperialist expansion adduced East Asians as the Yellow Peril. In the late 19th century, the Russian sociologist Jacques Novikow coined the term in the essay "Le Péril Jaune" ("The Yellow Peril", 1897), which Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888–1918) used to encourage
384-687: A 2019 YouGov poll has suggested Singapore to have the highest percentage of locals prejudiced against Chinese travellers out of the many countries surveyed. A 2016 study found that out of 20 Chinese Singaporeans , 45% agreed that PRC migrants were rude, although only 15% expressed negative attitudes towards mainland Chinese in general. Another 2016 study of Singaporean locals and (mostly mainland) Chinese students found that most respondents in both groups said they had positive experiences with each other, with only 11% of Singaporeans saying they did not. Due to race-based politics and Bumiputera policy, there had been several incidents of racial conflict between
512-476: A Russophone obsessed with the coming rise of the East. Both called for Germany to join the "young nations" of Asia through the adoption of such supposedly Asiatic practices as collectivism, "inner barbarism", and despotic leadership. The identification of Russia with Asia would eventually overwhelm such sympathies, instead leading to a more-or-less straightforward association of Germany with the values of "The West", against
640-749: A buffer against "onslaught". The Chinese head tax was a fixed fee charged to each Chinese person entering Canada . The head tax was first levied after the Canadian parliament passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 and was meant to discourage Chinese people from entering Canada after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The tax was abolished by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 , which outright prevented all Chinese immigration except for that of business people, clergy, educators, students, and some others. In 1900,
768-665: A decade, since the Dungan Revolt . In that time, the mass communications media of the West misrepresented China as an ascendant military power, and applied Yellow Peril ideology to evoke racist fears that China would conquer Western colonies, such as Australia. Imperial Russian writers, notably symbolists , expressed fears of a "second Tatar yoke" or a "Mongolian wave" following the lines of "Yellow Peril". Vladimir Solovyov combined Japan and China into supposed "Pan-Mongolians" who would conquer Russia and Europe. A similar idea and fear
896-770: A derogatory term for people of mixed Han Chinese and Mongol ethnicity, is a common phenomena in Mongolian politics. Erliiz are seen as a Chinese plot of " genetic pollution " to chip away at Mongolian sovereignty, and allegations of Chinese ancestry are used as a political weapon in election campaigns. Several small Neo-Nazi groups opposing Chinese influence and mixed Chinese couples are present within Mongolia, such as Tsagaan Khas . Resentment against China and Chinese people has also increased in Tajikistan in recent years due to accusations that China has grabbed land from Tajikistan. In 2013,
1024-698: A disinformation campaign that amplified Filipinos' erosion of trust in Chinese COVID-19 vaccines and pandemic supplies. Yellow Peril The Yellow Peril (also the Yellow Terror , the Yellow Menace , and the Yellow Specter ) is a racist color metaphor that depicts the peoples of East and Southeast Asia as an existential danger to the Western world . The concept of the Yellow Peril derives from
1152-793: A fate "worse than death" in Western popular culture. In 1914, at the start of the First World War, the Defense of the Realm Act was amended to include the smoking of opium as proof of "moral depravity" that merited deportation, a legal pretext for deporting members of the Chinese community to China. This anti-Chinese moral panic derived in part from the social reality that British women were becoming more financially independent by way of war-production jobs, which allowed them (among other things) greater sexual freedom,
1280-640: A favourable view; the disapproval rating was higher than that of respondents from 3 other Central Asian countries. Mongolian nationalist and Neo-Nazi groups are reported to be hostile to China, and Mongolians traditionally hold unfavorable views of the country. The common stereotype is that China is trying to undermine Mongolian sovereignty in order to eventually make it part of China (the Republic of China has claimed Mongolia as part of its territory, see Outer Mongolia). Fear and hatred of erliiz ( Mongolian : эрлийз , [ˈɛrɮiːt͡sə] , literally, double seeds),
1408-528: A large increase of anti-China sentiment, from 33% disfavor in 2006 to 64% in the 2013 survey, with such views existing despite Germany's success in exporting to China. Respondents in the Balkans have held generally positive views of China, according to 2020 polling. An International Republican Institute survey from February to March found that only in Kosovo (75%) did most respondents express an unfavourable opinion of
SECTION 10
#17328633206811536-687: A long history. The Tang dynasty and Tibetan Empire did enter into periods of military conflict . In the 13th century, Tibet fell under the rule of the Yuan dynasty but it ceased to be with the collapse of the Yuan dynasty. The relationship between Tibet with China remains complicated until Tibet was invaded again by the Qing dynasty . Following the British expedition to Tibet in 1904, many Tibetans look back on it as an exercise of Tibetan self-defense and an act of independence from
1664-624: A major party in controlling the economy. The standoff in Spratly Islands and Scarborough Shoal between China and the Philippines contributes to anti-China sentiment among Filipinos. Campaigns to boycott Chinese products began in 2012. People protested in front of the Chinese Embassy and it led the embassy to issue a travel warning for its citizens to the Philippines for a year. Amidst
1792-662: A meeting about the Russo-Japanese War, King Edward VII heard the Kaiser complain that the Yellow Peril is "the greatest peril menacing ... Christendom and European civilization. If the Russians went on giving ground, the yellow race would, in twenty years time, be in Moscow and Posen". The Kaiser criticized the British for siding with Japan against Russia, and said that "race treason" was
1920-631: A mixed identity (a Hong Kong Chinese or a Hong Konger who was living in China). By 2019, almost no Hong Kong youth identified as Chinese. The number of mainland Chinese visitors to the region has surged since the handover (reaching 28 million in 2011) and is perceived by many locals to be the cause of their housing and job difficulties. In addition to resentment due to political oppression, negative perceptions have grown through circulating online posts of mainlander misbehaviour, as well as discriminatory discourse in major Hong Kong newspapers. In 2013, polls from
2048-736: A number of war criminals are enshrined), as both a diplomatic card and a tool to make Japan a scapegoat in domestic Chinese politics. The Anti-Japanese Riots in the Spring of 2005 were another source of more anger towards China among the Japanese public. Anti-Chinese sentiments have been on a sharp rise in Japan since 2002. According to the Pew Global Attitude Project (2008), 84% of Japanese people held an unfavorable view of China and 73% of Japanese people held an unfavorable view of Chinese people, which
2176-420: A race of "healthy, sly, cunning coolies", because the Chinese are virtuosi of sexual reproduction. The gist of von Ehrenfels's nihilistic racism was that Asian conquest of the West equaled white racial annihilation; Continental Europe subjugated by a genetically superior Sino–Japanese army consequent to a race war that the Western world would fail to thwart or win. To resolve the population imbalance between
