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139-608: Chikwawa, then known as Chibisa's village, was the first town in Malawi to be seen by European explorers, when visited in March 1859 by David Livingstone 's second Zambesi expedition . Their way upstream was blocked by the Kapachira Falls , and they returned in August for land exploration which reached Lake Malawi on 18 September. The surrounding region was ravaged by Portuguese slave traders in

278-595: A "complexity" model, because religious figures were on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved to discredit religion. An often cited example of conflict, that has been clarified by historical research in the 20th century, was the Galileo affair, whereby interpretations of the Bible were used to attack ideas by Copernicus on heliocentrism . By 1616 Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade Catholic Church authorities not to ban Copernicus' ideas. In

417-586: A "key to the Interior". In 1852, after sending his family to Britain, Livingstone travelled north to the village of Linyanti on the Zambezi river, located roughly midway between the east and west coast of the continent, where Sekeletu , chief of the Kololo , granted Livingstone authority as a nduna to lead a joint investigation of trade routes to the coast, with 27 Kololo warriors acting as interpreters and guides. They reached

556-441: A clear shot at a large lion, but while he was re-loading it attacked, crushing his left arm, and forced him to the ground. His life was saved by Mebalwe diverting its attention by trying to shoot the lion. He too got bitten. A man who tried spearing it was attacked just before it dropped dead. Livingstone's broken bone, even though inexpertly set by himself and Edwards, bonded strongly. He went for recuperation to Kuruman, where he

695-653: A combination that he hoped would form an alternative to the slave trade, and impart dignity to the Africans in the eyes of Europeans. He believed that the key to achieving these goals was the navigation of the Zambezi River as a Christian commercial highway into the interior. He returned to Britain in December 1856. The Royal Geographical Society awarded him their Patron's Medal in 1855 for his explorations in Africa. Encouraged by

834-453: A dockside bar. On 15 March 1841 the ship arrived at Simon's Bay , and for a month while it unloaded and loaded, the three stayed at Cape Town with Mr and Mrs Philip . As resident director of the LMS, Philip had continued their policy that all people were equal before God and in law, leading to disputes with Boers , and with British settlers as Philip held that Xhosa people were not to blame for

973-475: A door-to-door tea salesman. He read books on theology, travel, and missionary enterprises extensively. This rubbed off on the young David, who became an avid reader, but he also loved scouring the countryside for animal, plant, and geological specimens in local limestone quarries. Neil feared that science books were undermining Christianity and attempted to force his son to read nothing but theology, but David's deep interest in nature and science led him to investigate

1112-571: A fabrication, as Stanley later tore out the pages of this encounter in his diary. Even Livingstone's account of this encounter does not mention these words. However, the phrase appears in a New York Herald editorial dated 10 August 1872, and the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography both quote it without questioning its veracity. The words are famous because of their perceived humour, Livingstone being

1251-454: A family with a strong, continuing commitment to study reinforced his education. At the age of 21, he was excited by a pamphlet his father got from the church setting out Gützlaff's call for missionaries to China, with the new concept that missionaries should be trained as medical doctors. His father was persuaded and, like many other students in Scotland, Livingstone was to support himself, with

1390-582: A four-oared gig . In 1861 the Colonial Office provided a new wooden paddle survey vessel, Pioneer , which took the Universities' Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) led by Bishop Charles MacKenzie up the Shire river to found a new mission. Livingstone raised funds for a replacement river steamer, Lady Nyasa , specially designed to sail on Lake Nyasa. It was shipped out in sections, contrary to his request, with

1529-449: A good deal of intellectual freedom as long as it was restricted to the natural world. In general, there was religious support for natural science by the late Middle Ages and a recognition that it was an important element of learning. The extent to which medieval science led directly to the new philosophy of the scientific revolution remains a subject for debate, but it certainly had a significant influence. The Middle Ages laid ground for

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1668-422: A humble background, and manufactured events to make up for this supposed deficiency. Stanley's book suggests that this greeting was truly motivated by embarrassment, because he did not dare to embrace Livingstone. Despite Stanley's urgings, Livingstone was determined not to leave Africa until his mission was complete. His illness made him confused and he had judgment difficulties at the end of his life. He explored

1807-458: A major failing for Livingstone, and indicative of a pattern of putting his goals and career above the lives of those around him. Livingstone was now a celebrity, in great demand as a public speaker, and was elected to the Royal Society . He gained public backing for his plans, and raised finances for his next expedition by public subscription, as well as £5,000 from the government to investigate

1946-419: A major role in the institutionalization, systematization, and expansion of reason. Christianity accepted reason within the ambit of faith. In Christendom , ideas articulated via divine revelation were assumed to be true, and thus via the law of non-contradiction , it was maintained that the natural world must accord with this revealed truth. Any apparent contradiction would indicate either a misunderstanding of

2085-474: A means of opening my mouth with power among men. It is this power [with] which I hope to remedy an immense evil." His subsequent exploration of the central African watershed was the culmination of the classic period of European geographical discovery and colonial penetration of Africa . At the same time, his missionary travels, "disappearance", and eventual death in Africa‍—;‌and subsequent glorification as

2224-413: A method per se partly because religions emerge through time from diverse cultures, but when it comes to Christian theology and ultimate truths, she notes that people often rely on scripture, tradition, reason, and experience to test and gauge what they experience and what they should believe. The conflict thesis , which holds that religion and science have been in conflict continuously throughout history,

2363-489: A mission party including Mary Livingstone, and arrived in 1862. The Pioneer was delayed getting down to the coast to meet them, and there were further delays after it was found that the bishop had died. Mary Livingstone died on 27 April 1862 from malaria . Livingstone took Pioneer up the coast and investigated the Ruvuma River , and the physician John Kirk wrote "I can come to no other conclusion than that Dr Livingstone

2502-598: A multiplicity of senses, one should adhere to a particular explanation, only in such measure as to be ready to abandon it, if it be proved with certainty to be false; lest Holy Scripture be exposed to the ridicule of unbelievers, and obstacles be placed to their believing." ( Summa 1a, 68, 1) where the referenced text from Augustine of Hippo reads: "In matters that are obscure and far beyond our vision, even in such as we may find treated in Holy Scripture, different interpretations are sometimes possible without prejudice to

