Chicano ( masculine form ) or Chicana ( feminine form ) is an ethnic identity for Mexican Americans that emerged from the Chicano Movement . Chicano was originally a classist and racist slur used toward low-income Mexicans that was reclaimed in the 1940s among youth who belonged to the Pachuco and Pachuca subculture.
145-502: In the 1960s, Chicano was widely reclaimed among Hispanics in the building of a movement toward political empowerment , ethnic solidarity , and pride in being of Indigenous descent (with many using the Nahuatl language or names ). Chicano was used in a sense separate from Mexican American identity. Youth in barrios rejected cultural assimilation into mainstream American culture and embraced their own identity and worldview as
290-458: A city councilor. The rise of global capitalism has occurred through a novel and increasingly functional integration of capitalist chains of production and finance across borders which is tied to the formation of a transnational capitalist class. This approach has led to a broader study of corporate networks, the global working class and the transnationalization of state apparatuses and elites. Transnational psychology developed in response to
435-461: A colleague in college. Merriam-Webster Dictionary states 1921 was the year the term "transnational" was first used in print, which was after Bourne's death. Transnationalism as an economic process involves the global reorganization of the production process, in which various stages of the production of any product can occur in various countries, typically with the aim of minimizing costs. Economic transnationalism, commonly known as globalization ,
580-495: A community. Legal empowerment is about grass root justice, about ensuring that law is not confined to books or courtrooms, but rather is available and meaningful to ordinary people. Lorenzo Cotula in his book ' Legal Empowerment for Local Resource Control ' outlines the fact that legal tools for securing local resource rights are enshrined in legal system, does not necessarily mean that local resource users are in position to use them and benefit from them. The state legal system
725-445: A company. The implementation of the concept of empowerment in management has also been criticized for failing to live up to its claims. Empowerment in the study of artificial intelligence is an information-theoretic quantity that measures the perceived capacity of an agent to influence its environment. Empowerment is an approach to modelling intrinsic motivation where advantageous actions are chosen by agent with just knowledge of
870-529: A concept, and model of practice, empowerment is also used in health promotion research and practice. The key principle is for individuals to gain increased control over factors that influence their health status. To empower individuals and to obtain more equity in health, it is also important to address health-related behaviors. Studies suggest that health promotion interventions aiming at empowering adolescents should enable active learning activities, use visualizing tools to facilitate self-reflection, and allow
1015-691: A counterargument in that its inception was based in comparative analysis of the racial discrimination against Asian Americans and Vietnamese during the Vietnam War . A collection of scholarly articles, edited by Terese Guinsatao Monberg and Morris Young, seeks to understand how transnationalism reveals ways Asian/Americans "negotiate, resist, and work against emerging, shifting, and often intensified 'highly asymmetrical relations of power.'" Furthermore, inter-movement spillover plays an important role in transnational climate change politics . Based on these findings, one can conclude that when movements come together in
1160-478: A critical historical moment in which Mexican-Americans and Mexicans were "under pressure to assimilate particular standards—of beauty, of identity, of aspiration. In a Mexican context, the pressure was to urbanize and Europeanize ... "Mexican-Americans" were expected to accept anti-indigenous discourses as their own." As Pérez-Torres concludes, Aztlán allowed "for another way of aligning one's interests and concerns with community and with history ... though hazy as to
1305-408: A cultural identity that is neither fully "American" or "Mexican." Chicano culture embodies the "in-between" nature of cultural hybridity . Central aspects of Chicano culture include lowriding , hip hop , rock , graffiti art , theater, muralism , visual art, literature, poetry, and more. Mexican American celebrities, artists, and actors/actresses help bring Chicano culture to light and contribute to
1450-550: A culture of trust in the organization and an appropriate information and communication system. The aim of these activities is to save control costs, that become redundant when employees act independently and in a self-motivated fashion. In the book Empowerment Takes More Than a Minute , the authors illustrate three keys that organizations can use to open the knowledge, experience, and motivation power that people already have. The three keys that managers must use to empower their employees are: According to Stewart, in order to guarantee
1595-562: A decade of Hispanic dominance, Chicano student activism in the early 1990s recession and the anti- Gulf War movement revived the identity with a demand to expand Chicano studies programs. Chicanas were active at the forefront, despite facing critiques from "movement loyalists", as they did in the Chicano Movement . Chicana feminists addressed employment discrimination , environmental racism , healthcare , sexual violence , and exploitation in their communities and in solidarity with
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#17330847848431740-433: A deficit diagnosis usually carried out by experts assessing the problems of this group. The fundamental asymmetry of the relationship between experts and clients is usually not questioned by empowerment processes. It also needs to be regarded critically, in how far the empowerment approach is really applicable to all patients/clients. It is particularly questionable whether [mentally ill] people in acute crisis situations are in
1885-588: A difference in cultural views. Chicano was widely reclaimed in the 1960s and 1970s during the Chicano Movement to assert a distinct ethnic, political, and cultural identity that resisted assimilation into the mainstream American culture, systematic racism and stereotypes, colonialism, and the American nation-state. Chicano identity formed around seven themes: unity, economy, education, institutions, self-defense, culture, and political liberation, in an effort to bridge regional and class divisions. The notion of Aztlán ,
2030-510: A diverse group of nations and peoples. A 2011 study found that 85 to 90% of maternal mtDNA lineages in Mexican Americans are Indigenous. Chicano ethnic identity may involve more than just Indigenous and Spanish ancestry. It may also include African ancestry (as a result of Spanish slavery or runaway slaves from Anglo-Americans). Arteaga concluded that "the physical manifestation of the Chicano,
2175-454: A female "...sounds as though we are dismissing or ignoring males, but the truth is, both genders desperately need to be equally empowered." Empowerment occurs through improvement of conditions, standards, events, and a global perspective of life. Before there can be the finding that a particular group requires empowerment and that therefore their self-esteem needs to be consolidated on the basis of awareness of their strengths, there needs to be
2320-428: A foreigner and is expected to do menial labor and ask nothing of the society in which she lives." Among Mexican Americans, Chicano and Chicana began to be viewed as a positive identity of self-determination and political solidarity. In Mexico, Chicano may still be associated with a Mexican American person of low importance, class , and poor morals (similar to the terms Cholo , Chulo and Majo ), indicating
2465-456: A form of empowerment and resistance. The community forged an independent political and cultural movement, sometimes working alongside the Black power movement . The Chicano Movement faltered by the mid-1970s as a result of external and internal pressures. It was under state surveillance, infiltration, and repression by U.S. government agencies , informants , and agent provocateurs , such as through