2304-528: A racist man such as the Kaiser. Inverting the racist premise of Asian invasion, France showed that European imperialism in Asia and Africa indicated that the European White Peril was the true threat to the world. In his essay "The Bogey of the Yellow Peril" (1904), the British journalist Demetrius Charles Boulger said the Yellow Peril was racist hysteria for popular consumption. Asian geopolitical dominance of
2432-566: A steady rise since 2002. According to Pew opinion polls, favorable views of China steadily declined from 66% in 2002 to 48% in 2008, while unfavorable views rose from 31% in 2002 to 49% in 2008. According to surveys by the East Asia Institute, positive views of China's influence declined from 48.6% in 2005 to 38% in 2009, while negative views of it rose from 46.7% in 2005 to 50% in 2008. A 2012 BBC World Service poll had 64% of South Koreans expressing negative views of China's influence, which
2560-427: A transaction of mechanistic reproduction. To end what he perceived as the threat of the Yellow Peril to the Western world, von Ehrenfels proposed white racial unity among the nations of the West, in order to jointly prosecute a preemptive war of ethnic conflicts to conquer Asia, before it became militarily infeasible. Then establish a worldwide racial hierarchy organized as an hereditary caste system , headed by
2688-479: A worse fate at the hands of Russian and Japanese brutes." From contemporary Western observers, German, Russian, and Japanese troops received the greatest criticism for their ruthlessness and willingness to wantonly execute Chinese of all ages and backgrounds, sometimes by burning and killing entire village populations. The Americans and British paid General Yuan Shikai and his army (the Right Division ) to help
SECTION 20
#17328633206812816-546: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Sinophobia#Historical Sinophobia-led violence Anti-Chinese sentiment (also referred to as Sinophobia ) is the fear or dislike of China , Chinese people and/or Chinese culture . In the western world , fear over the increasing economic and military power of China, its technological prowess and cultural reach, as well as international influence, has driven persistent and selectively negative media coverage of China. This
2944-659: Is expressing its opposition to Chinese " imperialism " and " colonialism ". In the late 1940s, the anti- mainland Chinese term " The dogs go and the pigs come " became popular in Taiwanese society as a result of dissatisfaction with the Republic of China controlled by a one-party system of KMT 's rule and the February 28 incident caused by KMT regime. After the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II in 1945,
3072-642: Is leading to the rise of sinophobia in Kazakhstan is the Xinjiang conflict and Kazakhstan is responding to it by hosting a significant number of Uyghur separatists. While discussing Chinese investments in the country, a Kyrgyz farmer said, " We always run the risk of being colonized by the Chinese ". Survey data cited by the Kennan Institute from 2017 to 2019 had on average 35% of Kyrgyz respondents expressing an unfavourable view of China compared to 52% expressing
3200-651: Is no change in current practice, this will lead to the annihilation of the white race by the yellow race". In response to this perceived threat, he wrote several radical proposals. The Yellow Peril racialism of von Ehrenfels proposed that the Western world and the Eastern world were in a Darwinian racial struggle for domination of the planet, which the yellow race was winning. That the Chinese were an inferior race of people whose Oriental culture lacked "all potentialities ... determination, initiative, productivity, invention, and organizational talent" supposedly innate to
3328-508: Is often aided and abetted by policymakers and politicians, whose actions are driven both by prejudice and expedience. It is frequently directed at Chinese minorities which live outside China and involves immigration , nationalism, political ideologies, disparity of wealth, the past tributary system of Imperial China , majority-minority relations , imperial legacies, and racism . A variety of popular cultural clichés and negative stereotypes of Chinese people have existed around
3456-583: Is said, to be a widespread criminal stigma. Increased anti-Chinese sentiments had reportedly led to online comments calling the Nanjing Massacre the "Nanjing Grand Festival" or others such as "Good Chinese are only dead Chinese" and "I want to kill Korean Chinese". Anti-Chinese sentiment in Taiwan comes from the fact that many Taiwanese, especially young people, choose to identify solely as "Taiwanese" and are against having closer ties with China, like those in
3584-647: The Boer War (1899–1902) in relation to the cultural meaning of the Boxer Rebellion: "One thing I can clearly see, that is, that it is criminal for Englishmen and Dutchmen to go on murdering each other, for all sorts of sophisticated reasons, while the Great Yellow Danger overshadows us white men, and threatens destruction." In the book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899), Chamberlain provided
3712-1016: The COVID-19 pandemic reported a decrease in favourable views of China, with an Ipsos poll done in November finding those in Russia (81%), Mexico (72%), Malaysia (68%), Peru (67%) and Saudi Arabia (65%) were most likely to believe China's future influence would be positive, while those in Great Britain (19%), Canada (21%), Germany (24%), Australia (24%), Japan (24%), the United States (24%) and France (24%) were least likely. A YouGov poll on August found that those in Nigeria (70%), Thailand (64%), Mexico (61%), and Egypt (55%) had more positive views of China regarding world affairs while those in Japan (7%), Denmark (13%), Britain (13%), Sweden (14%), and other Western countries had
3840-513: The Cultural Revolution , Red Guards shouting "Shā!, Shā!, Shā!" ( English: Kill!, Kill!, Kill!") attacked the British embassy and beat the diplomats. A diplomat remarked that the Boxers had used the same chant. On 27 July 1900, Kaiser Wilhelm II gave the racist Hunnenrede (Hun speech) exhorting his soldiers to barbarism and that Imperial German soldiers depart Europe for China and suppress
3968-561: The Dalkrai Bureau , Arsenev stated "Our colonization is a type of weak wedge on the edge of the primordial land of the yellow peoples." In the earlier 1914 monograph The Chinese in the Ussuri Region , Arsenev characterized people of three East Asian nationalities (Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese) as a singular 'yellow peril', criticizing immigration to Russia and presenting the Ussuri region as
Chinese massacre - Misplaced Pages Continue
4096-485: The Mongol invasions of Europe [1236–1291], the Yellow Peril combines racist terror of alien cultures, sexual anxieties, and the belief that the West will be overpowered and enveloped, by the irresistible, dark, occult forces of the East"; hence, to oppose Japanese imperial militarism, the West expanded the Yellow Peril ideology to include the Japanese people. Moreover, in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, writers developed
4224-741: The Sulu Sultanate , which they in turn supported in their wars against the Spanish authorities. The Chinese refugees not only ensured that the Sūg people were supplied with the requisite arms but also joined their new compatriots in combat operations against the Spaniards during the centuries of Spanish–Moro conflict . Furthermore, racial classification from the Spanish and American administrations has labeled ethnic Chinese as alien. This association between 'Chinese' and 'foreigner' have facilitated discrimination against