2641-525: A posthumous national hero in 1874‍—‌led to the founding of several major central African Christian missionary initiatives carried forward in the era of the European " Scramble for Africa ". Livingstone was born on 19 March 1813 in the mill town of Blantyre , Scotland, in a tenement building for the workers of a cotton factory on the banks of the River Clyde under the bridge crossing into Bothwell . He

2780-474: A release from the fear of eternal damnation. Livingstone's reading of missionary Karl Gützlaff 's Appeal to the Churches of Britain and America on behalf of China enabled him to persuade his father that medical study could advance religious ends. Livingstone's experiences in H. Monteith's Blantyre cotton mill were also important from ages 10 to 26, first as a piecer and later as a spinner . This monotonous work

2919-537: A result, Livingstone became one of the most popular British heroes of the late 19th-century Victorian era . Livingstone's fame as an explorer and his obsession with learning the sources of the Nile was founded on the belief that if he could solve that age-old mystery, his fame would give him the influence to end the East African Arab–Swahili slave trade . "The Nile sources", he told a friend, "are valuable only as

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3058-527: A sailing brig bound for the Cape of Good Hope , along with two other LMS missionaries: Ross, who had been ordained at the same service as him, and Ross's wife. During the long voyage he studied Dutch and Tswana language , and the captain gave him extensive tuition in navigation. At Rio de Janeiro , unlike the other two, he ventured ashore and was impressed by the cathedral and scenery, but not by drunkenness of British and American sailors so he gave them tracts in

3197-402: A second language. After teaching his wives the skill, he wrote the Bible in his native tongue. Relationship between religion and science The relationship between religion and science involves discussions that interconnect the study of the natural world, history , philosophy , and theology . Even though the ancient and medieval worlds did not have conceptions resembling

3336-462: A serious academic field, with academic chairs in the subject area, and two dedicated academic journals , Zygon and Theology and Science . Articles are also sometimes found in mainstream science journals such as American Journal of Physics and Science . Philosopher Alvin Plantinga has argued that there is superficial conflict but deep concord between science and religion, and that there

3475-466: A war zone, with Portuguese soldiers and their slaves fighting the Chikunda slave-hunters of Matakenya (Mariano), but both sides accepted the expedition as friends. The experts, stuck at Shupanga, could not make the intended progress, and there were disagreements. Artist Thomas Baines was dismissed from the expedition. Others on the expedition became the first to reach Lake Nyasa and they explored it in

3614-851: Is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science." Many scientists , philosophers , and theologians throughout history, from Augustine of Hippo to Thomas Aquinas to Francisco Ayala , Kenneth R. Miller , and Francis Collins , have seen compatibility or interdependence between religion and science. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould regarded religion and science as " non-overlapping magisteria ", addressing fundamentally separate forms of knowledge and aspects of life . Some historians of science and mathematicians, including John Lennox , Thomas Berry , and Brian Swimme , propose an interconnection between science and religion, while others such as Ian Barbour believe there are even parallels. Public acceptance of scientific facts may sometimes be influenced by religious beliefs such as in

3753-478: Is deep conflict between science and naturalism . Plantinga, in his book Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism , heavily contests the linkage of naturalism with science, as conceived by Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett and like-minded thinkers; while Daniel Dennett thinks that Plantinga stretches science to an unacceptable extent. Philosopher Maarten Boudry , in reviewing

3892-1235: Is merely a commitment to universality that protects against subjectivity and has nothing at all to do with personal detachment as found in many conceptions of the scientific method. Polanyi further asserted that all knowledge is personal and therefore the scientist must be performing a very personal if not necessarily subjective role when doing science. Polanyi added that the scientist often merely follows intuitions of "intellectual beauty, symmetry, and 'empirical agreement'". Polanyi held that science requires moral commitments similar to those found in religion. Two physicists, Charles A. Coulson and Harold K. Schilling , both claimed that "the methods of science and religion have much in common." Schilling asserted that both fields—science and religion—have "a threefold structure—of experience, theoretical interpretation, and practical application." Coulson asserted that science, like religion, "advances by creative imagination" and not by "mere collecting of facts," while stating that religion should and does "involve critical reflection on experience not unlike that which goes on in science." Religious language and scientific language also show parallels (cf. rhetoric of science ). "Science

4031-720: Is not necessarily modified in the face of conflicting evidence, and typically involves supernatural forces or entities. Because they are not a part of nature, supernatural entities cannot be investigated by science. In this sense, science and religion are separate and address aspects of human understanding in different ways. Attempts to put science and religion against each other create controversy where none needs to exist. According to Archbishop John Habgood , both science and religion represent distinct ways of approaching experience and these differences are sources of debate. He views science as descriptive and religion as prescriptive . He stated that if science and mathematics concentrate on what

4170-477: Is not only compatible with spirituality; it is a profound source of spirituality."— Carl Sagan , The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark The religion and science community consists of those scholars who involve themselves with what has been called the "religion-and-science dialogue" or the "religion-and-science field." The community belongs to neither the scientific nor the religious community, but

4309-400: Is not problematic to a certain point before it collapses into a number of excuses for keeping certain beliefs, in light of evolutionary implications. According to theoretical physicist Steven Weinberg , teaching cosmology and evolution to students should decrease their self-importance in the universe, as well as their religiosity. Evolutionary developmental biologist PZ Myers ' view

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4448-402: Is only one straight line between two points", are in fact arbitrary. Therefore, science, which relies on arbitrary axioms, can never refute Torah , which is absolute truth. According to Ian Barbour , Thomas S. Kuhn asserted that science is made up of paradigms that arise from cultural traditions, which is similar to the secular perspective on religion. Michael Polanyi asserted that it

4587-451: Is out of his mind and a most unsafe leader". When Pioneer returned to Shupanga in December 1862, they paid (in cloth) their "Mazaro men" who left and engaged replacements. On 10 January 1863 they set off, towing Lady Nyasa , and went up the Shire river past scenes of devastation as Mariano's Chikunda slave-hunts caused famine, and they frequently had to clear the paddle wheels of corpses left floating downstream. They reached Chibisa's and

4726-680: Is said to be a third overlapping community of interested and involved scientists, priests, clergymen, theologians and engaged non-professionals. Institutions interested in the intersection between science and religion include the Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences , the Institute on Religion in an Age of Science , the Ian Ramsey Centre, and the Faraday Institute . Journals addressing

