133-777: The Cheyenne Mountain Complex is a United States Space Force installation and defensive bunker located in unincorporated El Paso County, Colorado , next to the city of Colorado Springs , at the Cheyenne Mountain Space Force Station , which hosts the activities of several tenant units. Also located in Colorado Springs is Peterson Space Force Base , where the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) headquarters are located. Formerly
266-734: A 24/7 basis. The complex is on "warm standby", meaning it is only staffed when required. On the fiftieth anniversary of the NORAD agreement—May 12, 2008—the Command Center located within Cheyenne Mountain Complex was officially re-designated as the NORAD and USNORTHCOM Alternate Command Center. The Cheyenne Mountain Division of NORAD and USNORTHCOM was re-designated as the J36 branch within the NORAD and USNORTHCOM's Operations Directorates. Since 2002,
399-461: A Lockheed Martin contract "to upgrade all of the mission systems within Cheyenne Mountain, which included the space surveillance systems" for delivery in 2006. The portion of CCIC2S modernizing "attack warning systems within Cheyenne Mountain [was to] cost more than $ 700 million from fiscal years 2000 to 2006", and the delayed CCIC2S upgrades for space surveillance were superseded by systems for
532-476: A $ 700 million contract with Raytheon to move systems into the complex to shield it from electromagnetic pulse attack, with additional work to be done at Vandenberg and Offutt . According to Gortney, "because of the very nature of the way that Cheyenne Mountain's built, it's EMP-hardened. And so, there's a lot of movement to put capability into Cheyenne Mountain and to be able to communicate in there". Electronic Systems Division Detachment 10 at Ent AFB became
665-591: A Combat Operations Center to be located underground. Partridge believed his present above ground center, located on Ent Air Force Base was too small to manage the growing air defense system and was highly vulnerable to sabotage or attack. Partridge was made commander in 1955, was the driving force behind the creation of the Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station . He requested an underground facility in December 1956. Continental Air Command (CONAD) and
798-832: A Message Processing Subsystem and a Video Distribution Subsystem, and [to upgrade] the NORAD Computer System display capability and four major centers: (1) the Air Defense Operations Center , (2) the NORAD Command Center, (3) the Battle Staff Support Center, and (4) the Weather Support Unit." It was also to process and display " nuclear detection data provided from the Integrated Correlation and Display System." For $ 230 million
931-674: A Space Corps or Space Force in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The idea of establishing a Space Force was resurrected in the late 2010s in response to Russian and Chinese military space developments, resulting in the Space Force's establishment on 20 December 2019 during the Trump Administration . The Space Force is organized as part of the Department of the Air Force alongside the U.S. Air Force , its coequal sister service. The Department of
1064-516: A Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force in the mid-term, which would evolve into a Department of the Space Force in the long-term. The Rumsfeld Commission expected the transition from Air Force Space Command to a fully independent Space Force to occur in between 2006 and 2011. Air Force leadership reacted extremely poorly to the Rumsfeld Commission's recommendations. The day after
1197-399: A commission to examine the organization and management of national security space. The Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization, better known as the 2001 Space Commission or the Rumsfeld Commission, released its report in 2001. The Rumsfeld Commission noted the strong risk of a "Space Pearl Harbor," harking back to Imperial Japan's surprise attack on
1330-617: A component command of the North American Air Defense Command and Continental Air Command, was inactivated at Ent AFB, Colorado on 4 January 1975. The 14th Aerospace Force, Ent AFB, Colorado was inactivated and its personnel and units (missile and space surveillance) were reassigned to HQ ADCOM and ADCOM divisions and the Alaskan ADCOM Region on 1 October 1976. Ent Air Force Base was declared excess. In December 1976, personnel were moved to Peterson Air Force Base and
1463-466: A computer chip "went haywire" and issued false missile warnings, which raised the possibility that a nuclear war could be started accidentally, based upon incorrect data. Staff analyzed the data and found that the warnings were erroneous, and the systems were updated to identify false alarms. Gen. James V. Hartinger of the Air Force stated that "his primary responsibility is to provide Washington with what he calls 'timely, unambiguous, reliable warning' that
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#17330860453801596-438: A conventional attack, an electromagnetic pulse attack, a cyber or information attack, chemical or biological or radiological attack, an improvised nuclear attack, a limited nuclear attack, [and] a general nuclear attack." The least likely events are the most hazardous. There is more water produced by mountain springs than the base requires, and a 1,500,000-gallon (5,700,000-litre) reservoir ensures that even in event of fire, there
1729-453: A full color U.S. flag , sparking jokes about fighting on the forest moon of Endor from Star Wars: Return of the Jedi , while its distinctive service dress drew comparisons to Colonial Fleet uniforms from Battlestar Galactica or Starfleet uniforms from Star Trek . While the Space Force noted that its camouflage combat uniform was appropriate since space operators deploy to combat zones on