4352-627: The Sunflower Student Movement . According to a 2024 survey from Taiwan's Mainland Affairs Council , Taiwanese believe that China is Taiwan's main enemy and unfriendly to Taiwan. Taiwan's government is communicating and cooperating with democratic countries such as South Korea and the United States . Taiwan 's main political parties , the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) are some described as "anti-China". The DPP
4480-807: The Triple Intervention to the Treaty of Shimonoseki (17 April 1895), which concluded the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), in order to compel Imperial Japan to surrender their Chinese colonies to the Europeans; that geopolitical gambit became an underlying cause of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05). The Kaiser justified the Triple Intervention to the Japanese empire with racialist calls-to-arms against nonexistent geopolitical dangers of
4608-570: The University of Hong Kong suggested that 32 to 35.6 per cent of locals had "negative" feelings for mainland Chinese people. However, a 2019 survey of Hong Kong residents has suggested that there are also some who attribute positive stereotypes to visitors from the mainland. In a 2015 study, mainland students in Hong Kong who initially had a more positive view of the city than of their own mainland hometowns reported that their attempts at connecting with
4736-415: The demagogue Denis Kearney , successfully applied Yellow Peril ideology to his politics against the press, capitalists, politicians, and Chinese workers, and concluded his speeches with the epilogue: "and whatever happens, the Chinese must go!" The Chinese people also were specifically subjected to moralistic panics about their use of opium, and how their use made opium popular among white people. As in
4864-584: The ethnic Chinese (and Indian ) community, in favor of ethnic Malay Muslims, which has reportedly created a brain drain in the country. In 2015, supporters of Najib Razak 's party reportedly marched in the thousands through Chinatown to support him, and assert Malay political power with threats to burn down shops, which drew criticism from China's ambassador to Malaysia. It was reported in 2019 that relations between ethnic Chinese Malaysians and Malays were "at their lowest ebb", and fake news posted online of mainland Chinese indiscriminately receiving citizenship in
4992-565: The state would control human sexuality through polygamy, to ensure the continual procreation of genetically and numerically superior populations of White people. In such a patriarchal society, only high-status white men of known genetic reliability would have the legal right to reproduce, with the number of reproductive wives he can afford, and so ensure that only the "social winners" reproduce, within their racial caste. Despite such radical social engineering of men's sexual behavior, white women remained monogamous by law; their lives dedicated to
5120-558: The white race in each conquered country of Asia. That an oligarchy of the Aryan white people would form, populate, and lead the racial castes of the ruling class , the military forces, and the intelligentsia ; and that in each conquered country, the Yellow and the Black races would be slaves , the economic base of the worldwide racial hierarchy. The Aryan society that von Ehrenfels proposed in
5248-579: The "Asiatic barbarism" of Russia. That was most obvious during the Nazi era [1933–1945], when virtually every piece of anti–Russian propaganda talked of the "Asiatic millions" or "Mongolian hordes", which threatened to over-run Europe, but the identification of the Russians as Asian, especially as Mongolian , continued well into the Cold War era [1917–1991]. As his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm knew that Tsar Nicholas shared his anti-Asian racism and believed he could persuade
Chinese massacre - Misplaced Pages Continue
5376-493: The 1997 Ghulja incident , the bloody July 2009 Ürümqi riots , and the 2014 Kunming attack . According to BBC News , this has prompted China to suppress the native population and create internment camps for purported counter-terrorism efforts, which have fuelled resentment in the region. Tibet has complicated relations with the rest of China. Both Tibetan and Chinese are part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and share
5504-664: The Archangel Michael against the 'yellow peril' from the East", which is represented by "dark cloud of smoke [upon] which rests an eerily calm Buddha , wreathed in flame ". Politically, the Knackfuss lithograph allowed Kaiser Wilhelm II to believe he prophesied the imminent race war that would decide global hegemony in the 20th century. In 1854, as editor of the New-York Tribune , Horace Greeley published "Chinese Immigration to California" an editorial opinion supporting
5632-576: The Archangel Michael, gazing apprehensively towards a dark cloud of smoke in the East, in which rests an eerily calm Buddha, wreathed in flame ... Combined with this was a sense of the slow sinking of the Abendland , the "Evening Land" of the West. This would be put most powerfully, by thinkers such as Oswald Spengler in The Decline of the West (1918) and the Prussian philosopher Moeller van den Bruck ,
5760-533: The Boxer Rebellion by acting like "Huns" and committing atrocities against the Chinese (Boxer and civilian): When you come before the enemy, you must defeat him, pardon will not be given, prisoners will not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands will fall to your sword! Just as a thousand years ago the Huns, under their King Attila, made a name for themselves with their ferocity, which tradition still recalls; so may
5888-471: The Boxer Rebellion in racialist and religious terms as a cultural war between White Holy Russia and Yellow Pagan China. The press further supported the Yellow Peril apocalypse with quotations from the Sinophobic poems of the philosopher Vladimir Solovyov . Likewise, in the press, the aristocracy demanded action against the Asian threat. Prince Sergei Nikolaevich Trubetskoy urged Imperial Russia and other European monarchies to jointly partition China and to end
6016-420: The COVID-19 pandemic, scholar Jonathan Corpuz Ong has lamented that there is a great deal of hateful and racist speech on Philippine social media which "many academics and even journalists in the country have actually justified as a form of political resistance" to the Chinese government. In addition, the United States government reinforced Filipinos' suspicion of China amidst the territorial disputes by conducting
6144-402: The Chinese were "by nature, cowardly, like a dog, but also deceitful". In that time, the Kaiser's best friend, Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg , wrote to another friend that the Kaiser wanted to raze Beijing and kill the populace to avenge the murder of Baron Clemens von Ketteler , Imperial Germany's minister to China. Only the Eight-Nation Alliance's refusal of barbarism to resolve the siege of
6272-529: The Chinese were less than human" to the Western powers. About the sacking of the city, an Australian in China stated: "The future of the Chinese is a fearful problem. Look at the frightful sights one sees in the streets of Peking ... See the filthy, tattered rags they wrap around them. Smell them as they pass. Hear of their nameless immorality. Witness their shameless indecency, and picture them among your own people—Ugh! It makes you shudder!" British admiral Roger Keyes recalled: "Every Chinaman ...