4865-424: Is similar to ones used by theologians Ian Barbour and John Haught . More typologies that categorize this relationship can be found among the works of other science and religion scholars such as theologian and biochemist Arthur Peacocke . "Not only is science corrosive to religion; religion is corrosive to science. It teaches people to be satisfied with trivial, supernatural non-explanations and blinds them to

5004-480: Is that all scientists should be atheists, and that science should never accommodate any religious beliefs. Physicist Sean M. Carroll claims that since religion makes claims that are supernatural, both science and religion are incompatible. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins is openly hostile to religion because he believes it actively debauches the scientific enterprise and education involving science. According to Dawkins, religion "subverts science and saps

5143-428: Is the age-old endeavor of mankind to become clearly and completely conscious of these values and goals and constantly to strengthen and extend their effect. If one conceives of religion and science according to these definitions then a conflict between them appears impossible. For science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be, and outside of its domain value judgments of all kinds remain necessary. Religion, on

5282-689: Is very much a part of tradition and religion. Thus, they differ from Western atheists in that for them following the lifestyle of a religion is not antithetical to atheism. Others such as Francis Collins , George F. R. Ellis , Kenneth R. Miller , Katharine Hayhoe , George Coyne and Simon Conway Morris argue for compatibility since they do not agree that science is incompatible with religion and vice versa. They argue that science provides many opportunities to look for and find God in nature and to reflect on their beliefs. According to Kenneth Miller, he disagrees with Jerry Coyne's assessment and argues that since significant portions of scientists are religious and

5421-625: The Church of Scotland for a local Congregational church , influenced by preachers like Ralph Wardlaw , who denied predestinarian limitations on salvation. Influenced by revivalistic teachings in the United States, Livingstone entirely accepted the proposition put by Charles Finney, Professor of Theology at Oberlin College, Ohio, that "the Holy Spirit is open to all who ask it". For Livingstone, this meant

5560-777: The Colonial Office steamer Pearl , which took them out on its way to Ceylon. They left on 10 March, at Freetown collected twelve Kru seafarers to man the river steamer, and reached the Zambezi on 14 May. The plan was for both ships to take them up the river to establish bases, but it turned out to be completely impassable to boats past the Cahora Bassa rapids, a series of cataracts and rapids that Livingstone had failed to explore on his earlier travels. Pearl offloaded their supplies on an island about 40 miles (64 km) upstream. From there, Ma Robert had to make repeated slow journeys, getting hauled across shoals. The riverbanks were

5699-632: The Faculty (now Royal College) of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow on 16 November 1840 (in 1857 he was made an Honorary Fellow of the Faculty). On 20 November 1840 Livingstone was ordained a minister of the church, as was another missionary to South Africa, William Ross, in a service at the Albion Chapel , Finsbury. The ordination service was conducted by Cecil and J. J. Freeman. Though Livingstone had responded to Gützlaff's call for missionaries to China,

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5838-654: The Galileo affair of the early 17th century, associated with the scientific revolution and the Age of Enlightenment , led scholars such as John William Draper to postulate ( c.  1874 ) a conflict thesis , suggesting that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history. Some contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as Richard Dawkins , Lawrence Krauss , Peter Atkins , and Donald Prothero subscribe to this thesis; however, historians such as Stephen Shapin claim that "it

5977-517: The Human Genome Project Francis Collins , and climatologist John T. Houghton . The kinds of interactions that might arise between science and religion have been categorized by theologian, Anglican priest, and physicist John Polkinghorne : (1) conflict between the disciplines, (2) independence of the disciplines, (3) dialogue between the disciplines where they overlap and (4) integration of both into one field. This typology

6116-615: The Indiana University of Pennsylvania who scanned Livingstone's diary suggest that in putting his fragmentary notes about the massacre into the narrative of his journal, he left out his concerns about some of his followers, slaves owned by Banyan merchants who had been hired by John Kirk , acting consul at Zanzibar, and sent to get Livingstone to safety. These slaves had been liberated and added to his party, but had shown violent conduct against local people contrary to his instructions, and he feared they might have been involved in starting

6255-466: The London Missionary Society , he wrote up his journal, but unconventionally had his Missionary Travels published in 1857 by John Murray , making it a bestselling travelogue. The book included his field science and exceptionally sympathetic descriptions of African people. He proposed that missions and "legitimate commerce" by river into central Africa would end slave trading. Livingstone

6394-766: The Murchison Cataracts in April, then began dismantling Lady Nyasa and building a road to take its sections past the cataracts, while explorations continued. He brought the ships downriver in 1864 after the government ordered the recall of the expedition. The Zambezi Expedition was castigated as a failure in many newspapers of the time, and Livingstone experienced great difficulty in raising funds to further explore Africa. John Kirk, Charles Meller, and Richard Thornton, scientists appointed to work under Livingstone, contributed large collections of botanical, ecological, geological, and ethnographic material to scientific Institutions in

6533-623: The Nyangwe market on the banks of the Lualaba River , while he was watching next to the leading Arab trader Dugumbe who had given him assistance. The cause behind this attack is stated to be retaliation for actions of Manilla, the head slave who had sacked villages of Mohombo people at the instigation of the Wagenya chieftain Kimburu. The Arabs attacked the shoppers and Kimburu's people. Researchers from

6672-468: The Royal Geographical Society of London and was made a Fellow of the society, with which he had a strong association for the rest of his life. Livingstone completely lost contact with the outside world for six years and was ill for most of the last four years of his life. Only one of his 44 letter dispatches made it to Zanzibar . One surviving letter to Horace Waller was made available to

6811-655: The Vaal River in January 1844, Livingstone rode out to meet them there, then sat in the Moffats' ox-cart talking with Robert for hours during the seventeen or eighteen days it took to get home to Kuruman. For the first time, he met their daughter Mary , who had been born and brought up in Africa. Lions often attacked the herds of the Mabotsa villagers, and on 16 February, Mebalwe and Livingstone joined them defending sheep. Livingstone got

6950-590: The Xhosa Wars over extending the Cape Colony . Missionary factions disagreed over this, and over his emphasis on missionary work among Griqua people of the colony, while others like Moffatt wanted more focus on new areas. There were also tensions between artisan missionaries engaged for lay expertise, and ordained missionaries. The ship took Livingstone and the Rosses on to Algoa Bay , from 19 May to 31 July they were on