2610-486: A form of transnational activism, some research has also drawn attention to clandestine and criminal networks, as well as foreign fighters, as examples of a wider form of transnationalism. Some have argued that diasporas , such as the overseas Chinese , are a historical precursor to modern transnationalism. However, unlike some people with transnationalist lives, most diasporas have not been voluntary. The field of diaspora politics does consider modern diasporas as having
2755-437: A guiding principle, for example through the creation of communities of practice . However, it is important to ensure that the individual employee has the skills to meet their allocated responsibilities and that the company's structure sets up the right incentives for employees to reward their taking responsibilities. Otherwise there is a danger of being overwhelmed or even becoming lethargic. Empowerment of employees requires
2900-507: A letter X. More than a letter, the X in Xicanisma is also a symbol to represent being at a literal crossroads or otherwise embodying hybridity . Xicanisma acknowledges Indigenous survival after hundreds of years of colonization and the need to reclaim one's Indigenous roots while also being "committed to the struggle for liberation of all oppressed people", wrote Francesca A. López. Activists like Guillermo Gómez-Peña , issued "a call for
3045-457: A meeting of multiple simultaneous histories. Socio-cultural transnational activities cover a wide array of social and cultural transactions through which ideas and meanings are exchanged. Recent research has established the concept and importance of social remittances which provide a distinct form of social capital between migrants living abroad and those who remain at home. These transfers of socio-cultural meanings and practices occur either during
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#17330847848433190-605: A movement that would soon issue the Chicano Manifesto—a detailed platform of political activism." By the 1960s, the Pachuco figure "emerged as an icon of resistance in Chicano cultural production." The Pachuca was not regarded with the same status. Catherine Ramírez credits this to the Pachuca being interpreted as a symbol of "dissident femininity, female masculinity, and, in some instances, lesbian sexuality". The political identity
3335-409: A mythical homeland claimed to be located in the southwestern United States , mobilized Mexican Americans to take social and political action. Chicano became a unifying term for mestizos . Xicano was also used in the 1970s. In the 1970s, Chicanos developed a reverence for machismo while also maintaining the values of their original platform. For instance, Oscar Zeta Acosta defined machismo as
3480-465: A necessary step if a country is to overcome the obstacles associated with poverty and development. The UN Sustainable Development Goals ( SDG 5 ) targets gender equality and women's empowerment for the global development agenda. According to Thomas A. Potterfield, many organizational theorists and practitioners regard employee empowerment Archived 2021-06-20 at the Wayback Machine as one of
3625-446: A new global space where cultural and political characteristic of national societies are combined with emerging multilevel and multinational activities. Transnationalism is a part of the process of capitalist globalization. The concept of transnationalism refers to multiple links and interactions linking people and institutions across the borders of nation-states . Although much of the more recent literature has focused on popular protest as
3770-402: A position to make their own decisions. According to Albert Lenz, people behave primarily regressive in acute crisis situations and tend to leave the responsibility to professionals. It must be assumed, therefore, that the implementation of the empowerment concept requires a minimum level of communication and reflectivity of the persons involved. Another criticism is that empowerment implies that
3915-457: A prominent theme in Chicano art because the contemporary urban cholo culture" is seen as its heir. Many aspects of Chicano culture like lowriding cars and bicycles have been stigmatized and policed by Anglo Americans who perceive Chicanos as "juvenile delinquents or gang members" for their embrace of nonwhite style and cultures, much as they did Pachucos. These negative societal perceptions of Chicanos were amplified by media outlets such as
4060-434: A responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one's life and claiming one's rights . Empowerment as action refers both to the process of self-empowerment and to professional support of people, which enables them to overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, and to recognize and use their resources . As
4205-519: A return to the Amerindian roots of most Latinos as well as a call for a strategic alliance to give agency to Native American groups." This can include one's Indigenous roots from Mexico "as well as those with roots centered in Central and South America," wrote Francisco Rios. Castillo argued that this shift in language was important because "language is the vehicle by which we perceive ourselves in relation to
4350-489: A space for Chicanos to partially escape criminalization in the 1990s. Artist and archivist Guadalupe Rosales states that "a lot of teenagers were being criminalized or profiled as criminals or gangsters, so the party scene gave access for people to escape that". Numerous party crews, such as Aztek Nation, organized events and parties would frequently take place in neighborhood backyards, particularly in East and South Los Angeles ,
4495-503: A stigma that Black and Mexican cultures don't get along, but I wanted to show the beauty in being a product of both." Chicano political identity developed from a reverence of Pachuco resistance in the 1940s. Luis Valdez wrote that "Pachuco determination and pride grew through the 1950s and gave impetus to the Chicano Movement of the 1960s ... By then the political consciousness stirred by the 1943 Zoot Suit Riots had developed into
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4640-706: A subcategory underneath Spanish/Hispanic descent , which erased the possibility of Afro-Chicanos , Chicanos of Indigenous descent , and other Chicanos of color. Chicano did not appear on any subsequent census forms and Hispanic has remained. Since then, Hispanic has widely been used by politicians and the media. For this reason, many Chicanos reject the term Hispanic . Instead of or in addition to identifying as Chicano or any of its variations, some may prefer: Chicano and Chicana identity reflects elements of ethnic, political, cultural and Indigenous hybridity . These qualities of what constitutes Chicano identity may be expressed by Chicanos differently. Armando Rendón wrote in
4785-471: A successful work environment, managers need to exercise the "right kind of authority " (p. 6). To summarize, "empowerment is simply the effective use of a manager’s authority", and subsequently, it is a productive way to maximize all-around work efficiency . These keys are hard to put into place and it is a journey to achieve empowerment in the workplace. It is important to train employees and makes sure they have trust in what empowerment will bring to
4930-411: A term, empowerment originates from American community psychology and is associated with the social scientist Julian Rappaport (1981). In social work , empowerment forms a practical approach of resource-oriented intervention. In the field of citizenship education and democratic education , empowerment is seen as a tool to increase the responsibility of the citizen. Empowerment is a key concept in
5075-614: A unique cultural identity, as noted by Charles "Chaz" Bojórquez , "with their hair done in big pompadours , and "draped" in tailor-made suits, they were swinging to their own styles. They spoke Cálo , their own language, a cool jive of half-English, half-Spanish rhythms. [...] Out of the zootsuiter experience came lowrider cars and culture, clothes, music, tag names, and, again, its own graffiti language." San Antonio–based Chicano artist Adan Hernandez regarded pachucos as "the coolest thing to behold in fashion, manner, and speech.” As described by artist Carlos Jackson, "Pachuco culture remains
5220-507: A way for Chicanos to reclaim a diverse or imprecise Indigenous past; while recognizing how Aztlán promoted divisive forms of Chicano nationalism that "did little to shake the walls and bring down the structures of power as its rhetoric so firmly proclaimed". As stated by Chicano historian Juan Gómez-Quiñones , the Plan Espiritual de Aztlán was "stripped of what radical element it possessed by stressing its alleged romantic idealism, reducing