6400-450: The Chinese' rebellion was perceived as a race war between the yellow race and the white race. In that vein, The Economist magazine warned in 1905: The history of the Boxer movement contains abundant warnings, as to the necessity of an attitude of constant vigilance, on the part of the European Powers, when there are any symptoms that a wave of nationalism is about to sweep over the Celestial Empire. Sixty-one years later, in 1967, during
6528-480: The Eastern and the West in favor of White people, von Ehrenfels proposed radical changes to the mores ( social and sexual norms) of the Christian West. Eliminating monogamy as a hindrance to global white supremacy , for limiting a genetically superior White man to father children with only one woman; because polygamy gives the yellow race greater reproductive advantage, for permitting a genetically superior Asian man to father children with many women. Therefore,
SECTION 50
#17328633206816656-521: The Eight Nation Alliance suppress the Boxers. Yuan's forces killed tens of thousands of people in their anti-Boxer campaign in Zhili Province and Shandong after the Alliance captured Beijing. The British journalist George Lynch said that "there are things that I must not write, and that may not be printed in England, which would seem to show that this Western civilization of ours is merely a veneer over savagery". The expedition of German field marshal Waldersee arrived in China on 27 September 1900, after
6784-423: The European empires to invade, conquer, and colonize China. To that end, using the Yellow Peril ideology, the Kaiser portrayed the Japanese and the Asian victory against the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) as an Asian racial threat to white Western Europe, and also exposes China and Japan as an alliance to conquer, subjugate, and enslave the Western world. The sinologist Wing-Fai Leung explained
6912-407: The Far East. Conditions on those long voyages were so dreadful that many sailors decided to abscond and take their chances on the streets rather than face the return journey. Those who stayed generally settled around the bustling docks, running laundries and small lodging houses for other sailors or selling exotic Asian produce. By the 1880s, a small but recognizable Chinese community had developed in
7040-471: The Great Yellow Race". In The Bloody White Baron (2009), the historian James Palmer explains the 19th-century socio-cultural background from which Yellow Peril ideology originated and flourished: The 1890s had spawned in the West the specter of the "Yellow Peril", the rise to world dominance of the Asian peoples. The evidence cited was Asian population growth, immigration to the West (America and Australia in particular), and increased Chinese settlement along
7168-406: The Home Office, warned of "a vast and convulsive Armageddon to determine who is to be the master of the world, the white or yellow man." After the First World War, cinemas, theater, novels, and newspapers broadcast visions of the "Yellow Peril" machinating to corrupt white society. In March 1929, the chargé d'affaires , at London's Chinese legation, complained that no fewer than five plays, showing in
7296-400: The Japanese troops, have done in China. The political praxis of Yellow Peril racism calls for apolitical racial unity among the White peoples of the world. To resolve a contemporary problem (economic, social, political) the racialist politician calls for White unity against the nonwhite Other who threatens Western civilization from distant Asia. Despite the Western powers' military defeat of
7424-416: The Kaiser's attack upon China as shameful to Germany: No, this is no crusade, no holy war; it is a very ordinary war of conquest ... A campaign of revenge as barbaric as has never been seen in the last centuries, and not often at all in History ... not even with the Huns, not even with the Vandals ... That is not a match for what the German and other troops of foreign powers, together with
7552-657: The Kaiser's true geopolitical target was Britain. Though Chinese civilization was admired in 18th century Britain , by the 19th century, the Opium Wars led to the creation of racialist stereotypes of the Chinese among the British public, who cast the Chinese "as a threatening, expansionist foe" and a corrupt and depraved people. Still, there were exceptions to popular racism of the Yellow Peril. In May 1890, William Ewart Gladstone criticized anti-Chinese immigration laws in Australia for penalizing their virtues of hard work (diligence, thrift and integrity), instead of penalizing their vices (gambling and opium smoking). In 1904, in
7680-441: The Limehouse area, increasing Sinophobic sentiments among other Londoners, who feared the Chinese workers might take over their traditional jobs due to their willingness to work for much lower wages and longer hours than other workers in the same industries. The entire Chinese population of London was only in the low hundreds—in a city whose entire population was roughly estimated to be seven million—but nativist feelings ran high, as
7808-432: The Malays and Chinese before the 1969 riots. For example, in Penang, hostility between the races turned into violence during the centenary celebration of George Town in 1957 which resulted in several days of fighting and a number of deaths, and there were further disturbances in 1959 and 1964, as well as a riot in 1967 which originated as a protest against currency devaluation but turned into racial killings. In Singapore,
SECTION 60
#17328633206817936-464: The Popular Tajik Social-Democrat Party leader, Rakhmatillo Zoirov, claimed that Chinese troops were violating a land-ceding arrangement by moving deeper into Tajikistan than they were supposed to. To counteract the city state's low birthrate, Singapore's government has been offering financial incentives and a liberal visa policy to attract an influx of migrants. Chinese immigrants to the nation grew from 150,447 in 1990 to 448,566 in 2015 to make up 18% of
8064-416: The Qing dynasty, as the dynasty was falling apart . This event has left a dark chapter in their modern relations. The Republic of China failed to reconquer Tibet but the later People's Republic of China annexed Tibet and incorporated it as the Tibet Autonomous Region within China. The 14th Dalai Lama and Mao Zedong signed the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet , but China
8192-458: The Russian border. These demographic and political fears were accompanied by a vague and ominous dread of the mysterious powers supposedly possessed by the initiates of Eastern religions. There is a striking German picture of the 1890s, depicting the dream that inspired Kaiser Wilhelm II to coin the term "Yellow Peril", that shows the union of these ideas. It depicts the nations of Europe, personified as heroic, but vulnerable, female figures guarded by
8320-436: The Tsar to abrogate the Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) and then to form a German–Russian alliance against Britain. In manipulative pursuit of Imperial German Weltpolitik "Wilhelm II's deliberate use of the 'yellow peril' slogan was more than a personal idiosyncrasy, and fitted into the general pattern of German foreign policy under his reign, i.e. to encourage Russia's Far Eastern adventures, and later to sow discord, between