7089-449: The relationship between religion and science . In 1832, he read Philosophy of a Future State , written by Thomas Dick , and he found the rationale that he needed to reconcile faith and science and, apart from the Bible, this book was perhaps his greatest philosophical influence. Other significant influences in his early life were Thomas Burke, a Blantyre evangelist , and David Hogg, his Sunday school teacher. At age fifteen, David left

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7228-462: The study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions . Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between "imperial law" and universal or "Buddha law", but these later became independent sources of power. Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of "religion" since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off

7367-487: The "Last Journals", published in 1874, left out the context of Livingstone's earlier comments about Kirk and bad behaviour of the hired Banyan men, and omitted the villagers' earlier violent resistance to Arab slavers, so it portrayed the villagers as passive victims. The section on the massacre itself had only minor grammatical corrections. Further research into diary notes continues. The massacre horrified Livingstone, leaving him too shattered to continue his mission to find

7506-506: The 17th century in the midst of colonization, globalization and as a consequence of the Protestant reformation. "Science" emerged in the 19th century in the midst of attempts to narrowly define those who studied nature. Originally what is now known as "science" was pioneered as " natural philosophy ". It was in the 19th century that the terms " Buddhism ", " Hinduism ", " Taoism ", " Confucianism " and " World Religions " first emerged. In

7645-510: The 18th century, the orbital motions of binary stars by William Herschel in the 19th century, the accurate measurement of the stellar parallax in the 19th century, and Newtonian mechanics in the 17th century. According to physicist Christopher Graney, Galileo's own observations did not actually support the Copernican view, but were more consistent with Tycho Brahe's hybrid model where that Earth did not move and everything else circled around it and

7784-621: The Bakgatla were proving indifferent to the Gospel. He abandoned Chonuane, his next mission, in 1847 because of drought and the proximity of the Boers and his desire "to move on to the regions beyond". At Kolobeng Mission Livingstone converted Chief Sechele in 1849 after two years of patient persuasion. Only a few months later Sechele lapsed. To improve his Tswana language skills and find locations to set up mission stations, Livingstone made journeys far to

7923-618: The Conference on Science, Philosophy and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life, Inc., New York in 1941, Einstein stated: Accordingly, a religious person is devout in the sense that he has no doubt of the significance and loftiness of those superpersonal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational foundation. They exist with the same necessity and matter-of-factness as he himself. In this sense religion

8062-463: The Great (c. 1200–1280), Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294), William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347), Jean Burdian (c. 1301–1358), Thomas Bradwardine (1300–1349), Nicole Oresme (c. 1320–1382), Nicholas of Cusa (c. 1401–1464). In the 17th century, founders of the Royal Society largely held conventional and orthodox religious views, and a number of them were prominent Churchmen. While theological issues that had

8201-493: The Indian Ocean, having mapped most of the course of the Zambezi river. For this, Livingstone became famous as the first European to cross south-central Africa at that latitude and was hailed as having "opened up" Africa, but there was already a long-established trans-regional network of trade routes. Portuguese traders had penetrated to the middle of the continent from both sides, in 1853–1854 two Arab traders crossed

8340-537: The Japanese. According to cosmologist and astrophysicist Lawrence Krauss , compatibility or incompatibility is a theological concern, not a scientific concern. In Lisa Randall 's view, questions of incompatibility or otherwise are not answerable, since by accepting revelations one is abandoning rules of logic which are needed to identify if there are indeed contradictions between holding certain beliefs. Daniel Dennett holds that incompatibility exists because religion

8479-593: The Kololo in Barotseland , which Livingstone had promoted. That mission eventually suffered deaths from malaria of a missionary, his wife, a second missionary's wife, and three children. Livingstone had suffered over thirty attacks during his previous journey but had understated his suffering and overstated the quality of the land they would find, and the missionaries set out for the marshy region with wholly inadequate supplies of quinine. Biographer Tim Jeal considered this episode

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8618-534: The LMS directors accepted Livingstone, and agreed to his request to continue studying with Cecil at Ongar until the end of the year, then have LMS support for medical studies in London. To gain necessary clinical training he continued his medical studies at the Charing Cross Hospital Medical School , with his courses covering medical practice, midwifery, and botany. He qualified as a licentiate of

8757-660: The LMS in October 1837, and in January was sent questions which he answered. He got no reply until invited to two interviews in August 1838. He was then accepted as a probationary candidate, and given initial training at Ongar, Essex , as the introduction to studies to become a minister within the Congregational Union serving under the LMS, rather than the more basic course for an artisan missionary. At Ongar, he and six other students had tuition in Greek, Latin, Hebrew and theology from

8896-735: The Lualaba and, failing to find connections to the Nile, returned to Lake Bangweulu and its swamps to explore possible rivers flowing out northwards. Livingstone is known as "Africa's greatest missionary," yet he is recorded as having converted only one African: Sechele , who was the chief of the Kwena people of Botswana (Kwena are one of the main Sotho-Tswana clans, found in South Africa, Lesotho, and Botswana in all three Sotho-Tswana language groupings). Sechele

9035-755: The Portuguese city of Luanda on the Atlantic in May 1854 after profound difficulties and the near-death of Livingstone from fever. Livingstone realized the route would be too difficult for future traders, so he retraced the journey back to Linyanti. Then with 114 Kololo men, loaned by the same chief, he set off east down the Zambezi. On this leg he became the first European to see the Mosi-oa-Tunya ("the smoke that thunders") waterfall, which he named Victoria Falls after Queen Victoria . Eventually he successfully reached Quelimane on

9174-682: The Quran, and other texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these texts were written. In the 19th century, Max Müller noted that what is called ancient religion today, would have been called "law" in antiquity. For example, there is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities. The Sanskrit word " dharma ", sometimes translated as "religion", also means law or duty. Throughout classical India,

9313-476: The Reverend Richard Cecil, who in January 1839 assessed that, despite "heaviness of manner" and "rusticity", Livingstone had "sense and quiet vigour", good temper and substantial character "so I do not like the thought of him being rejected." A month later, he still thought Livingstone "hardly ready" to go on to theological studies at Cheshunt College , and "worthy but remote from brilliant". In June 1839