5365-517: A world of government-sanctioned disorder. Pachuco culture, which probably originated in the El Paso-Juarez area, spread to the borderland areas of California and Texas as Pachuquismo , which would eventually evolve into Chicanismo . Chicano zoot suiters on the west coast were influenced by Black zoot suiters in the jazz and swing music scene on the East Coast . Chicano zoot suiters developed
5510-441: Is a guideline for family life." From the beginning of the Chicano Movement, some Chicanas criticized the idea that machismo must guide the people and questioned if machismo was "indeed a genuinely Mexican cultural value or a kind of distorted view of masculinity generated by the psychological need to compensate for the indignities suffered by Chicanos in a white supremacist society." Angie Chabram-Dernersesian found that most of
5655-405: Is a research field and social phenomenon grown out of the heightened interconnectivity between people and the receding economic and social significance of boundaries among nation states. The term "trans-national" was popularized in the early 20th century by writer Randolph Bourne to describe a new way of thinking about relationships between cultures. However, the term itself was coined by
5800-603: Is a significant topic of discussion in regards to development and economics nowadays. It also points to approaches regarding other marginalized genders in a particular political or social context. This approach to empowerment is partly informed by feminism and employed legal empowerment by building on international human rights . Empowerment is one of the main procedural concerns when addressing human rights and development . The Human Development and Capabilities Approach , The Millennium Development Goals , and other credible approaches/goals point to empowerment and participation as
5945-521: Is ample literary evidence to substantiate that Chicano is a long-standing endonym , as a large body of Chicano literature pre-dates the 1950s. In the 1940s, "Chicano" was reclaimed by Pachuco youth as an expression of defiance to Anglo-American society. At the time, Chicano was used among English and Spanish speakers as a classist and racist slur to refer to working class Mexican Americans in Spanish-speaking neighborhoods. In Mexico,
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6090-430: Is constrained by a range of different factors – from lack of resources to cultural issues. Among these factors economic, geographic, linguistic and other constraints on access to courts, lack of legal awareness as well as legal assistance tend to be recurrent problems. In many context, marginalised groups do not trust the legal system owing to the widespread manipulation that it has historically been subjected to by
6235-399: Is evident in the fact that consumers generally prefer the former. When customers have the authority to choose which products are brought to market , they exhibit increased demand for the chosen products, even when they are objectively of the same quality . This apparently irrational phenomenon can be explained by the heightened sense of psychological ownership that consumers develop for
6380-575: Is itself a product of hybridity." Robert Quintana Hopkins argues that Afro-Chicanos are sometimes erased from the ethnic identity "because so many people uncritically apply the ' one drop rule ' in the U.S. [which] ignores the complexity of racial hybridity." Black and Chicano communities have engaged in close political movements and struggles for liberation, yet there have also been tensions between Black and Chicano communities. This has been attributed to racial capitalism and anti-Blackness in Chicano communities. Afro-Chicano rapper Choosey stated "there's
6525-516: Is not "bound to the feminine or masculine aspects" and that it may be "inclusive to anyone who identifies with it". Some prefer the -e suffix Xicane in order to be more in-line with Spanish-speaking language constructs. In the 1930s, "community leaders promoted the term Mexican American to convey an assimilationist ideology stressing white identity," as noted by legal scholar Ian Haney López . Lisa Y. Ramos argues that "this phenomenon demonstrates why no Black-Brown civil rights effort emerged prior to
6670-406: Is not giving people power, people already have plenty of power, in the wealth of their knowledge and motivation, to do their jobs magnificently. We define empowerment as letting this power out." It encourages people to gain the skills and knowledge that will allow them to overcome obstacles in life or work environment and ultimately, help them develop within themselves or in the society. To empower
6815-524: Is not to replace patriarchy with matriarchy , but to create "a nonmaterialistic and nonexploitive society in which feminine principles of nurturing and community prevail"; where the feminine is reinserted into our consciousness rather than subordinated by colonization . The X reflects the Sh sound in Mesoamerican languages (such as Tlaxcala , which is pronounced Tlash-KAH-lah ), and so marked this sound with
6960-441: Is the process of obtaining basic opportunities for marginalized people, either directly by those people, or through the help of non-marginalized others who share their own access to these opportunities. It also includes actively thwarting attempts to deny those opportunities. Empowerment also includes encouraging, and developing the skills for, self-sufficiency , with a focus on eliminating the future need for charity or welfare in
7105-455: The Black is Beautiful movement. Chicano identity emerged as a symbol of pride in having a non-white and non-European image of oneself. It challenged the U.S. census designation "Whites with Spanish Surnames" that was used in the 1950s. Chicanos asserted ethnic pride at a time when Mexican assimilation into American culture was being promoted by the U.S. government. Ian Haney López argues that this
7250-628: The Los Angeles Times . Luis Alvarez remarks how negative portrayals in the media served as a tool to advocate for increased policing of Black and Brown male bodies in particular: "Popular discourse characterizing nonwhite youth as animal-like, hypersexual, and criminal marked their bodies as "other" and, when coming from city officials and the press, served to help construct for the public a social meaning of African Americans and Mexican American youth [as, in their minds, justifiably criminalized ]." Chicano rave culture in southern California provided
7395-651: The Brown Berets (1967–1972; 1992–Present) gained support in their protests of educational inequalities and demanding an end to police brutality . They collaborated with the Black Panthers and Young Lords , which were founded in 1966 and 1968 respectively. Membership in the Brown Berets was estimated to have reached five thousand in over 80 chapters (mostly centered in California and Texas). The Brown Berets helped organize
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#17330847848437540-514: The Chicano Blowouts of 1968 and the national Chicano Moratorium , which protested the high rate of Chicano casualties in the Vietnam War . Police harassment, infiltration by federal agents provacateur via COINTELPRO , and internal disputes led to the decline and disbandment of the Berets in 1972. Sánchez, then a professor at East Los Angeles College , revived the Brown Berets in 1992 prompted by
7685-670: The Chicano Manifesto (1971), "I am Chicano. What it means to me may be different than what it means to you." Benjamin Alire Sáenz wrote "There is no such thing as the Chicano voice: there are only Chicano and Chicana voices ." The identity can be somewhat ambiguous (e.g. in the 1991 Culture Clash play A Bowl of Beings , in response to Che Guevara 's demand for a definition of "Chicano", an "armchair activist" cries out, "I still don't know!"). Many Chicanos understand themselves as being "neither from here, nor from there", as neither from
7830-627: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus with their perception of the Congressional Black Caucus . 'We certainly haven't been militant like the Black Caucus. We're seen as a power bloc—an ethnic power bloc striving to deal with mainstream issues.' In 1980, Hispanic was first made available as a self-identification on U.S. census forms. While Chicano also appeared on the 1980 U.S. census, it was only permitted to be selected as