1862-548: A fully independent Space Force by 2011. While the United States' focus shifted from space to counterterrorism, the Russian Armed Forces and Chinese People's Liberation Army realized the military benefits that could be gleaned from space, as well as the incredible reliance the United States put on its space forces. Throughout the 2000s, Russian and Chinese space and counterspace capabilities began to increase. In 2001,
1995-543: A global space. Through space, the U.S. military and its allies can see, communicate, and navigate. Global mission operations also protect U.S. forces on Earth through early warning of incoming missiles and other types of attack. The Space Force describes global mission operations as allowing the rest of the U.S. military to defend the air, land, and sea. Missions that support global mission operations include missile warning , satellite communications , and positioning, navigation, and timing . Assured space access ensures that
2128-503: A large quantity of cots for most of the personnel, including suites for high-ranking officers within the bunker. Amenities include a medical facility, store, cafeteria, and fitness centers inside and outside the mountain. The bunker is built to deflect a 30 megaton nuclear explosion as close as 1.2 miles (1.9 km). Within a mountain tunnel are sets of 25-ton blast doors and another for the civil engineering department. The doors were built so that they can always be opened when needed. Should
2261-461: A military responsibility until the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was created in 1958. The military shifted from conducting their own space exploration programs to supporting NASA's, providing the agency with its astronauts and space launch vehicles , while also conducting astronaut recovery and supporting space launches from the Air Force's Eastern Range . The Air Force
2394-506: A new military service...would be a dramatic step. Perhaps a "Space Corps" would be a step toward a Space Force. Maybe the Air Force will preempt these dramatic changes by truly becoming the "Space and Air Force." The idea of a separate service for space originated in the 1960s. Military space activities were briefly consolidated under the Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1958, loosely centralizing space activities under
2527-528: A nuclear blast hit the building, they are designed to withstand a blast wave . There is a network of blast valves with unique filters to capture airborne chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear contaminants. Outside of the military complex are the parking lots, a fire station, and outdoor recreational facilities. The recreational amenities include Mountain Man Park, picnic areas, a racquetball facility, softball field, sand volleyball court, basketball court,
2660-417: A putting green, and horseshoe area. The complex has its own power plant, heating and cooling system, and water supply. The 21st Mission Support Group ensures there is a 99.999% degree of reliability of its electricity, water, air conditioning, power, and other support systems. The threats, in descending order of likelihood, that the complex may face are "medical emergencies, natural disasters, civil disorder,
2793-418: A raid on North America has begun." He explained that there are about 6,700 messages generated on average each hour in 1979 and 1980 and all had been processed without error. An off-site testing facility was established in Colorado Springs by NORAD in late 1979 or early 1980 so that system changes could be tested off-line before they were moved into production. Following another failure in 1980, a bad computer chip
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#17330860453802926-414: A separate military department, to be known as the Department of the Space Force. The Space Force is currently organized as a service under the Department of the Air Force , more closely mirroring the concept of a Space Corps rather than a fully independent Space Force. Senator Bob Smith , the 2001 Rumsfeld Commission, and 2008 Allard Commission each envisioned that a Space Corps would first be created under
3059-568: A separate service, it was widely acknowledged the Air Force would be the center point of this defensive effort. The Air Force established the Continental Air Command under both the Air Defense Command and Tactical Air Command on 1 December 1948, at which time Commanding General Gordon P. Saville (later Major General) took command. The Air Defense Command was inactivated as a major command on 1 July 1950. The Air Defense Command
3192-507: A single organization. The Air Force, Army, and Navy feared that it would evolve into a "fourth service" for space, before authorities were returned to the service. The first direct call for a U.S. Space Force occurred in 1982, prior to Air Force Space Command 's establishment or the Strategic Defense Initiative 's public announcement. As part of a report recommending the acceleration U.S. space-based laser weapon development,
3325-486: A study calling for its transfer to the Space Force. Ent Air Force Base Ent Air Force Base was a United States Air Force base located in the Knob Hill neighborhood of Colorado Springs, Colorado . A tent city, established in 1943 during construction of the base, was initially commanded by Major General Uzal Girard Ent (1900–1948), for whom the base is named. The base was opened in 1951. From 1957 to 1963,