8448-415: The U.S. government cease the immigration of "filthy yellow hordes" of Chinese people who took jobs from native-born white-Americans, especially during an economic depression . In Los Angeles, Yellow Peril racism provoked the Chinese massacre of 1871 , wherein 500 white men lynched 20 Chinese men in the Chinatown ghetto. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, the leader of the Workingmen's Party of California ,
8576-460: The U.S., and New Zealand, where their work ethic inadvertently provoked a racist backlash against Chinese communities, for agreeing to work for lower wages than did the local white populations. In 1870, the French Orientalist and historian Ernest Renan warned Europeans of Eastern danger to the Western world; yet Renan had meant the Russian Empire (1721–1917), a country and nation whom the West perceived as more Asiatic than European. Since 1870,
8704-404: The United States and Japan. Not the substance, but only the form, of Wilhelm II's 'yellow peril' propaganda disturbed the official policy of the Wilhelmstrasse." In the 19th century, the racial and cultural stereotypes of Yellow Peril ideology colored German perceptions of Russia as a nation more Asiatic than European. The European folk memory of the 13th-century Mongol invasion of Europe made
8832-524: The United States conducted a survey on sinophobia, finding that China was viewed favorably in half (19 of 38) of the nations surveyed, excluding China itself. The highest levels of support came from Asia in Malaysia (81%) and Pakistan (81%); African nations of Kenya (78%), Senegal (77%) and Nigeria (76%); as well as Latin America, particularly in countries heavily engaging with the Chinese market, such as Venezuela (71%), Brazil (65%) and Chile (62%). Anti-China sentiment has remained persistent in
8960-485: The West End, depicted Chinese people in "a vicious and objectionable form". The Limehouse district in London (which had a large Chinese element) was portrayed in the British popular imagination as a center of moral depravity and vice, i.e. sexual prostitution, opium smoking, and gambling. According to historian Anne Witchard, many Londoners believed the British Chinese community, including Triad gangsters, "were abducting young English women to sell into white slavery ",
9088-409: The West against conquest from the East. In pursuing Weltpolitik policies meant to establish Germany as the dominant empire, the Kaiser manipulated his own government officials, public opinion, and other monarchs. In a letter to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia , the Kaiser said: "It is clearly the great task of the future for Russia to cultivate the Asian continent, and defend Europe from the inroads of
9216-583: The West and other Asian countries: only 28% of Germans and Italians and 37% of Americans viewed China favorably while in Japan, just 5% of respondents had a favorable opinion of the country. 11 of the 38 nations viewed China unfavorably by over 50%. Japan was polled to have the most anti-China sentiment, where 93% saw the People's Republic in a negative light. There were also majorities in Germany (64%), Italy (62%), and Israel (60%) who held negative views of China. Germany saw
9344-830: The Western world, which demanded Asian blood to avenge the Westerners in China killed by the Boxers. In response, the United Kingdom , the United States, and Imperial Japan, Imperial France, Imperial Russia, and Imperial Germany, Austria–Hungary and Italy formed the Eight-Nation Alliance and dispatched an international military expeditionary force to end the Siege of the International Legations in Beijing. The Russian press presented
9472-449: The Yellow Peril literary topos into codified, racialist motifs of narration, especially in stories and novels of ethnic conflict in the genres of invasion literature , adventure fiction , and science fiction . The racist and cultural stereotypes of the Yellow Peril originated in the late 19th century, when Chinese workers (people of different skin-color and physiognomy, language and culture) legally immigrated to Australia, Canada,
9600-532: The Yellow Peril ideology gave concrete form to the anti-East Asian racism of Europe and North America. In central Europe, the Orientalist and diplomat Max von Brandt advised Kaiser Wilhelm II that Imperial Germany had colonial interests to pursue in China. Hence, the Kaiser used the phrase die Gelbe Gefahr (The Yellow Peril) to specifically encourage Imperial German interests and justify European colonialism in China. In 1895, Germany, France, and Russia staged
9728-595: The Yellow Peril to Christendom. Hence, on 3 July 1900, in response to the Boxer Rebellion, Russia expelled the Chinese community (5,000 people) from Blagoveshchensk . From 4 to 8 July, the Tsarist police, Cossack cavalry, and local vigilantes killed thousands of Chinese people at the Amur River. In the Western world, news of Boxer atrocities against Westerners in China provoked Yellow Peril racism in Europe and North America, where
9856-573: The antagonism between the races led to the 1964 Race Riots which contributed to the expulsion of Singapore from Malaysia on August 9, 1965. The 13 May Incident was perhaps the deadliest race riot to have occurred in Malaysia with an official combined death toll of 196 (143 Chinese, 25 Malays, 13 Indians, and 15 others of undetermined ethnicity), but with higher estimates by other observers reaching around 600-800+ total deaths. Malaysia's ethnic quota system has been regarded as discriminatory towards
9984-576: The anticolonial Boxer Rebellion (August 1899 – September 1901) reinforced the racist stereotypes of East Asians as a Yellow Peril to white people. The Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (called the Boxers in the West) was an anticolonial martial arts organization who blamed the problems of China on the presence of Western colonies in China proper. The Boxers sought to save China by killing Westerners in China and Chinese Christians or Westernized people. In
10112-448: The anticolonial Boxer Rebellion, Yellow Peril fear of Chinese nationalism became a cultural factor among white people: That "the Chinese race" mean to invade, vanquish, and subjugate Christian civilization in the Western world. In July 1900, the Völkisch movement intellectual Houston Stewart Chamberlain , the "Evangelist of Race", gave his racialist perspective of the cultural meaning of
10240-476: The breeding functions of wife and mother. The fertile women would reside and live their daily lives in communal barracks, where they collectively rear their many children. To fulfill her reproductive obligations to the state, each woman is assigned a husband only for reproductive sexual intercourse. Ehrenfels's social engineering for worldwide white supremacy eliminates romantic love (marriage) from sexual intercourse, and thus reduces man–woman sexual relations to