9452-565: The Sun. British philosopher A. C. Grayling , still believes there is competition between science and religions in areas related to the origin of the universe, the nature of human beings and the possibility of miracles. A modern view, described by Stephen Jay Gould as " non-overlapping magisteria " (NOMA), is that science and religion deal with fundamentally separate aspects of human experience and so, when each stays within its own domain, they co-exist peacefully. While Gould spoke of independence from

9591-518: The United Kingdom. In January 1866, Livingstone returned to Africa, this time to Zanzibar , and from there he set out to seek the source of the Nile . Richard Francis Burton , John Hanning Speke , and Samuel Baker had identified either Lake Albert or Lake Victoria as the source (which was partially correct, as the Nile "bubbles from the ground high in the mountains of Burundi halfway between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria " ), but there

9730-484: The United States, where some reject the concept of evolution by natural selection , especially regarding Human beings. Nevertheless, the American National Academy of Sciences has written that "the evidence for evolution can be fully compatible with religious faith ", a view endorsed by many religious denominations . The concepts of "science" and "religion" are a recent invention: "religion" emerged in

9869-423: The agreement of the mill management, by working at his old job from Easter to October, outwith term time. He joined Anderson's University , Glasgow, in 1836, studying medicine and chemistry, as well as attending theology lectures by the anti-slavery campaigner Richard Wardlaw at the Congregational Church College, where he may also have studied Greek . To enter medical school, he needed some knowledge of Latin, and

10008-627: The ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin roots of both science ( scientia ) and religion ( religio ) were understood as inner qualities of the individual or virtues, never as doctrines, practices, or actual sources of knowledge. The 19th century also experienced the concept of "science" receiving its modern shape with new titles emerging such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics", and "physicist", among other technical fields and titles; institutions and communities were founded, and unprecedented applications to and interactions with other aspects of society and culture occurred. The term scientist

10147-499: The book, has commented that he resorts to creationism and fails to "stave off the conflict between theism and evolution." Cognitive scientist Justin L. Barrett , by contrast, reviews the same book and writes that "those most needing to hear Plantinga's message may fail to give it a fair hearing for rhetorical rather than analytical reasons." As a general view, this holds that while interactions are complex between influences of science, theology, politics, social, and economic concerns,

10286-590: The coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding, among other things, freedom of religion, the country had to contend with this Western idea. The development of sciences (especially natural philosophy ) in Western Europe during the Middle Ages , has a considerable foundation in the works of the Arabs who translated Greek and Latin compositions. The works of Aristotle played

10425-484: The conflict thesis in its original form and no longer support it. Instead, it has been superseded by subsequent historical research which has resulted in a more nuanced understanding. Historian of science, Gary Ferngren, has stated: "Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times

10564-564: The continent from Zanzibar to Benguela , and around 1800 two native traders crossed from Angola to Mozambique. Livingstone advocated the establishment of trade and religious missions in central Africa, but abolition of the African slave trade , as carried out by the Portuguese of Tete and the Arab Swahili of Kilwa , became his primary goal. His motto—now inscribed on his statue at Victoria Falls—was " Christianity, Commerce and Civilization ",

10703-510: The course of many rivers, especially the upper Zambezi, and his observations enabled large regions to be mapped which previously had been blank. Even so, the farthest north he reached was the north end of Lake Tanganyika—still south of the Equator —and he did not penetrate the rainforest of the River Congo any farther downstream than Ntangwe near Misisi . Livingstone was awarded the gold medal of

10842-511: The developments that took place in science, during the Renaissance which immediately succeeded it. By 1630, ancient authority from classical literature and philosophy, as well as their necessity, started eroding, although scientists were still expected to be fluent in Latin , the international language of Europe's intellectuals. With the sheer success of science and the steady advance of rationalism ,

10981-425: The direction of Lake Tanganyika, with his health declining. He sent a message to Zanzibar requesting that supplies be sent to Ujiji and he then headed west, forced by ill health to travel with slave traders. He arrived at Lake Mweru on 8 November 1867 and continued on, travelling south to become the first European to see Lake Bangweulu . Upon finding the Lualaba River , Livingstone theorised that it could have been

11120-478: The directors were "restricted in their power of aiding plans connected only remotely with the spread of the Gospel". This brusque rejection for new mission stations north of the Zambezi and his wider object of opening the interior for trade via the Zambezi, was not enough to make him resign from the LMS at once. When Roderick Murchison , president of the Royal Geographical Society, put him in touch with

11259-556: The end, a decree of the Congregation of the Index was issued, declaring that the ideas that the Sun stood still and that the Earth moved were "false" and "altogether contrary to Holy Scripture", and suspending Copernicus's De Revolutionibus until it could be corrected. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the center of

11398-452: The existence of books explaining reconciliation between evolution and religion, indicate that people have trouble in believing both at the same time, thus implying incompatibility. According to physical chemist Peter Atkins , "whereas religion scorns the power of human comprehension, science respects it." Planetary scientist Carolyn Porco describes a hope that "the confrontation between science and formal religion will come to an end when

11537-439: The faculty for natural philosophy and theology were separate, and discussions pertaining to theological issues were often not allowed to be undertaken by the faculty of philosophy. Natural philosophy, as taught in the arts faculties of the universities, was seen as an essential area of study in its own right and was considered necessary for almost every area of study. It was an independent field, separated from theology, and enjoyed

11676-461: The faith we have received. In such a case, we should not rush in headlong and so firmly take our stand on one side that, if further progress in the search of truth justly undermines this position, we too fall with it. That would be to battle not for the teaching of Holy Scripture but for our own, wishing its teaching to conform to ours, whereas we ought to wish ours to conform to that of Sacred Scripture." ( Gen. ad lit. i, 18) In medieval universities,

11815-571: The foreign secretary, Livingstone said nothing to the LMS directors, even when his leadership of a government expedition to the Zambezi seemed increasingly likely to be funded by the exchequer. "I am not yet fairly on with the Government," he told a friend, "but am nearly quite off with the Society (LMS)." Livingstone resigned from the London Missionary Society in 1857, and in May of that year he

11954-520: The high part of the Nile ; but realised that it in fact flowed into the River Congo at Upper Congo Lake . The year 1869 began with Livingstone finding himself extremely ill while in the jungle. He was saved by Arab traders who gave him medicines and carried him to an Arab outpost. In March 1869, Livingstone suffered from pneumonia and arrived in Ujiji to find his supplies stolen. He was coming down with cholera and had tropical ulcers on his feet, so he