3458-579: A system integrator and modernized the communications to a major data processing system, was completed in October 1972. The Ballistic Missile Defense Center (BMDC) BW 1.2 release was installed in February 1974 in the Combat Operations Center, under the command of CONAD. The Safeguard command and control system, operated by the commander, communicated warnings, observation data, and attack assessment to
3591-400: A system of giant springs that the buildings sit on and flexible pipe connectors to limit the operational effect of movement. A total of more than 1,000 springs are designed to prevent any of the 15 buildings from shifting more than one inch. The complex is the only underground Department of Defense facility certified to be able to sustain a high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (EMP). There are
3724-455: Is an historic event and a strategic imperative for our Nation. Space has become so important to our way of life, our economy and our national security that we must be prepared as a Nation to protect it from hostile actions. As the U.S. Space Force was established on 20 December 2019, General Jay Raymond , commander of U.S. Space Command and Air Force Space Command , became its first member and chief of space operations . Air Force Space Command
3857-621: Is enough water to meet the facility's needs. A reservoir of 4,500,000 gallons (17,000,000 litres) of water is used as a heat sink. There is a "massive" reservoir for diesel fuel and a "huge" battery bank with redundant power generators. The North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) was established and activated at the Ent Air Force Base on September 12, 1957. The Command is a binational organization of Canadian ( 1 Canadian Air Division ) and United States air defense command units, in accordance with NORAD Agreements first made on May 12, 1958. In
3990-619: The United States Space Force Act , the Space Force is organized, trained, and equipped to: The Department of Defense further defines the specified functions of the Space Force to: The Space Force further breaks down its mission into three core functions, which align directly to its mission statement to "secure our Nation's interests in, from, and to space:" Space superiority defends against space and counterspace threats by protecting spacecraft in space or protecting against attacks enabled by adversary spacecraft, requiring that
4123-989: The AN/FPS-129 HAVE STARE (Globus II) radar in California had been upgraded to "relay data to Cheyenne Mountain", and by October 1995 the 1st Command and Control Squadron (1CACS) in the bunker was providing space collision avoidance data to the Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center's space control center. In June 1993, the Cheyenne Mountain Complex Operations Center had the USSPACE and NORAD Command Center, NORAD Air Defense Operations Center (ADOC), NORAD/USSPACECOM Combined Intelligence Watch Center (CIWC), USSPACECOM Space Defense Operations Center (SPADOC), USSPACECOM Space Surveillance Center (SSC), AFSPACECOM Weather Operations Center, and
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4256-560: The Air Force Research Laboratory . The Space Force also began incorporating space personnel transfers from the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps. In 2022, it the Naval Satellite Operations Center and Army's Satellite Operations Brigade transferred to the Space Force, putting satellite communications under a single service for the first time in history. In 2023, it assumed responsibility for
4389-491: The Army Air Forces , tasked General Bernard Schriever to integrate with the scientific community to identify and develop technologies that could be beneficial for the new U.S. Air Force in the next global conflict. Identifying the importance of space, the U.S. Army , U.S. Navy , and U.S. Air Force each started their own separate space and rocket programs. The U.S. Air Force created the first military space organization in
4522-500: The Department of the Navy . The Space Force's three field commands (FLDCOM) are purpose-built for specific activities, aligning to the various institutional responsibilities to organize, train, and equip Guardians. Component field commands (C-FLDCOM) coordinate and integrate space forces into planning and current operations within unified combatant commands . Direct reporting units (DRU) are hubs of innovation and intelligence expertise within
4655-489: The Government Accountability Office recommended the U.S. Air Force be reorganized as the U.S. Aerospace Force or that an independent U.S. Space Force be created. Ultimately, a Congressional proposal to rename the U.S. Air Force as the U.S. Aerospace Force and speculation that President Ronald Reagan may announce the creation of a U.S. Space Force accelerated Air Force plans to create a space command within
4788-601: The Joint Space Operations Center 's Space C2 program and Integrated Space Situational Awareness program. By 2003, consoles for the Ground-Based Mid-Course Defense (GMD) had been contracted for Cheyenne Mountain, and the planned 18 month Cheyenne Mountain Realignment to move Command Center operations to Peterson AFB was complete by May 13, 2008. On August 3, 2011, a ribbon cutting was held for
4921-585: The Kosmos 1408 and putting the International Space Station at risk. The Space Force is organized into a headquarters staff that provides leadership and guidance for the force; field commands that are responsible for organizing, training, and equipping Guardians; deltas that support field commands and are specialized by mission area; and squadrons which specialize in acquisitions, cyberspace operations, engineering, intelligence, and space operations. At