10368-516: The case of Irish-Catholic immigrants, the popular press misrepresented Asian peoples as culturally subversive, whose way of life would diminish republicanism in the U.S.; hence, racist political pressure compelled the U.S. government to legislate the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), which remained the effective immigration-law until 1943. The act was the first U.S. immigration law to target a specific ethnicity or nationality. Moreover, following
10496-623: The country had been stoking racial tensions. The primarily Chinese-based Democratic Action Party in Malaysia has also reportedly faced an onslaught of fake news depicting it as unpatriotic, anti-Malay, and anti-Muslim. Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been social media posts claiming the initial outbreak is "divine retribution" for China's treatment of its Muslim Uyghur population. The speed of Chinese resident arrivals in Sihanoukville city has led to an increase in fear and hostility towards
10624-576: The country's economic influence. According to Arab Barometer polls, views of China in the Arab world have been relatively positive, with data from March to April 2021 showing that most respondents in Algeria (65%), Morocco (62%), Libya (60%), Tunisia (59%), and Iraq (56%) held favourable views of the country while views were less favourable in Lebanon (38%) and Jordan (34%). Global polling in 2020 amidst
10752-639: The country, while majorities in Serbia (85%), Montenegro (68%), North Macedonia (56%), and Bosnia (52%) expressed favourable views. A GLOBSEC poll on October found that the highest percentage of those who saw China as a threat were in the Czech Republic (51%), Poland (34%), and Hungary (24%), while it was seen as least threatening in Balkan countries such as Bulgaria (3%), Serbia (13%), and North Macedonia (14%). Reasons for threat perception were generally linked to
10880-523: The defeat of China in the Second Opium War, Lord Elgin , upon his arrival in Peking in 1860, ordered the sacking and burning of China's imperial Summer Palace in vengeance. In the United States, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed in response to growing Sinophobia. It prohibited all immigration of Chinese laborers and turned those already in the country into second-class persons. The 1882 Act
11008-534: The early 20th century, would be in the far future of the Western world, realized after defeating the Yellow Peril and the other races for control of the Earth, because "the Aryan will only respond to the imperative of sexual reform when the waves of the Mongolian tide are lapping around his neck". As a racialist, von Ehrenfels characterized the Japanese military victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) as an Asian victory against
11136-510: The early decades of the 20th century, Britain buzzed with Sinophobia. Respectable middle-class magazines, tabloids and comics, alike, spread stories of ruthless Chinese ambitions to destroy the West. The Chinese master-criminal (with his "crafty yellow face twisted by a thin-lipped grin", dreaming of world domination) had become a staple of children's publications. In 1911, "The Chinese in England: A Growing National Problem" an article distributed around
11264-423: The early summer of 1900, Prince Zaiyi allowed the Boxers into Beijing to kill Westerners and Chinese Christians in siege to the foreign legations. Afterward, Qing Commander-in-Chief Ronglu and Yikuang (Prince Qing), resisted and expelled the Boxers from Beijing after days of fighting. Most of the victims of the Boxer Rebellion were Chinese Christians, but the massacres of Chinese people were of no interest to
11392-854: The establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. From the 1950s to the 1980s, anti-Chinese sentiment was high in South Korea as a result of the Chinese intervention against the South Korean army in the Korean War (1950–1953). In the Soviet Union , anti-Chinese sentiment became high following the hostile political relations between the PRC and the USSR from the late 1950s onward, which nearly escalated into war between
11520-427: The ethnic Chinese population in the Philippines; many ethnic Chinese were denied citizenship or viewed as antithetical to a Filipino nation-state. In addition to this, Chinese people have been associated with wealth in the background of great economic disparity among the local population. This perception has only contributed to ethnic tensions in the Philippines, with the ethnic Chinese population being portrayed as being
11648-463: The example of Kaiser Wilhelm II's use of the term in 1895, the popular press in the U.S. adopted the phrase "yellow peril" to identify Japan as a military threat, and to describe the many emigrants from Asia. In the late 19th century, with the Treaty of Saint Petersburg , the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) China recovered the eastern portion of the Ili River basin ( Zhetysu ), which Russia had occupied for
11776-683: The fear of Chinese people, did not include all Asians, because Britain had sided with Japan during the Russo–Japanese War, whilst France and Germany supported Russia; whereas the reports of Captain William Pakenham "tended to depict Russia as his enemy, not just Japan's". About pervasive Sinophobia in Western culture, in The Yellow Peril: Dr Fu Manchu & the Rise of Chinaphobia (2014), historian Christopher Frayling noted: In
11904-912: The forces of the Mexican Revolution killed 300 Chinese immigrants in Torreón Nanking Massacre in 1937, perpetrated by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War May 1998 riots of Indonesia Violence instigated by the Chinese Communist Party [ edit ] The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre , where the People's Liberation Army killed hundreds to thousands of civilian protesters. Other uses [ edit ] List of massacres in China Topics referred to by
12032-406: The foreign-born population, next to Malaysian immigrants at 44%. The xenophobia towards mainland Chinese is reported to be particularly severe compared to other foreign residents, as they are generally looked down on as country bumpkins and blamed for stealing desirable jobs and driving up housing prices. There have also been reports of housing discrimination against mainland Chinese tenants, and
12160-482: The higher domestic or social relations; lustful and sensual in their dispositions; every female is a prostitute of the basest order; the first words of English that they learn are terms of obscenity or profanity, and beyond this they care to learn no more. In 1870s California, despite the Burlingame Treaty (1868) allowing legal migration of unskilled laborers from China, the native white working-class demanded that
12288-473: The least positive views. During the COVID-19 pandemic, victims of violence and verbal abuse range from toddlers to elderly, school children and their parents, and include not just mainland Chinese, but has affected also Taiwanese, Hong Kongers, members of the Chinese diaspora and other Asians who are mistaken for or associated with them. Historical records document the existence of anti-Chinese sentiment throughout China's imperial wars . Lord Palmerston