7975-476: The Hispanic Caucus of Congress. They used the term to identify themselves and the community with mainstream American culture, depart from Chicanismo , and distance themselves from what they perceived as the "militant" Black Caucus . At the grassroots level , Chicano/as continued to build the feminist , gay and lesbian , and anti-apartheid movements, which kept the identity politically relevant. After
8120-754: The Third World . Chicanas worked to "liberate her entire people "; not to oppress men, but to be equal partners in the movement. Xicanisma , coined by Ana Castillo in 1994, called for Chicana/os to "reinsert the forsaken feminine into our consciousness", to embrace one's Indigenous roots, and support Indigenous sovereignty . In the 2000s, earlier traditions of anti-imperialism in the Chicano Movement were expanded. Building solidarity with undocumented immigrants became more important, despite issues of legal status and economic competitiveness sometimes maintaining distance between groups. U.S. foreign interventions abroad were connected with domestic issues concerning
8265-603: The Valley of Mexico . Mexitli is the root of the word Mexica , which refers to the Mexica people , and its singular form Mexihcatl ( /meːˈʃiʔkat͡ɬ/ ). The x in Mexihcatl represents an /ʃ/ or sh sound in both Nahuatl and early modern Spanish, while the glottal stop in the middle of the Nahuatl word disappeared. The word Chicano may derive from the loss of the initial syllable of Mexicano (Mexican). According to Villanueva, "given that
8410-500: The hierarchical structures that underpin central governments, large corporation, academia and, more generally, rigid, “ linear-Cartesian” forms of social organization. From that perspective, new, “electronic forms of awareness” driven by information technology would empower citizen, employees and students by disseminating in near-real-time vast amounts of information once reserved to a small number of experts and specialists. Citizens would be bound to ask for substantially more say in
8555-416: The international division of labor and the economic turmoil of global capital . In an article published in 2006, Asale Angel-Ajani claimed that "there is the possibility within diaspora studies to move away from the politically sanitized discourse that surrounds transnational studies". Since African diaspora studies have focused on racial formation , racism , and white supremacy , diaspora theory has
8700-480: The legal mobilisation i.e., law, legal systems and justice mechanisms to improve or transform their social, political or economic situations. Legal empowerment approaches are interested in understanding how they can use the law to advance interests and priorities of the marginalised. According to 'Open society foundations' (an NGO) "Legal empowerment is about strengthening the capacity of all people to exercise their rights , either as individuals or as members of
8845-679: The mainstream American culture. Etymologically deriving from the Spanish word " Hispano ", referring to the Latin word Hispania , which was used for the Iberian Peninsula under the Roman Republic, the term Hispanic is an Anglicized translation of the Spanish word "Hispano". Hispano is commonly used in the Spanish speaking world when referring to "Hispanohablantes" (Spanish speakers), " Hispanoamerica " (Spanish-America) and "Hispanos" when referring to
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#17330847848438990-582: The velar (x) is a palatal phoneme (S) with the spelling (sh)," in accordance with the Indigenous phonological system of the Mexicas ("Meshicas"), it would become "Meshicano" or "Mechicano." In this explanation, Chicano comes from the "xicano" in "Mexicano." Some Chicanos replace the Ch with the letter X , or Xicano , to reclaim the Nahuatl sh sound. The first two syllables of Xicano are therefore in Nahuatl while
9135-652: The 1960s." Chicano youth rejected the previous generation's racial aspirations to assimilate into Anglo-American society and developed a " Pachuco culture that fashioned itself neither as Mexican nor American." In the Chicano Movement, possibilities for Black–brown unity arose: "Chicanos defined themselves as proud members of a brown race, thereby rejecting, not only the previous generation's assimilationist orientation, but their racial pretensions as well." Chicano leaders collaborated with Black Power movement leaders and activists. Mexican Americans insisted that Mexicans were white, while Chicanos embraced being non-white and
9280-482: The 2010s, based on the Chicana feminist intervention of Xicanisma . The etymology of the term Chicano is the subject of some debate by historians. Some believe Chicano is a Spanish language derivative of an older Nahuatl word Mexitli ("Meh-shee-tlee"). Mexitli formed part of the expression Huitzilopochtlil Mexitli —a reference to the historic migration of the Mexica people from their homeland of Aztlán to
9425-473: The Chicano party scene. Chicano identity functions as a way to reclaim one's Indigenous American , and often Indigenous Mexican , ancestry—to form an identity distinct from European identity, despite some Chicanos being of partial European descent—as a way to resist and subvert colonial domination. Rather than part of European American culture, Alicia Gasper de Alba referred to Chicanismo as an " alter-Native culture, an Other American culture Indigenous to
9570-505: The FBI's COINTELPRO . The Chicano Movement also had a fixation on masculine pride and machismo that fractured the community through sexism toward Chicanas and homophobia toward queer Chicano/as. In the 1980s, increased assimilation and economic mobility motivated many to embrace Hispanic identity in an era of conservatism . The term Hispanic emerged from consultation between the U.S. government and Mexican-American political elites in
9715-808: The Movement. As the Chicano political consciousness developed, Chicanas, including Chicana lesbians of color brought attention to " reproductive rights , especially sterilization abuse [ sterilization of Latinas ], battered women 's shelters, rape crisis centers , [and] welfare advocacy." Chicana texts like Essays on La Mujer (1977), Mexican Women in the United States (1980), and This Bridge Called My Back (1981) have been relatively ignored even in Chicano Studies . Sonia Saldívar-Hull argued that even when Chicanas have challenged sexism , their identities have been invalidated. Chicano political activist groups like
9860-504: The US and the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher built on these theories. 'At the same time, the mutual aid aspects of the concept of self-help retained some currency with socialists and democrats.' In economic development , the empowerment approach focuses on mobilizing the self-help efforts of the poor, rather than providing them with social welfare . Economic empowerment is also
10005-553: The United States or Mexico. Juan Bruce-Novoa wrote in 1990: "A Chicano lives in the space between the hyphen in Mexican-American ." Being Chicano/a may represent the struggle of being institutionally acculturated to assimilate into the Anglo-dominated society of the United States, yet maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latin-American cultured U.S.-born Mexican child. Rafael Pérez-Torres wrote, "one can no longer assert
10150-555: The adolescents to influence intervention activities. According to Robert Adams, there is a long tradition in the UK and the USA respectively to advance forms of self-help that have developed and contributed to more recent concepts of empowerment. For example, the free enterprise economic theories of Milton Friedman embraced self-help as a respectable contributor to the economy. Both the Republicans in
10295-453: The authority to take initiatives, make their own decisions, find and execute solutions. Data from survey research using confirmatory factor analysis , empowerment can be captures through four dimensions, namely meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact; whereas some exploratory factor analysis identifies only three dimensions, namely meaning, competence, and influence (a conflation of self-determination and impact). One account of
10440-404: The best choices for their circumstances and needs". Activities promoted by the strategy included the midata programme under the direction of Professor Nigel Shadbolt , annual credit card usage statements, collective purchasing schemes, and presentational work on Energy Performance Certificates , motor vehicle sales literature and food hygiene ratings, so that consumers can make better use of