5054-677: The National Civil Defense Warning Center was in the bunker. System Development Corporation updated Air Defense Command satellite information processing systems for $ 15,850,542 on January 19, 1973. The improvements were primarily to the Space Computational Center's displays and application software, which was updated to provide real-time positioning of orbiting space systems for the NORAD Combat Operation Center. The first phase, which established
5187-595: The Persian Gulf War , which has been referred to as the "first space war." The Strategic Defense Initiative and creation of Air Force Space Command in the 1980s marked a renaissance for military space operations. Proposals for a U.S. Space Force were first seriously considered during the Reagan Administration as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative. Congress began exploring establishing
5320-638: The Russian Space Forces were reestablished as an independent arm and in 2007, China conducted a destructive anti-satellite missile test causing the single largest space debris generating event in history. In the aftermath of the Chinese ASAT test, Congress tasked the Allard Commission to reevaluate the Defense Department's space organization and management. The Allard Commission noted that
5453-595: The Secretary of Defense to conduct a periodic review to determine when to recommend the President seek legislation to establish the Department of the Space Force. Following the Space Force's establishment there have been a number of calls to rename the Department of the Air Force to the Department of the Air and Space Forces to reflect its composition of the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force. Congress previously explored renaming
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5586-574: The Space and Missile Systems Center from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command and establishing the National Security Space Institute . Ultimately, the Rumsfeld Commission's recommendations remained unfulfilled because of the higher priority placed on counterterrorism after the September 11 attacks , canceling plans for a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force or
5719-552: The Vietnam War , with Air Force weather and communications spacecraft supporting ground, sea, and air operations. During Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada, satellite communications were used to conduct command and control for the first time, while Operation El Dorado Canyon and Operation Just Cause marked the first time that major U.S. forces incorporated information from space-based intelligence systems. The Persian Gulf War marked
5852-759: The unified combatant commands , assuming space component responsibility from the U.S. Air Force. One of the primary reasons the Space Force was created was to consolidate space forces from across the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, and U.S. Navy. In 2020, the Space Training and Readiness Delta (Provisional) was established to form the foundation for Space Training and Readiness Command and incorporate Air Force space units spread across Air Combat Command and Air Education and Training Command , while Space Systems Command incorporated space acquisitions activities across Air Force Materiel Command , although, notably it did not incorporate space research and development conducted by
5985-742: The " Joint Task Force – Cheyenne Mountain Operations organization was brought online to take responsibility for the installation", Brig. Gen. Donald Peterson was the commander of the JTF, which was renamed the " U.S. Space Command Cheyenne Mountain operations center" by March 1995. On July 28, 2006, the Cheyenne Mountain Realignment redesignated the Cheyenne Mountain Directorate to the Cheyenne Mountain Division. Circa 2004
6118-595: The 'NORAD/USNORTHCOM's training, exercise and alternate command center functions, U.S. Strategic Command's Missile Warning Center, Detachment 2 of the 17th Test Squadron, Air Force Technical Applications Center's research laboratory, the Defense Intelligence Agency's Western Continental United States Regional Service Center'. Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station is owned and operated by Air Force Space Command. NORAD and USNORTHCOM now use just under 30% of
6251-526: The 15th Air Force headquarters was assigned to March Air Force Base in November 1949. There were discussions about the city taking over the now unused property, but in November 1950, it was announced that the base was to become the headquarters for the Air Defense Command. On 1 January 1951, the Air Defense Command was reestablished at Mitchel Air Force Base , under the command of Commanding General Ennis Whitehead , later lieutenant general. One week later
6384-837: The 1970s. In 1979, the Cheyenne Mountain Complex Improvements Program 427M system became fully operational. It was a consolidated Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade program for command center, space, ballistic missile, and space functions, developed using new software technology and designed for computers with large processing capacity. There were three major segments of the 427M system: the Communication System Segment (CSS), NORAD Computer System (NCS), and Space Computational Center (SCC). The 425L Command and Control System, Display Information Processor, Command Center Processing System, and other hardware were replaced by
6517-484: The 425L command and control system fully operational 20 April 1966. On 20 May 1966, the NORAD Attack Warning System became operational. The Space Defense Center and the Combat Operations Center achieved Full Operational Capability on 6 February 1967. The total cost was $ 142.4 million. The Fourteenth Aerospace Force was activated on 1 Jul 1968, at Ent AFB, Colorado . It inherited the staff and mission of