12093-492: The individual scientist gained prestige. Along with the inventions of this period, especially the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg , allowing for the dissemination of the Bible in languages of the common people (languages other than Latin). This allowed more people to read and learn from the scripture, leading to the Evangelical movement . The people who spread this message concentrated more on individual agency rather than

12232-613: The intellect". He believes that when science teachers attempt to expound on evolution, there is hostility aimed towards them by parents who are skeptical because they believe it conflicts with their own religious beliefs, and that even in some textbooks have had the word 'evolution' systematically removed. He has worked to argue the negative effects that he believes religion has on education of science. According to Renny Thomas' study on Indian scientists, atheistic scientists in India called themselves atheists even while accepting that their lifestyle

12371-644: The long trek by ox-cart to the Kuruman Mission . The Moffats had not yet returned from Britain, and he immersed himself in Tswana life. From September to late December he trekked 750 miles (1,210 km) with the artisan missionary Roger Edwards, who had been at Kuruman since 1830 and had been told by Moffat to investigate potential for a new station. They visited and discussed the area called Mabotsa, Botswana, near Zeerust , North West Province, South Africa. In 1842 Livingstone went on two treks with African companions,

12510-521: The looming First Opium War made the LMS directors cautious about sending recruits there. When he asked to extend his probationary training at Ongar, Cecil told him of their wish that he should be employed in the West Indies "in preference to South Africa". On 2 July 1839 he wrote to the LMS directors that the West Indies was by then well served by doctors, and he had always been attracted to other parts of

12649-452: The massacre. His diary noted "Dugumbe's men murdering Kimburu and another for slaves" and implied that the slave Manilla played a leading part, but looking back at the events, he says Dugumbé's people bore responsibility, and started it to make an example of Manilla. In the diary he described his sending his men with protection of a flag to assist Manilla's brother. In his journal version it was to assist villagers. The version edited by Waller in

12788-457: The missionary Robert Moffat , who was then in England with his family to publicise the work of his LMS mission at Kuruman in South Africa. Livingstone questioned him repeatedly about Africa, and as Moffat later recalled; "By and by he asked me whether I thought he would do for Africa. I said I believed he would, if he would not go to an old station, but would advance to unoccupied ground, specifying

12927-402: The modern understandings of "science" or of "religion", certain elements of modern ideas on the subject recur throughout history. The pair-structured phrases "religion and science" and "science and religion" first emerged in the literature during the 19th century. This coincided with the refining of "science" (from the studies of " natural philosophy ") and of "religion" as distinct concepts in

13066-458: The natural world or a misunderstanding of revelation. The prominent scholastic Thomas Aquinas writes in the Summa Theologica concerning apparent contradictions: "In discussing questions of this kind two rules are to observed, as Augustine teaches ( Gen. ad lit. i, 18). The first is, to hold the truth of Scripture without wavering. The second is that since Holy Scripture can be explained in

13205-563: The natural world. A notable example is the now defunct belief in the Ptolemaic (geocentric) planetary model that held sway until changes in scientific and religious thinking were brought about by Galileo and proponents of his views. In the view of the Lubavitcher rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson , non-Euclidean geometry such as Lobachevsky's hyperbolic geometry and Riemann's elliptic geometry proved that Euclid 's axioms, such as, "there

13344-555: The nature of science. The Gifford Lectures were established in 1885 to further the discussion between " natural theology " and the scientific community. This annual series continues and has included William James , John Dewey , Carl Sagan, and many other professors from various fields. The modern dialogue between religion and science is rooted in Ian Barbour 's 1966 book Issues in Science and Religion . Since that time it has grown into

13483-690: The nineteenth century. The Majete Wildlife Reserve , the Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve and Lengwe National Park lie in the vicinity of Chikwawa. Large numbers of hippopotamus and crocodiles inhabit the Shire River area. 16°02′06″S 34°48′04″E  /  16.035°S 34.801°E  / -16.035; 34.801 This Malawi location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . David Livingstone David Livingstone FRGS FRS ( / ˈ l ɪ v ɪ ŋ s t ə n / ; 19 March 1813 – 1 May 1873)

13622-525: The north of Kolobeng with William Cotton Oswell . In 1849 they crossed the Kalahari Desert and reached Lake Ngami . In 1850, he was recognised by the Royal Geographical Society which presented him a chronometer watch for 'his journey to the great lake of Ngami'. He heard of a river which could potentially become a "Highway" to the coast, and in August 1851 they reached the Zambezi which he hoped would be

13761-475: The only other white person for hundreds of miles, along with Stanley's clumsy attempt at appearing dignified in the bush of Africa by making a formal greeting one might expect to hear in the confines of an upper-class London club. However, readers of the Herald immediately saw through Stanley's pretensions. As noted by his biographer Tim Jeal, Stanley struggled his whole life with a self-perceived weakness of being from

13900-756: The other hand, deals only with evaluations of human thought and action: it cannot justifiably speak of facts and relationships between facts. According to this interpretation the well-known conflicts between religion and science in the past must all be ascribed to a misapprehension of the situation which has been described. Einstein thus expresses views of ethical non-naturalism (contrasted to ethical naturalism ). Prominent modern scientists who are atheists include evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins and Nobel Prize–winning physicist Steven Weinberg . Prominent scientists advocating religious belief include Nobel Prize–winning physicist and United Church of Christ member Charles Townes , evangelical Christian and past head of

14039-443: The perspective of science, W. T. Stace viewed independence from the perspective of the philosophy of religion . Stace felt that science and religion, when each is viewed in its own domain, are both consistent and complete. They originate from different perceptions of reality, as Arnold O. Benz points out, but meet each other, for example, in the feeling of amazement and in ethics. The USA's National Academy of Sciences supports

14178-451: The philosophical integrity of such Buddhist modernism has been challenged. While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air, earth, fire, and water was more metaphysical, and figures like Anaxagoras questioned certain popular views of Greek divinities, medieval Middle Eastern scholars empirically classified materials. Events in Europe such as

14317-521: The potential for British trade via the Zambezi. In December 1857 the Foreign Office proposed a huge expedition. Livingstone had envisaged another solo journey with African helpers, in January 1858 he agreed to lead a second Zambezi expedition with six specialist officers, hurriedly recruited in the UK. The prefabricated iron river steamer Ma Robert was quickly built in portable sections, and loaded onto