10585-481: The boat's name is known. The Chicano poet and writer Tino Villanueva traced the first documented use of the term as an ethnonym to 1911, as referenced in a then-unpublished essay by University of Texas anthropologist José Limón. Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican-American writer, Mario Suárez, published in the Arizona Quarterly in 1947. There
10730-558: The capacity for self-help of their clients. For example, this allows clients not to be seen as passive, helpless 'victims' to be rescued but instead as a self-empowered person fighting abuse/ oppression; a fight, in which the social worker takes the position of a facilitator, instead of the position of a 'rescuer'. Marginalized people who lack self-sufficiency become, at a minimum, dependent on charity, or welfare. They lose their self-confidence because they cannot be fully self-supporting. The opportunities that denied them also deprive them of
10875-413: The community, for example, can disempower the community by entrenching a dependence charity or welfare. A nonprofit organization can target strategies that cause structural changes, reducing the need for ongoing dependence. Red Cross , for example, can focus on improving the health of indigenous people, but does not have authority in its charter to install water-delivery and purification systems, even though
11020-450: The concept of Aztlán to a psychological ploy ... all of which became possible because of the Plan's incomplete analysis which, in turn, allowed it ... to degenerate into reformism ." While acknowledging its romanticized and exclusionary foundations, Chicano scholars like Rafael Pérez-Torres state that Aztlán opened a subjectivity which stressed a connection to Indigenous peoples and cultures at
11165-401: The demographic gaps created by declining natural populations in most industrialized countries. Today, migration accounts for three fifths of population growth on western countries as a whole, a trend that shows no signs of slowing down. Moreover, global political transformations and new international legal regimes have weakened the state as the only legitimate source of rights. Decolonization ,
11310-886: The deterritorializing qualities of Chicano subjectivity ." As early as the 1930s, the precursors to Chicano cultural identity were developing in Los Angeles, California and the Southwestern United States . Former zoot suiter Salvador "El Chava" reflects on how racism and poverty forged a hostile social environment for Chicanos which led to the development of gangs: "we had to protect ourselves". Barrios and colonias (rural barrios ) emerged throughout southern California and elsewhere in neglected districts of cities and outlying areas with little infrastructure. Alienation from public institutions made some Chicano youth susceptible to gang channels, who became drawn to their rigid hierarchical structure and assigned social roles in
11455-511: The development of brown pride . Mexican American continued to be used by a more assimilationist faction who wanted to define Mexican Americans "as a white ethnic group that had little in common with African Americans ." Carlos Muñoz argues that the desire to separate themselves from Blackness and political struggle was rooted in an attempt to minimize "the existence of racism toward their own people, [believing] they could "deflect" anti-Mexican sentiment in society" through affiliating with
11600-641: The development of quality circles to improve the organizational culture, strengthening the motivation and the skills of employees. The target of subjective job satisfaction of employees is pursued through flat hierarchies, participation in decisions, opening of creative effort, a positive, appreciative team culture, self-evaluation, taking responsibility (for results), more self-determination and constant further learning. The optimal use of existing potential and abilities can supposedly be better reached by satisfied and active workers. Here, knowledge management contributes significantly to implement employee participation as
11745-544: The diet of the Mexican peasant today", elaborating that "this passionate search for a national culture which existed before the colonial era finds its legitimate reason in the anxiety shared by native intellectuals to shrink away from that of Western culture in which they all risk being swamped ... the native intellectuals, since they could not stand wonderstruck before the history of today's barbarity, decided to go back further and to delve deeper down; and, let us make no mistake, it
11890-454: The discourse on promoting civic engagement . Empowerment as a concept, which is characterized by a move away from a deficit -oriented towards a more strength-oriented perception, can increasingly be found in management concepts, as well as in the areas of continuing education and self-help . Robert Adams points to the limitations of any single definition of 'empowerment', and the danger that academic or specialist definitions might take away
12035-721: The drive for change comes from an external person. For example, in healthcare, a patient being encouraged by their doctor to track their symptoms and adjust their medication accordingly would be empowerment, where as a patient deciding on their own that they wanted to improve their medication regimen and thus started tracking would be an example of self-empowerment . A recently coined term, self-empowerment "describes patients’ and informal caregivers’ power to perform activities that are not mandated by health care and to take control over their own lives and self-management with increased self-efficacy and confidence". In social work , empowerment offers an approach that allows social workers to increase
12180-558: The early 20th century. By the 1950s, Chicano referred to those who resisted total assimilation, while Pocho referred (often pejoratively ) to those who strongly advocated for assimilation. In his essay "Chicanismo" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures (2002), José Cuéllar , dates the transition from derisive to positive to the late 1950s, with increasing use by young Mexican-American high school students. These younger, politically aware Mexican Americans adopted
12325-478: The emerging era of political and cultural conservatism in the United States during the 1980s. Key members of the Mexican American political elite, all of whom were middle-aged men, helped popularize the term Hispanic among Mexican Americans. The term was picked up by electronic and print media. Laura E. Gómez conducted a series of interviews with these elites and found that one of the main reasons Hispanic
12470-723: The empowering of previously disadvantaged sections of the population, for example, in many previously colonized African countries. A consumer empowerment strategy was put in place in the United Kingdom by the 2010-2015 coalition government . The strategy, produced by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills and the Behavioural Insights Team at the UK Cabinet Office , sought to introduce voluntary measures and "nudges" which could help consumers "find and adopt
12615-409: The fall of communism , and the ascendance of human rights have forced states to take account of persons as persons, rather than as citizens. As a result, individuals have rights regardless of their citizenship status within a country. Others, from a neo-Marxist approach, argue that transnational class relations have come about concomitantly with novel organizational and technological advancements and
12760-490: The flow of people, ideas, and goods among regions . They believe that it has increasing relevance with the rapid growth of capitalist globalization. They contend that it does not make sense to link specific nation-state boundaries with for instance migratory workforces , globalized corporations , global money flow, global information flow, and global scientific cooperation. However, critical theories of transnationalism have argued that transnational capitalism has occurred through
12905-474: The form of actors and social change tactics, movements become stronger and more prominent. This is the purpose and overall effect of inter-movement spillover. Transnationalism has significant implications for the way we conceptualize immigration . Traditionally, immigration has been seen as an autonomous process, driven by conditions such as poverty and overpopulation in the country of origin and unrelated to conditions (such as foreign policy and economic needs) in
13050-560: The greater social imaginary held by many people across the Americas who descend from Spanish families. The term Hispano is commonly used in the U.S. states of New Mexico, Texas, and Colorado, as well as used in Mexico and other Spanish-American countries when referring to the greater Spanish-speaking world, often referred to as "Latin America". Following the decline of the Chicano Movement , Hispanic