6650-759: The 9th Aerospace Defense Division, which was discontinued. The First Aerospace Control Squadron was then reassigned to the 14th Aerospace Force. The Air Defense Command was re-designated as the Aerospace Defense Command on 15 January 1968. The Continental Air Defense Command and Aerospace Defense Command headquarters began consolidation and streamlining on 1 July 1973. The Department of Defense announced plans for cutbacks in air defense forces showing increasing emphasis on ballistic missile attack warning and decreasing emphasis on bomber defense on 4 February 1974. The Continental Air Defense Command de-established on 30 June 1974. The US Army Air Defense command,
6783-524: The AFSPACECOM Systems Center within its facility. Plans to house the USSPACECOM and NORAD command centers in the same location began by July 1994. A $ 450 million upgrade was made to the missile warning center beginning in February 1995. The effort was part of a $ 1.7 billion renovation program for Cheyenne Mountain. 'Granite Sentry' was an improvement program for the complex. It aimed "to provide
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#17330860453806916-474: The Air Defense Command (ADC) formally separated in 1956. Partridge was relieved of his command of CONAD and Lt. General Joseph H. Atkinson assumed control of ADC. The Interceptor magazine was produced by the Air Defense Command at the Ent Air Force Base by 1959 and then the Aerospace Defense Command into the mid-1970s. The North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) was established and activated at
7049-503: The Air Force did successfully field the Program 437 anti-satellite weapon system, which used nuclear Thor missiles to intercept enemy spacecraft. Although most military space forces were organized under the Air Force, they were still fragmented within several different major commands. Recognizing rapid growth of space forces and the need to centralize them under one command, the Air Force established Air Force Space Command in 1982. This
7182-587: The Air Force is headed by the civilian secretary of the Air Force , while the U.S. Space Force is led by the Chief of Space Operations . The U.S. Space Force's status as part of the Department of the Air Force is intended to be an interim measure towards a fully independent Department of the Space Force, led by a civilian secretary of the Space Force. Secure our Nation's interests in, from, and to space. The Space Force's statutory responsibilities are outlined in 10 U.S.C. § 9081 and originally introduced in
7315-450: The Air Force or a separate Department of the Space Force to unify national security space. It took until 2017 for members of Congress to act on the recommendations of the Rumsfeld and Allard commissions to create a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force. Representatives Mike Rogers and Jim Cooper unveiled a bipartisan proposal to establish a Space Corps within the Department of
7448-570: The Air Force's major commands. It also consolidated Air Force wings and groups into mission deltas, a formation roughly equivalent to an Army Brigade Combat Team or Air Force expeditionary wing, and space base deltas (briefly known as garrisons), equivalent to an Army garrison or Air Force air base wing. It also began to rename former Air Force bases and station to Space Force bases and station, starting with Patrick Space Force Base and Cape Canaveral Space Force Station . It also established component field commands to serve as Space Force components at
7581-461: The Air Force, however it experienced significant opposition from the Air Force and Defense Department, failing in the Senate. However, the proposal was resurrected in 2018 when President Donald Trump publicly endorsed the creation of a Space Force and directed the Defense Department to reverse its opposition and develop plans for its establishment. The Trump Administration plan for the U.S. Space Force
7714-530: The Army's Joint Tactical Ground Station , putting all space-based missile warning under the Space Force. The Space Force's first significant combat action occurred less than a month after its establishment, providing missile warning when Iran launched missile strikes against U.S. troops at Al Asad Airbase on 7 January 2020. In 2021, the Russian Federation conducted an anti-satellite weapons test, destroying
7847-623: The Battle Staff Support Center. The Space Defense Operations Center (SPADOC), established on October 1, 1979, consolidated United States Air Force satellite survivability, space surveillance, and US ASAT operations into one wartime space activities hub at the NORAD Cheyenne Mountain Complex. Space surveillance and missile warning functions were performed by the Core Processing Segment (CPS) using Worldwide Military Command and Control System 's Honeywell H6080 computers at
7980-794: The CCPDS Replacement (CCPDS-R), CSS Replacement (CSS-R), Granite Sentry upgrade, SCIS, and SPADOC 4. SPADOC 4 was for upgrading the SCC with primary and backup 3090-200J mainframes ), and SPADOC 4 block A achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in April 1989. The CSS-R "first element" achieved IOC on April 12, 1991; and the 427M system was replaced c. 1992 . The CSSR, SCIS, Granite Sentry, CCPDS-R, and their interfaces were tested in 1997. Testing of Granite Sentry nuclear detonation (NUDET) data processing system found it to be inadequate. The Joint Surveillance System (JSS), developed under an agreement with