14456-575: The potential to be divisive were typically excluded from formal discussions of the early Society, many of its fellows nonetheless believed that their scientific activities provided support for traditional religious belief. Clerical involvement in the Royal Society remained high until the mid-nineteenth century when science became more professionalized. Albert Einstein supported the compatibility of some interpretations of religion with science. In "Science, Philosophy and Religion, A Symposium" published by

14595-561: The preceding few centuries—partly due to professionalization of the sciences, the Protestant Reformation , colonization , and globalization . Since then the relationship between science and religion has been characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Both science and religion are complex social and cultural endeavors that may vary across cultures and change over time. Most scientific and technical innovations until

14734-608: The preface of his book claims that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher ( Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton". Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by

14873-544: The principals were mission members Paul and Mebalwe, a deacon . In June 1843, Edwards got LMS approval to set up a mission station with his wife at Mabotsa. Livingstone moved there by agreement, and joined them in the physical work of building facilities. He wrote to tell LMS secretary Arthur Tidman, saying he would be delighted to call Mabotsa "the centre of the sphere of my labours", but would try to hold himself "in readiness to go anywhere, provided it be forward". The Moffats, accompanied by two new missionary families, reached

15012-536: The proportion of Americans believing in evolution is much higher, it implies that both are indeed compatible. Elsewhere, Miller has argued that when scientists make claims on science and theism or atheism, they are not arguing scientifically at all and are stepping beyond the scope of science into discourses of meaning and purpose. What he finds particularly odd and unjustified is in how atheists often come to invoke scientific authority on their non-scientific philosophical conclusions like there being no point or no meaning to

15151-615: The public in 2010 by its owner Peter Beard. It reads: "I am terribly knocked up but this is for your own eye only... Doubtful if I live to see you again..." Henry Morton Stanley had been sent to find him by the New York Herald newspaper in 1869. He found Livingstone in the town of Ujiji on the shores of Lake Tanganyika on 10 November 1871, apparently greeting him with the now famous words "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" Livingstone responded, "Yes", and then, "I feel thankful that I am here to welcome you." These famous words may have been

15290-402: The reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the physical Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings. The actual evidences that finally proved heliocentrism came centuries after Galileo: the stellar aberration of light by James Bradley in

15429-522: The relationship between science and religion include Theology and Science and Zygon . Eugenie Scott has written that the "science and religion" movement is, overall, composed mainly of theists who have a healthy respect for science and may be beneficial to the public understanding of science. She contends that the "Christian scholarship" movement is not a problem for science, but that the "Theistic science" movement, which proposes abandoning methodological materialism, does cause problems in understanding of

15568-515: The role played by science in the lives of all people is the same played by religion today." Geologist and paleontologist Donald Prothero has stated that religion is the reason "questions about evolution , the age of the earth, cosmology, and human evolution nearly always cause Americans to flunk science literacy tests compared to other nations." However, Jon Miller, who studies science literacy across nations, states that Americans in general are slightly more scientifically literate than Europeans and

15707-576: The scientific revolution were achieved by societies organized by religious traditions. Ancient pagan , Islamic , and Christian scholars pioneered individual elements of the scientific method . Roger Bacon , often credited with formalizing the scientific method , was a Franciscan friar and medieval Christians who studied nature emphasized natural explanations. Confucian thought , whether religious or non-religious in nature, has held different views of science over time. Many 21st-century Buddhists view science as complementary to their beliefs , although

15846-523: The source of the Nile. Following the end of the wet season, he travelled 240 miles (390 km) from Nyangwe back to Ujiji, an Arab settlement on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika—violently ill most of the way—arriving on 23 October 1871. Livingstone was wrong about the Nile, but he identified numerous geographical features for Western science, such as Lake Ngami , Lake Malawi , and Lake Bangweulu , in addition to Victoria Falls mentioned above. He filled in details of Lake Tanganyika , Lake Mweru , and

15985-609: The structures of the Church. Some medieval contributors to science included: Boethius (c. 477–524), John Philoponus (c. 490–570), Bede the Venerable (c. 672–735), Alciun of York (c. 735–804), Leo the Mathematician (c. 790–869), Gerbert of Aurillac (c. 946–1003), Constantine the African (c. 1020–1087), Adelard of Bath (c. 1080–1152), Robert Grosseteste (c. 1168–1253), St. Albert

16124-407: The then-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to "systematic study of nature". Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait's, which helped define much of modern physics, was titled Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867). It was in the 17th century that the concept of "religion" received its modern shape despite the fact that ancient texts like the Bible,

16263-478: The two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule." Most historians today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes (Galileo and Darwin), toward compatibility theses (either the integration thesis or non-overlapping magisteria) or toward

16402-463: The universe as the only viable option when the scientific method and science never have had any way of addressing questions of meaning or God in the first place. Furthermore, he notes that since evolution made the brain and since the brain can handle both religion and science, there is no natural incompatibility between the concepts at the biological level. Karl Giberson argues that when discussing compatibility, some scientific intellectuals often ignore

16541-405: The universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions. However, before all this, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in a book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism as physically proven since the scientific consensus at the time was that the evidence for heliocentrism

16680-563: The vast plain to the north, where I had sometimes seen, in the morning sun, the smoke of a thousand villages, where no missionary had ever been." He was excited by Moffat's vision of expanding missionary work to the north of Bechuanaland , and by the hotly debated topic of Christianity and commerce. The LMS missionary John Philip , after discussion with the abolitionist Fowell Buxton , published Researches in South Africa in 1828, proposing that Christianity would always bring "civilisation" including free trade and free labour . This argument

16819-448: The view that science and religion are independent. Science and religion are based on different aspects of human experience. In science, explanations must be based on evidence drawn from examining the natural world. Scientifically based observations or experiments that conflict with an explanation eventually must lead to modification or even abandonment of that explanation. Religious faith, in contrast, does not depend on empirical evidence,

16958-499: The viewpoints of intellectual leaders in theology and instead argue against less informed masses, thereby, defining religion by non-intellectuals and slanting the debate unjustly. He argues that leaders in science sometimes trump older scientific baggage and that leaders in theology do the same, so once theological intellectuals are taken into account, people who represent extreme positions like Ken Ham and Eugenie Scott will become irrelevant. Cynthia Tolman notes that religion does not have