13195-676: The growing influence it has on American pop culture. In modern-day America you can now find Chicanos in all types of professions and trades. Notable subcultures include the Cholo , Pachuca , Pachuco , and Pinto subcultures. Chicano culture has had international influence in the form of lowrider car clubs in Brazil and England , music and youth culture in Japan , Māori youth enhancing lowrider bicycles and taking on cholo style, and intellectuals in France "embracing
13340-554: The high number of Chicano homicides in Los Angeles County , hoping to replace the gang life with the Brown Berets. Reies Tijerina , who was a vocal claimant to the rights of Latin Americans and Mexican Americans and a major figure of the early Chicano Movement , wrote: "The Anglo press degradized the word 'Chicano.' They use it to divide us. We use it to unify ourselves with our people and with Latin America." Chicano represents
13485-547: The history of workplace empowerment in the United States recalls the clash of management styles in railroad construction in the American West in the mid-19th century, where "traditional" hierarchical East-Coast models of control encountered individualistic pioneer workers, strongly supplemented by methods of efficiency -oriented "worker responsibility " brought to the scene by Chinese laborers . In this case, empowerment at
13630-449: The impact of colonization , imperialism , and globalization , and to counter the Western bias in the field of psychology. Transnational psychologists partner with members of local communities to examine the unique psychological characteristics of groups without regard to nation-state boundaries. Transnationalism is an analytic lens used to understand immigrant and minority populations as
13775-557: The increased number of visits that immigrants take back to their home countries or visits made by non-migrants to friends and families living in the receiving countries or through the dramatically increased forms of correspondence such as emails, online chat sessions, telephone calls, CDs/ VDOs, and traditional letters. In the late 1980s, ethnic studies scholars would largely move towards models of diaspora to understand immigrant communities in relation to area studies , although lone patterns of international flow would become accompanied by
13920-776: The increasing monopolization and centralization of capital by leading dominant groups in the global economy and various power blocs. Scholars critical of global capitalism (and its global ecological and inequality crises) have argued instead for a transnationalism from below between workers and co-operatives as well as popular social and political movements. Transnationalism as concept, theory and experience has nourished an important literature in social sciences. In practice transnationalism refers to increasing functional integration of processes that cross-borders or according to others trans bordered relations of individuals, groups, firms and to mobilizations beyond state boundaries. Individuals, groups, institutions and states interact with each other in
14065-464: The individuals of the group. This process can be difficult to start and to implement effectively. One empowerment strategy is to assist marginalized people to create their own nonprofit organization , using the rationale that only the marginalized people, themselves, can know what their own people need most, and that control of the organization by outsiders can actually help to further entrench marginalization. Charitable organizations lead from outside of
14210-482: The information they contain. Companies that empower their customers have the potential to create superior products at reduced costs and risks, provided that customers are willing and able to contribute valuable input in the new product development process. Businesses that involve and empower customers in the process of creating new products can sometimes have a competitive edge over traditional firms that do not give their customers such involvement. This advantage
14355-495: The international migration. For example, the same set of circumstances and processes that have promoted the location of factories and offices abroad have also contributed to the creation of large supply of low-wage jobs for which immigrant workers constitute a desirable labor supply. Moreover, the decline of manufacturing jobs and the growth of the service sector, key drivers of the globalization of production, have transformed western economies’ occupational and income structure. Unlike
14500-662: The lack of such a system profoundly, directly and negatively impacts health. A nonprofit composed of the indigenous people, however, could ensure their own organization does have such authority and could set their own agendas, make their own plans, seek the needed resources, do as much of the work as they can, and take responsibility – and credit – for the success of their projects (or the consequences, should they fail). The process of which enables individuals/groups to fully access personal or collective power, authority and influence, and to employ that strength when engaging with other people, institutions or society. In other words, "Empowerment
14645-612: The land base now known as the West and Southwest of the United States." While influenced by settler-imposed systems and structures, Alba refers to Chicano culture as "not immigrant but native, not foreign but colonized, not alien but different from the overarching hegemony of white America ." The Plan Espiritual de Aztlán (1969) drew from Frantz Fanon 's The Wretched of the Earth (1961). In Wretched , Fanon stated: "the past existence of an Aztec civilization does not change anything very much in
14790-607: The last syllable is Castilian. In Mexico's Indigenous regions, Indigenous people refer to members of the non-Indigenous majority as mexicanos , referring to the modern nation of Mexico. Among themselves, the speaker identifies by their pueblo (village or tribal) identity, such as Mayan , Zapotec , Mixtec , Huastec , or any of the other hundreds of Indigenous groups. A newly emigrated Nahuatl speaker in an urban center might have referred to his cultural relatives in this country, different from himself, as mexicanos , shortened to Chicanos or Xicanos. The town of Chicana
14935-457: The level of international aid. This intense influx of resources may mean that for some nations development prospects become inextricably linked—if not dependent upon—the economic activities of their respective diasporas . Political transnational activities can range from retained membership in political parties in one's country of origin and voting in its elections to even running for political office. Less formal but still significant roles include
15080-613: The level of work teams or brigades achieved a notable (but short-lived) demonstrated superiority. See the views of Robert L. Webb. Since the 1980s and 1990s, empowerment has become a point of interest in management concepts and business administration. In this context, empowerment involves approaches that promise greater participation and integration to the employee in order to cope with their tasks as independently as possible and responsibly can. A strength-based approach known as "empowerment circle" has become an instrument of organizational development. Multidisciplinary empowerment teams aim for
15225-513: The literature on the Chicano Movement focused on men and boys, while almost none focused on Chicanas. The omission of Chicanas and the machismo of the Chicano Movement led to a shift by the 1990s. Xicanisma was coined by Ana Castillo in Massacre of the Dreamers (1994) as a recognition of a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement and to reinvigorate Chicana feminism . The aim of Xicanisma
15370-463: The management of government affairs, production, consumption, and education World Pensions Council (WPC) economist Nicolas Firzli has argued that rapidly rising cultural tides, notably new forms of online engagement and increased demands for ESG-driven public policies and managerial decisions are transforming the way governments and corporation interact with citizen-consumers in the “Age of Empowerment” Transnationalism Transnationalism