8113-413: The Canadian government, became fully operational in seven Region Operations Control Centers (ROCCs) on December 23, 1983. The Joint Surveillance System was implemented to replace Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE). In 1986, Congress approved development of the Survivable Communications Integration System (SCIS) to communicate missile warning messages simultaneously over many forms of media, but it
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#17330860453808246-427: The Cheyenne Mountain Complex Management Office (CMCMO) in 1963, the year the Chidlaw Combined Operations Center began operations; and on February 15, 1980, ESD Detachment 2 was established at the "Cheyenne Mountain Complex" (Det 2 became the AFSC focal point during the Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade.) Aerospace Defense Command organizations in the bunker became a specified command when the major command ended in 1980; e.g.,
8379-499: The Combat Operations Center. It was also designed to release nuclear weapons. By 1978, five operating centers and a command post resided within the NORAD Combat Operations Center. The Space Computational Center catalogued and tracked space objects. The Intelligence Center analyzed intelligence data. Data was consolidated and displayed in the Command Post by the System Center. The Weather Support Unit monitored local and global weather patterns. The NORAD Commander's wartime staff reported to
8512-467: The Commission was publicly released Air Force Chief of Staff General Michael E. Ryan declared "an independent Space Force or Corps was not warranted for at least another 50 years." General Ryan doubled down over the following year, stating that a Space Force should only be considered once space operations moved beyond Earth orbit. Despite the Air Force's hostility to the idea of a Space Corps or Space Force, they did meet some recommendations by transferring
8645-399: The Department of the Air Force as an interim measure as it grew into a fully independent Space Force. In 2019, Space Policy Directive-4 directed the Space Force be initially established under the Department of the Air Force as the first step towards an independent Department of the Space Force, which would take over the entire space mission from the Department of the Air Force. It also directed
8778-426: The Department of the Air Force to the Department of the Aerospace Force in 1981 and congressional efforts were made in the 2000s to rename the Department of the Navy to the Department of the Navy and Marine Corps, however both of these proposals failed under opposition from the Defense Department. Space Force advocates have also called for the creation of an undersecretary of the Air Force for space . This provision
8911-544: The Earth alongside the rest of the joint force and it saved money, it did not have a similar response for its service dress uniform, which were described as a "futuristic-looking" design by General Raymond. The Space Force's seal and delta insignia were also incorrectly derided as a rip-off of Star Trek' s Starfleet logo, despite being first adopted as a space symbol by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division in 1962, four years before Star Trek first aired on television in 1966. Star Trek actor William Shatner settled
9044-473: The Ent Air Force Base, making it a permanent installation on 31 July 1954. In September of that year, the base became the headquarters of Continental Air Defense Command. More than $ 19 million was targeted in 1955 for further military expansion in the area, including the Fort Carson, the Ent Air Force Base, and the development of the Air Force Academy . On 15 January 1956, General Earle E. Partridge , CINCONAD, directed his staff to begin preliminary planning for
9177-605: The Ground Observer Corps was inactivated on 31 July 1959. The NORAD commander issued instructions on 21 April 1961, concerning the 425L command and control computer system operational philosophy, including use by NORAD and component personnel, NORAD entry to sufficiently enable him to evaluate indications presented, the requirements for human judgment in determining the validity of individual system indications, and identification of data as to source system. Excavation began for NORAD Command Operations Center (COC) in Cheyenne Mountain on 18 May 1961. The official ground breaking ceremony
9310-428: The J31 unit of HQ NORAD/ADCOM subsequently staffed the Space Surveillance Center in the same room as the Missile Warning Center (separated by partitions). The "HQ Cheyenne Mountain Support Group ... was activated at the Cheyenne Mountain Complex" in October 1981 to support the Aerospace Defense Center 's operation of the NORAD combat operations center". In 1983 the Foreign Technology Division had an operating location at
9443-404: The January 2010 – June 30, 2011, Missile Warning Center renovation funded by USSTRATCOM . Over the years, the installation came to house elements of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), U.S. Strategic Command , U.S. Air Force Space Command and U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM). Under what became known as the Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center (CMOC), several centers supported
9576-410: The NORAD Computer System (NCS). The new system was designed to centralize several databases, improve on-line display capabilities, and consolidate mission warning information processing and transmission. It was intended to have greater reliability and quicker early warning capability. The Command Center Processing System's original UNIVAC 1106 , re-purposed for Mission Essential Back-up Capability (MEBU),