12416-485: The legations saved the Chinese populace of Beijing from the massacre recommended by Imperial Germany. In August 1900, an international military force of Russian, Japanese, British, French, and American soldiers captured Beijing before the German force had arrived at the city. The eight-nation alliance sacked Beijing in vengeance for the Boxer Rebellion; the magnitude of the rape, pillaging and burning indicated "a sense that
12544-546: The locals were difficult due to experiences of hostility. In 2012, a group of Hong Kong residents published a newspaper advertisement depicting mainland visitors and immigrants as locusts. In February 2014, about 100 Hong Kongers harassed mainland tourists and shoppers during what they styled an "anti-locust" protest in Kowloon . In response, the Equal Opportunities Commission of Hong Kong proposed an extension of
12672-729: The military defeat of the Boxer Rebellion by the Eight-Nation Alliance, yet he launched 75 punitive raids into northern China to search for and destroy the remaining Boxers. The German soldiers killed more peasants than Boxer guerrillas because by that time, the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (the Boxers) had posed no threat. On 19 November 1900, at the Reichstag , the German Social Democrat politician August Bebel criticized
12800-570: The most threatening country to inter-Korean peace (compared to 33% for North Korea), marking the first time China was seen as a bigger threat than North Korea since the survey began in 2007. A 2022 poll from the Central European Institute of Asian Studies had 81% of South Koreans expressing a negative view of China, which was the highest out of 56 countries surveyed. Discriminatory views of Chinese people have been reported, and ethnic-Chinese Koreans have faced prejudices including what
12928-542: The motive. King Edward said he "could not see it. The Japanese were an intelligent, brave and chivalrous nation, quite as civilized as the Europeans, from whom they only differed by the pigmentation of their skin". The first British usage of the Yellow Peril phrase was in the Daily News (21 July 1900) report describing the Boxer Rebellion as "the yellow peril in its most serious form". In that time, British Sinophobia ,
13056-509: The name of Germany become known in China in such a way that no Chinaman will ever dare look a German in the eye, even with a squint! Fearful of harm to the public image of Imperial Germany, the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office) published a redacted version of the Hun Speech that was expurgated of the exhortation to racist barbarism. Annoyed by Foreign Office censorship, the Kaiser published
13184-484: The new influx of Chinese residents among the local population. As of 2018, the Chinese community in the city makes up almost 20% of the town's population. The Spanish introduced the first anti-Chinese laws in the Philippine archipelago. The Spanish massacred or expelled the Chinese several times from Manila, and the Chinese responded by fleeing either to La Pampanga or to territories outside colonial control, particularly
13312-484: The origins of the term and the racialist ideology: "The phrase yellow peril (sometimes yellow terror or yellow specter ) ... blends Western anxieties about sex, racist fears of the alien Other, and the Spenglerian belief that the West will become outnumbered and enslaved by the East." The academic Gina Marchetti identified the psycho-cultural fear of East Asians as "rooted in medieval fears of Genghis Khan and
13440-704: The popular demand for the exclusion of Chinese workers and people from California. Without using the term "yellow peril," Greeley compared the arriving coolies to the African slaves who survived the Middle Passage . He praised the few Christians among the arriving Chinese and continued: But of the remainder, what can be said? They are for the most part an industrious people, forbearing and patient of injury, quiet and peaceable in their habits; say this and you have said all good that can be said of them. They are uncivilized, unclean, and filthy beyond all conception, without any of
13568-467: The racist ideology for Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movements of the early 20th century, which greatly influenced the racial policy of Nazi Germany . The Austrian philosopher Christian von Ehrenfels was fixated with the fear of the "Yellow Peril", and believed that Asian peoples were a deadly threat to European civilization. Ehrenfels wrote if nothing was done to stop the rise of China, that "if there
13696-429: The region, despite periodic self-immolations. Although Hong Kong 's sovereignty was returned to China in 1997, only a small minority of its inhabitants consider themselves to be exclusively Chinese. According to a 2014 survey from the University of Hong Kong , 42.3% of respondents identified themselves as "Hong Kong citizens", versus only 17.8% who identified themselves as "Chinese citizens", and 39.3% gave themselves
13824-516: The relationship between China and Japan gradually improved. However, since 2000, Japan has seen a gradual resurgence of anti-Chinese sentiment. Many Japanese people believe that China is using the issue of the country's checkered history, such as the Japanese history textbook controversies , many war crimes which were committed by Japan's military , and official visits to the Yasukuni Shrine (in which
13952-429: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Chinese massacre . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chinese_massacre&oldid=1182197192 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
14080-526: The territory's race-hate laws to cover mainlanders. Strong anti-mainland xenophobia has also been documented amidst the 2019 protests, with reported instances of protesters attacking Mandarin-speakers and mainland-linked businesses. In 2018, massive land reform protests were held in Kazakhstan . The protesters demonstrated against the leasing of land to Chinese companies and the perceived economic dominance of Chinese companies and traders. Another issue which
14208-526: The two countries in 1969. The "Chinese threat", as it was described in a letter by Alexander Solzhenitsyn , prompted expressions of anti-Chinese sentiment in the conservative Russian samizdat movement. In what has been described as "The Second Cold War", the United States of America has invested a significant amount of money in framing China as a threat. In 2024, congress passed a law to fund over $ 1.6B in anti-Chinese propaganda. Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea
14336-546: The unexpurgated Hun Speech, which "evoked images of a Crusade and considered the current crisis [the Boxer Rebellion] to amount to a war between Occident and Orient." However, that "elaborate accompanying music, and the new ideology of the Yellow Peril stood in no relation to the actual possibilities and results" of geopolitical policy based upon racist misperception. The Kaiser ordered the expedition-commander, Field Marshal Alfred von Waldersee , to behave barbarously because