15515-404: The manufacturing sector, which traditionally supplied middle-income jobs and competitive benefits, the majority of service jobs are either extremely well-paid or extremely poorly paid, with relatively few jobs in the middle-income range. Many of the jobs lack key benefits such as health insurance. Sales representatives, restaurant wait staff, administrative assistants, and custodial workers are among
15660-416: The mechanism by which people, organizations, and communities gain mastery over their lives." Sociological empowerment often addresses members of groups that social discrimination processes have excluded from decision-making processes through – for example – discrimination based on disability, race , ethnicity, religion, or gender. Empowerment as a methodology is also associated with feminism . Empowerment
15805-607: The more powerful. 'To what extent one knows the law , and make it work for themselves with 'para legal tools', is legal empowerment; assisted utilizing innovative approaches like legal literacy and awareness training, broadcasting legal information , conducting participatory legal discourses , supporting local resource user in negotiating with other agencies and stake holders and to strategies combining use of legal processes with advocacy along with media engagement, and socio legal mobilisation . Sometimes groups are marginalized by society at large, with governments participating in
15950-451: The most important and popular management concepts of our time. Ciulla discusses an inverse case: that of bogus empowerment. In the sphere of management and organizational theory, "empowerment" often refers loosely to processes for giving subordinates (or workers generally) greater discretion and resources: distributing control in order to better serve both customers and the interests of employing organizations. It also giving employees
16095-466: The multiple flows of transnationalism. However, to say that immigrants build social fields that link those abroad with those back home is not to say that their lives are not firmly rooted in a particular place and time. Indeed, they are as much residents of their new community as anyone else. Transnationalism is criticized for being too far removed from ethnic studies' efforts to empower solidarity in minority communities. Asian American Studies provides
16240-553: The name Xicana for a town near the same location of Chicana , which is considered to be the oldest recorded usage of that term. A gunboat , the Chicana , was sold in 1857 to Jose Maria Carvajal to ship arms on the Rio Grande . The King and Kenedy firm submitted a voucher to the Joint Claims Commission of the United States in 1870 to cover the costs of this gunboat's conversion from a passenger steamer . No explanation for
16385-418: The new psychological contexts created by escalating globalization, global power dynamics, increasing migration, an ever more interconnected world, and other phenomena that transcend nation-state boundaries. It is a branch of psychology that applies postcolonial , postmodern context-sensitive cultural psychology , and transnational feminist lenses to the field of psychology to study, understand, and address
16530-468: The poorest of the poor, but, generally by professionals. In addition, there are countries with high levels of job creation that continue to witness emigration on a large scale. The reasons and promoters for migration are not only embodied within the country of origin. Instead, they are rooted within the broader geopolitical and global dynamics. Significant evidence of geographic migration patterns suggests that receiving countries become home to immigrants from
16675-403: The potential to be transnational political actors and be influenced by transnational political forces. While the term "transnationalism" emphasizes the ways in which nations are no longer able to contain or control the disputes and negotiations through which social groups annex a global dimension to their meaningful practices, the notion of diaspora brings to the fore the racial dynamics underlying
16820-411: The potential to bring to transnationalism "a varied political, if not radical political, perspective to the study of transnational processes and—globalization". Different approaches have attempted to explain transnationalism. Some argue that it is driven mainly by the development of technologies that have made transportation and communication more accessible and affordable, which thus dramatically change
16965-480: The precise means in which agency would emerge, Aztlán valorized a Chicanismo that rewove into the present previously devalued lines of descent." Romanticized notions of Aztlán have declined among some Chicanos, who argue for a need to reconstruct the place of Indigeneity in relation to Chicano identity. Empowerment Empowerment is the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities. This enables them to represent their interests in
17110-415: The pride of accomplishment which others, who have those opportunities, can develop for themselves. This in turn can lead to psychological, social and even mental health problems. " Marginalized " here refers to the overt or covert trends within societies whereby those perceived as lacking desirable traits or deviating from the group norms tend to be excluded by wider society and ostracized as undesirables. As
17255-670: The process of adding and replacing corporate directors – as they are themselves steered to do so by their own board members (pension trustees). This could eventually put more pressure on the CEOs of publicly listed companies , as “more than ever before, many [North American], UK and European Union pension trustees speak enthusiastically about flexing their fiduciary muscles for the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals ”, and other ESG-centric investment practices Legal empowerment happens when marginalised people or groups use
17400-410: The process of marginalization. Equal opportunity laws which actively oppose such marginalization, are supposed to allow empowerment to occur. These laws made it illegal to restrict access to schools and public places based on race. They can also be seen as a symptom of minorities' and women's empowerment through lobbying. Gender empowerment conventionally refers to the empowerment of women , which
17545-449: The product of a series of interconnected and overlapping economic, political, and socio-cultural activities: Economic transnational activities such as business investments in home countries and monetary remittances are both pervasive and well documented. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) estimates that in 2006 immigrants living in developed countries sent home the equivalent of $ 300 billion in remittances, an amount more than double
17690-404: The quality of their lives.' One definition for the term is "an intentional, ongoing process centered in the local community, involving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring, and group participation, through which people lacking an equal share of resources gain greater access to and control over those resources". Rappaport's (1984) definition includes: "Empowerment is viewed as a process:
17835-506: The receiving country's zone of influence. Then, immigration is but a fundamental component of the process of capitalist expansion, market penetration, and globalization. There are systematic and structural relations between globalization and immigration. The emergence of a global economy has contributed both to the creation of potential emigrants abroad and to the formation of economic, cultural, and ideological links between industrialized and developing countries that later serve as bridges for
17980-424: The receiving country. Even though overpopulation, economic stagnation , and poverty all continue to create pressures for migration, they alone are not enough to produce large international migration flows. There are many countries, for example, which lack significant emigration history despite longstanding poverty. Also, most international immigration flows from the global South to the global North are not made up by
18125-399: The relationship between people and places. It is now possible for immigrants to maintain closer and more frequent contact with their home societies than ever before. However, the integration of international migrations to the demographic future of many developed countries is another important driver for transnationalism. Beyond simply filling a demand for low-wage workers, migration also fills