9709-502: The NORAD missions of aerospace warning and aerospace control and provided warning of ballistic missile or air attacks against North America. On July 28, 2006, the Cheyenne Mountain Directorate was re-designated as the Cheyenne Mountain Division , with the mission to assist in establishing an integrated NORAD and USNORTHCOM Command Center within the headquarters building at Peterson Air Force Base . The Unified Space Vault and
9842-621: The Persian Gulf War being coined "the first Space War." While U.S. space forces supported all U.S. military operations in the 1990s, Operation Allied Force marked the first use of Global Positioning System -aided munitions in a conflict, ushering in a new era of precision bombing. Following the September 11 attacks , U.S. space forces mobilized to respond as part of the Global War on Terrorism Operation Enduring Freedom , Operation Iraqi Freedom , and Operation Inherent Resolve . Creating
9975-589: The SPADOC Computational Center (SCC) and NORAD Computer System (NCS). A third computer was operational backup for SCC or NCS. By 1981, the H6080 failed to meet the requirements for timely computations. SPADATS was deactivated about 1980, although some of its logic continued on in SPADOC systems. NORAD had a series of warning and assessment systems that were not fully automated in the Cheyenne Mountain complex into
10108-555: The Space Control Center were moved from Cheyenne Mountain to the Joint Space Operations Center at Vandenberg Air Force Base about October 2007. In 2006, NORAD relocated to a basement in the Peterson No. 2 building at the nearby Peterson AFB . Northern Command and Space Command and Canadian military defense partners relocated at Peterson. The Cheyenne Mountain complex is maintained by a skeleton crew and no longer operates on
10241-512: The Space Force and the Center for Strategic and International Studies has also proposed moving missile defense into the Space Force. The Army also continues to maintain a cadre of Functional Area 40 space operations officers, although over 85% indicated they would transfer to the Space Force if able. The Army is also maintaining the 1st Space Brigade , however the RAND Corporation has conducted
10374-455: The Space Force can deploy and sustain equipment in outer space. This includes space launches as well as controlling and steering spacecraft out of the way of oncoming space debris to avoid collisions. The Space Force describes assured access to space as being able to make sure it can continue launching and conducting space operations 24/7. Missions supporting space access include launch , range control, cyber , and space domain awareness . In
10507-506: The Space Force establish control of the domain. The Space Force describes that at a time and place of the United States' choosing it must be able to assure continued use of spacecraft and deny adversaries use of their spacecraft or space-enabled capabilities. Mission that support space superiority include orbital warfare , electromagnetic warfare , and space battle management . Global mission operations integrates joint functions across all domains (land, air, maritime, space, cyberspace) on
10640-534: The Space Force, providing new ideas or deep knowledge about highly specialized issues. While the Space Force's headquarters is in Washington, D.C., the rest of the service is spread across the United States and abroad, across 18 states and territories and 46 bases and installations as of 2024. As the United States Space Force matures, and as national security requires, it will become necessary to create
10773-400: The U.S. Pacific Fleet in 1941. It was extremely critical of the Air Force's treatment of space, with few witnesses expressing confidence that the Air Force would address the requirement to provide space capabilities to the other services or move beyond treating space as just a support capability for air operations. The most significant recommendation of the Rumsfeld Commission was the creation of
10906-416: The United States' dependence on space had increased, but comparatively little...[had] been achieved to make them more secure." It also noted, despite the recommendations of the Rumsfeld Commission, authority and responsibility for national security space remained fragmented and unfocused. Like the 2001 Rumsfeld Commission, the 2008 Allard Commission recommended establishing a Space Corps within the Department of
11039-443: The base on 12 September 1957. This command is an international organization, taking operational control of Canadian Air Defense Command air defense units and United States Air Defense Command air defense units. The first NORAD Agreement was drafted. Partridge was Commander-in-Chief, CONAD also became commander of NORAD. Royal Canadian Air Force Air Marshal Roy Slemon became deputy commander, NORAD. The official agreement between
11172-491: The base was the headquarters for the Army Anti-Aircraft Command . Information about potential hostile aircraft from radar sites around the country was forwarded to a regional clearinghouse, like Otis Air National Guard Base , and then to ADC headquarters at Ent Air Force Base. It was then plotted on the world's largest Plexiglas board. Enemy bombers progress was tracked on the board using grease pencils. If there
11305-579: The base was the site of North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), which subsequently moved to the Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station . The base became the Ent Annex to the Cheyenne Mountain facility in 1975. The base was closed in 1976. The site later became the location of the United States Olympic Training Center , which was completed in July 1978. The first Air Defense Command