17097-556: The wonderful real explanations that we have within our grasp. It teaches them to accept authority, revelation and faith instead of always insisting on evidence."— Richard Dawkins According to Guillermo Paz-y-Miño-C and Avelina Espinosa, the historical conflict between evolution and religion is intrinsic to the incompatibility between scientific rationalism / empiricism and the belief in supernatural causation. According to evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne , views on evolution and levels of religiosity in some countries, along with

17236-490: The world ought to be , in the way that religion does, it may lead to improperly ascribing properties to the natural world as happened among the followers of Pythagoras in the sixth century B.C. In contrast, proponents of a normative moral science take issue with the idea that science has no way of guiding "oughts". Habgood also stated that he believed that the reverse situation, where religion attempts to be descriptive, can also lead to inappropriately assigning properties to

17375-454: The world rather than a settled pastorate . With LMS agreement, he continued to get theological tuition from Cecil until the end of the year, then resumed medical studies. On beginning his clinical training in January 1840, he returned to Mrs. Sewell's missionary boarding house in Aldersgate , where he had stayed previously when in London. Others staying there were visited occasionally by

17514-579: Was a Scottish physician, Congregationalist , pioneer Christian missionary with the London Missionary Society , and an explorer in Africa. Livingstone was married to Mary Moffat Livingstone , from the prominent 18th-century Moffat missionary family. Livingstone came to have a mythic status that operated on a number of interconnected levels: Protestant missionary martyr, working-class " rags-to-riches " inspirational story, scientific investigator and explorer, imperial reformer, anti-slavery crusader, and advocate of British commercial and colonial expansion. As

17653-399: Was again forced to rely on slave traders to get him as far as Bambara—where he was caught by the wet season. With no supplies, Livingstone had to eat his meals in a roped-off enclosure for the entertainment of the locals in return for food. On 15 July 1871, Livingstone recorded in his field diary his immediate impressions as he witnessed around 400 Africans being massacred by Arab slavers at

17792-458: Was appointed as her majesty's consul with a roving commission, extending through Mozambique to the areas west of it. In February 1858 his area of jurisdiction was stipulated to be "the Eastern Coast of Africa and the independent districts in the interior". While he negotiated with the government for his new position as consul, the LMS thought that he would return to Africa with their mission to

17931-479: Was born in 1812. His father died when Sechele was 10, and two of his uncles divided the tribe, which forced Sechele to leave his home for nine years. When Sechele returned, he took over one of his uncle's tribes; at that point, he met Livingstone. Livingstone immediately became interested in Sechele, and especially his ability to read. Being a quick learner, Sechele learned the alphabet in two days and soon called English

18070-464: Was coined by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell in 1834 and it was applied to those who sought knowledge and understanding of nature. From the ancient world, starting with Aristotle , to the 19th century, the practice of studying nature was commonly referred to as " natural philosophy ". Isaac Newton 's book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), whose title translates to "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", reflects

18209-487: Was encouraged by the response in Britain to his discoveries and support for future expeditions. He proposed to do more exploration, primarily to find routes for commercial trade which he believed would displace slave trade routes, more so than for solely missionary work. The London Missionary Society (LMS) on learning of his plans sent a letter which Livingstone received at Quelimane, congratulating him on his journey but said that

18348-449: Was necessary to support his impoverished family, but it taught him persistence, endurance, and a natural empathy with all who labour, as expressed by lines that he used to hum from the egalitarian Robert Burns song : "When man to man, the world o'er/Shall brothers be for a' that". Livingstone attended Blantyre village school, along with the few other mill children with the endurance to do so despite their 14-hour workday (6 am–8 pm). Having

18487-430: Was popularized in the 19th century by John William Draper 's and Andrew Dickson White 's accounts. It was in the 19th century that relationship between science and religion became an actual formal topic of discourse, while before this no one had pitted science against religion or vice versa, though occasional complex interactions had been expressed before the 19th century. Most contemporary historians of science now reject

18626-493: Was reinforced for Livingstone when he attended the Exeter Hall meeting of 1 June 1840 where Buxton powerfully made the case that the African slave trade would be ended if chiefs, instead of having to sell slaves, could obtain desired European goods through "legitimate trade", its effect augmented by Christian missions preaching the gospel and introducing school education. Livingstone left London on 17 November 1840, passenger on

18765-689: Was still serious debate on the matter. Livingstone believed that the source was farther south and assembled a team to find it consisting of freed slaves, Comoros Islanders, twelve Sepoys , and two servants from his previous expedition, Chuma and Susi . Livingstone set out from the mouth of the Ruvuma river, but his assistants gradually began deserting him. The Comoros Islanders had returned to Zanzibar and (falsely) informed authorities that Livingstone had died. He reached Lake Malawi on 6 August, by which time most of his supplies had been stolen, including all his medicines. Livingstone then travelled through swamps in

18904-558: Was tended by Moffat's daughter Mary, and they became engaged. His arm healed, enabling him to shoot and lift heavy weights, though it remained a source of much suffering for the rest of his life, and he was not able to lift the arm higher than his shoulder. Livingstone and Mary were married on 9 January 1845. Livingstone was obliged to leave his first mission at Mabotsa in Botswana in 1845 after irreconcilable differences emerged between him and his fellow missionary, Rogers Edwards, and because

19043-507: Was the second of seven children born to Neil Livingstone (1788–1856) and his wife Agnes ( née Hunter; 1782–1865). David was employed at the age of ten in the cotton mill of Henry Monteith & Co. in Blantyre Works . He and his brother John worked 14-hour days as piecers , tying broken cotton threads on the spinning machines. Neil Livingstone was a Sunday school teacher and teetotaller who handed out Christian tracts on his travels as

19182-439: Was tutored by a local Roman Catholic man, Daniel Gallagher (later a priest, founder of St Simon's, Partick ). Livingstone worked hard, got a good grounding in science and medicine, and made lifelong friends including Andrew Buchanan and James Young . The London Missionary Society (LMS) was at the time the major organisation in the country for missionary work, and unlike others was open to Congregationalists . He applied to

19321-651: Was very weak. The Church had merely sided with the scientific consensus of the time. Pope Urban VIII asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems , was often portrayed as an unlearned fool who lacked mathematical training. Although

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