18270-443: The rights of undocumented immigrants in the United States . Chicano/a consciousness increasingly became transnational and transcultural , thinking beyond and bridging with communities over political borders. The identity was renewed based on Indigenous and decolonial consciousness , cultural expression, resisting gentrification , defense of immigrants, and the rights of women and queer people. Xicanx identity also emerged in
18415-411: The selected products. Two conditions limit this effect: (1) it diminishes when the joint decision-making outcome does not align with consumers' preferences and (2) when consumers lack confidence in their ability to make informed decisions. The World Pensions Council (WPC) has argued that large institutional investors such as pension funds and endowments are exercising a greater influence on
18560-405: The source of Chicano identity, claiming that this "instinctual and mystical source of manhood, honor and pride... alone justifies all behavior." Armando Rendón wrote in Chicano Manifesto (1971) that machismo was "in fact an underlying drive of the gathering identification of Mexican Americans... the essence of machismo , of being macho , is as much a symbolic principle for the Chicano revolt as it
18705-418: The spread of transnational chains of production and finance. When immigrants engage in transnational activities, they create "social fields" that link their original country with their new country or countries of residence. "We have defined transnationalism as the process by which immigrants build social fields that link together their country of origin and their country of settlement". These social fields are
18850-458: The structure of the environment, rather than satisfying an externally imposed need as in homeostasis. Experiments have shown that artificial agents acting to maximise their empowerment, in the absence of a defined goal, exhibit advantageous exploratory behaviour that, in a range of simulated environments, resembles intelligent behaviour in living things. Marshall McLuhan insisted that the development of electronic media would eventually weaken
18995-444: The surrounding valleys, and Orange County . By 1995, it was estimated that over 500 party crews were in existence. They laid the foundations for "an influential but oft-overlooked Latin dance subculture that offered community for Chicano ravers, queer folk, and other marginalized youth." Ravers used map points techniques to derail police raids . Rosales states that a shift occurred around the late 1990s and increasing violence affected
19140-454: The term "as an act of political defiance and ethnic pride", similar to the reclaiming of Black by African Americans . The Chicano Movement during the 1960s and early 1970s played a significant role in reclaiming "Chicano," challenging those who used it as a term of derision on both sides of the Mexico-U.S. border . Demographic differences in the adoption of Chicano occurred at first. It
19285-469: The term was used with Pocho "to deride Mexicans living in the United States, and especially their U.S.-born children, for losing their culture, customs, and language." Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio reported in 1930 that Chicamo (with an m ) was used as a derogatory term by Hispanic Texans for recently arrived Mexican immigrants displaced during the Mexican Revolution in the beginning of
19430-549: The transfer or dissemination of political ideas and norms, such as publishing an op-ed in a home country newspaper, writing a blog, or lobbying a local elected official. There is also the more extreme example of individuals such as Jesus Galvis, a travel agent in New Jersey who in 1997 ran for a Senate seat in his native Colombia. He was elected and intended to hold office simultaneously in Bogota and Hackensack, New Jersey where he served as
19575-411: The wholeness of a Chicano subject ... It is illusory to deny the nomadic quality of the Chicano community, a community in flux that yet survives and, through survival, affirms itself." Chicano is a way for Mexican Americans to assert ethnic solidarity and Brown Pride. Boxer Rodolfo Gonzales was one of the first to reclaim the term in this way. This Brown Pride movement established itself alongside
19720-408: The word and the connected practices from the very people they are supposed to belong to. Still, he offers a minimal definition of the term: 'Empowerment: the capacity of individuals, groups and/or communities to take control of their circumstances, exercise power and achieve their own goals, and the process by which, individually and collectively, they are able to help themselves and others to maximize
19865-411: The world". Among a minority of Mexican Americans, the term Xicanx may be used to refer to gender non-conformity . Luis J. Rodriguez states that "even though most US Mexicans may not use this term," that it can be important for gender non-conforming Mexican Americans . Xicanx may destabilize aspects of the coloniality of gender in Mexican American communities. Artist Roy Martinez states that it
20010-463: Was first defined by the U.S. Federal Office of Management and Budget 's (OMB) Directive No. 15 in 1977 as "a person of Mexican , Dominican , Puerto Rican , Cuban , Central or South America or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race ." The term was promoted by Mexican American political elites to encourage cultural assimilation into the mainstream culture and move away from Chicanismo . The rise of Hispanic identity paralleled
20155-410: Was founded on the principle that the U.S. nation-state had impoverished and exploited the Chicano people and communities. Alberto Varon argued that this brand of Chicano nationalism focused on the machismo subject in its calls for political resistance. Chicano machismo was both a unifying and fracturing force. Cherríe Moraga argued that it fostered homophobia and sexism , which became obstacles to
20300-408: Was more likely to be used by males than females, and less likely to be used among those of higher socioeconomic status. Usage was also generational, with third-generation men more likely to use the word. This group was also younger, more political, and different from traditional Mexican cultural heritage. Chicana was a similar classist term to refer to "[a] marginalized, brown woman who is treated as
20445-586: Was promoted was to move away from Chicano : "The Chicano label reflected the more radical political agenda of Mexican-Americans in the 1960s and 1970s, and the politicians who call themselves Hispanic today are the harbingers of a more conservative, more accomadationist politics." Gómez found that some of these elites promoted Hispanic to appeal to white American sensibilities, particularly in regard to separating themselves from Black political consciousness. Gómez records: Another respondent agreed with this position, contrasting his white colleagues' perceptions of
20590-644: Was shown on the Gutiérrez 1562 New World map near the mouth of the Colorado River , and is probably pre-Columbian in origin. The town was again included on Desegno del Discoperto Della Nova Franza , a 1566 French map by Paolo Forlani. Roberto Cintli Rodríguez places the location of Chicana at the mouth of the Colorado River, near present-day Yuma, Arizona . An 18th century map of the Nayarit Missions used
20735-505: Was spurred in the latter half of the 20th century by the development of the internet and wireless communication, as well as the reduction in global transportation costs caused by containerization . Multinational corporations could be seen as a form of transnationalism, in that they seek to minimize costs, and hence maximize profits, by organizing their operations in the most efficient means possible irrespective of political boundaries. Proponents of transnational capitalism seek to facilitate
20880-529: Was to "serve Anglo self-interest", who claimed Mexicans were white to try to deny racism against them. Alfred Arteaga argues that Chicano as an ethnic identity is born out of the European colonization of the Americas . He states that Chicano arose as hybrid ethnicity or race amidst colonial violence. This hybridity extends beyond a previously generalized "Aztec" ancestry, since the Indigenous peoples of Mexico are
21025-439: Was with the greatest delight that they discovered that there was nothing to be ashamed of in the past, but rather dignity, glory, and solemnity." The Chicano Movement adopted this perspective through the notion of Aztlán —a mythic Aztec homeland which Chicanos used as a way to connect themselves to a precolonial past, before the time of the " 'gringo' invasion of our lands." Chicano scholars have described how this functioned as
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