14464-515: The usage of pejorative slurs (such as shina or locust ), or displaying hatred towards the Chinese language , people , and culture . After the Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong to establish the PRC in 1949, there have been considerable ethnic tensions arising between the Han Chinese and Turkic Muslim Uyghurs. This manifested itself in
14592-471: The white cultures of the West. Nonetheless, despite having dehumanized the Chinese into an essentialist stereotype of physically listless and mindless Asians, von Ehrenfels's cultural cognitive dissonance allowed praising Japan as a first-rate imperial military power whose inevitable conquest of continental China would produce improved breeds of Chinese people. That the Japanese' selective breeding with "genetically superior" Chinese women would engender
14720-483: The white peoples of the Christian West, a cultural failure which indicated "the absolute necessity of a radical, sexual reform for the continued existence of the Western races of man ... [The matter of White racial survival] has been raised from the level of discussion to the level of a scientifically proven fact". From 1895, Kaiser Wilhelm used Yellow Peril ideology to portray Imperial Germany as defender of
14848-523: The word Mongol a cultural synonym for the "Asian culture of cruelty and insatiable appetite for conquest", which was especially personified by Genghis Khan , leader of the Orda , the Mongol Horde. Despite that justifying historical background, Yellow Peril racism was not universally accepted in the societies of Europe. French intellectual Anatole France said that Yellow Peril ideology was to be expected from
14976-478: The world is "the prospect, placed before the uninstructed reading public, is a revival of the Hun and Mongol terrors, and the names of Attila and Genghis are set out in the largest type to create feelings of apprehension. The reader is assured, in the most positive manner, that this is the doing of the enterprising nation of Japan". Throughout the successful imperial intrigues facilitated by Germany's Yellow Peril ideology,
15104-768: The world since the twentieth century, and they are frequently conflated with a variety of popular cultural clichés and negative stereotypes of other Asian ethnic groups, known as the Yellow Peril . Some individuals may harbor prejudice or hatred against Chinese people due to history, racism, modern politics, cultural differences, propaganda, or ingrained stereotypes. The COVID-19 pandemic led to resurgent Sinophobia, whose manifestations range from as subtle acts of discrimination such as microaggression and stigmatization, exclusion and shunning, to more overt forms, such as outright verbal abuse, slurs and name-calling, and sometimes physical violence. In 2013, Pew Research Center from
15232-411: The yellow race against the white race of Western Europe. To justify European cultural hegemony , the Kaiser used the allegorical lithograph Peoples of Europe, Guard Your Most Sacred Possessions (1895), by Hermann Knackfuss , to communicate his geopolitics to other European monarchs. The lithograph depicts Germany as the leader of Europe, personified as a "prehistoric warrior-goddesses being led by
15360-475: Was a higher percentage than all the other countries surveyed. A survey in 2017 suggested that 51% of Chinese respondents had experienced tenancy discrimination. Another report in the same year noted a significant bias against Chinese visitors from the media and some of the Japanese locals. Among Chinese dissidents and critics of the Chinese government, it's popular to express internalized racist sentiments which are based on anti-Chinese sentiment, promoting
15488-486: Was accused of not honoring the treaty and led to the 1959 Tibetan uprising which was successfully suppressed by China, resulting in the Dalai Lama escaping to India . Tibetans again rioted against other Chinese rule twice, in the 1987–1989 Tibetan unrest and 2008 unrest , where they directed their angers against Han and Hui Chinese. Both were suppressed by China and China has increased their military presence in
15616-745: Was created in the 21st century by cultural and historical claims of China and a sense of security crisis caused by China's economic growth. In the early 2000s, China's claim over the history of Goguryeo , an ancient Korean kingdom, caused tensions between both Koreas and China. The dispute has also involved naming controversies over Paektu Mountain (or Changbai Mountain in Chinese). China has been accused of trying to appropriate kimchi and hanbok as part of Chinese culture, along with labeling Yun Dong-ju as chaoxianzu , which have all angered South Koreans. Anti-Chinese sentiments in South Korea have been on
15744-465: Was evidenced by the Aliens Act of 1905 , a bundle of legislation which sought to restrict the entry of poor and low-skilled foreign workers. Chinese Londoners also became involved with illegal criminal organisations, further spurring Sinophobic sentiments. During the Cold War , anti-Chinese sentiment became a permanent fixture in the media of the Western world and anti-communist countries following
15872-612: Was expressed by Dmitry Merezhkovskii in Zheltolitsye pozitivisty ("Yellow-Faced Positivists") in 1895 and Griadushchii Kham ("The Coming Boor") in 1906. The works of explorer Vladimir K. Arsenev also illustrated the ideology of Yellow Peril in Tsarist Russia. The fear continued into the Soviet era where it contributed to the Soviet internal deportation of Koreans . In a 1928 report to
16000-542: Was responsible for sparking the First Opium War (1839–1842) with Qing China . He considered Chinese culture "uncivilized", and his negative views on China played a significant role in his decision to issue a declaration of war. This disdain became increasingly common throughout the Second Opium War (1856–1860), when repeated attacks against foreign traders in China inflamed anti-Chinese sentiment abroad. Following
16128-600: Was the first U.S. immigration law to target a specific ethnicity or nationality. Meanwhile, during the mid-19th century in Peru , Chinese were used as slave labor and they were not allowed to hold any important positions in Peruvian society. Chinese workers had been a fixture on London's docks since the mid-eighteenth century, when they arrived as sailors who were employed by the East India Company , importing tea and spices from
16256-526: Was the highest percentage out of 21 countries surveyed including Japan at 50%. Relations further strained with the deployment of THAAD in South Korea in 2017, in which China started its boycott against Korea, making Koreans develop anti-Chinese sentiment in South Korea over reports of economic retaliation by Beijing. According to a poll from the Institute for Peace and Unification Studies at Seoul National University in 2018, 46% of South Koreans found China as
16384-448: Was treated as a Boxer, by the Russian and French troops, and the slaughter of men, women, and children, in retaliation, was revolting". The American missionary Luella Miner reported that "the conduct of the Russian soldiers is atrocious , the French are not much better, and the Japanese are looting and burning without mercy. Women and girls, by the hundreds, have committed suicide to escape
#680319