11438-662: The base. Beginning in 1943, the Second Air Force was commanded by Major General Uzal Girard Ent who became the Commanding General after having been the Chief of Staff. Ent retired due to disability in the line of duty, due to injuries he sustained in a B-25 crash in October 1944 during takeoff. He died on 5 March 1948. Major General Robert B. Williams became the commanding officer of the Second Air Force in October 1944; he retired 1 July 1946. The facility became inactive when
11571-548: The bunker and in 1992, an airman of the "1010th Civil Engineering Squadron at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Base" developed a 3-D AutoCAD model of the bunker "to zoom in on a specific room". By 1995 a "missile operations section" supported the missile warning center, and in 2001 the 1989 1CACS at the Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station was renamed the 1st Space Control Squadron . On June 24, 1994, when
11704-572: The bunker included the 17th Test Squadron 's Detachment 2 and AFTAC's research laboratory, in 2008 Detachment 1 of the 392d Training Squadron operated the Cheyenne Mountain Training System (CMTS), and in 2011 the installation's 721st SFS was expanded. United States Space Force As U.S. Space Force The United States Space Force ( USSF ) is the United States Armed Forces ' space service and one of
11837-590: The center for the United States Space Command (USSC) and NORAD, the Complex monitored the airspace of Canada and the United States for missiles, space systems, and foreign aircraft through its worldwide early-warning system. Since 2008, NORAD and the USSC have been based at Peterson Space Force Base and the complex, re-designated as an Air Force station, is used for crew training and as a back-up command center if required. The military complex has included, in
11970-411: The command was moved to Colorado Springs. The Ent Air Force Base, named for Major General Uzal Girard Ent, opened on 8 January 1951. The Air Defense Command (ADC) inherited 21 fighter squadrons from Continental Air Command (CONAD) and 37 Air National Guard (ANG) fighter squadrons assigned an M-Day air defense mission. It was also assigned four Air Divisions (Defense). General Benjamin W. Chidlaw
12103-431: The complex has been classed as Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station and has been used in crew qualification training, while the former command function has been redesignated as the "NORAD and USNORTHCOM Alternate Command Center" since 2008 after all the original functions of the complex were removed to Peterson Air Force Base. The complex is maintained by the 21st Mission Support Group which provides support and maintenance for
12236-487: The eight uniformed services of the United States . It is one of two independent space forces in the world. The United States Space Force traces its origins to the Air Force, Army, and Navy's military space programs created during the beginning of the Cold War . US military space forces first participated in combat operations during the Vietnam War and have participated in every U.S. military operation since, most notably in
12369-431: The establishment of a Space Force if the Air Force could not, or would not, embrace spacepower. An independent Department of the Space Force would ensure that space got its fair share of resources within the Defense Department, with Senator Smith calling for the creation of a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force as a bridge to a fully independent Space Force. In 2000, Senator Smith led Congress in establishing
12502-457: The existing military space forces across the Army, Navy, and Air Force. While the Navy and Air Force gave up all of their space forces, the greatest resistance to transferring space forces came from the Army. While the Army transferred its satellite communications and missile warning assets, there are still calls for it to transfer 1st Space Brigade and 100th Missile Defense Brigade to the Space Force. The Heritage Foundation has called for
12635-640: The first CORONA reconnaissance mission, recovering 3,000 feet of film from space and imaged 1.65 million square miles of the Soviet Union's territory. Concerned about the development of the Soviet Union's own space forces, the Air Force advocated for a military human spaceflight program. General Curtis LeMay described strong parallels between World War I aviation and 1960s space operations, noting how quickly flying evolved from chivalric and unarmed reconnaissance flights to combat efforts designed to destroy enemy air superiority . General LeMay believed that it
12768-515: The first time that military space forces were unleashed to their fullest extent. Over sixty spacecraft provided 90% of theater communications and command and control for a multinational army of 500,000 troops, weather support for commanders and mission planners, missile warning of Iraqi Scud missile launches, and satellite navigation for air and land forces moving across a featureless desert. The decisive role that space forces played directly enabled an overwhelming Coalition victory and led to
12901-436: The floor space within the complex and comprise approximately 5% of the daily population at Cheyenne Mountain. The Cheyenne Mountain Complex serves as NORAD and USNORTHCOM's Alternate Command Center and as a training site for crew qualification. Day-to-day crew operations for NORAD and USNORTHCOM typically take place at Peterson Air Force Base. In early 2015, Admiral William E. Gortney , commander of NORAD and NORTHCOM, announced
13034-475: The headquarters level, the Space Force is led by the Chief of Space Operations , a four-star general who reports to the Secretary of the Air Force and provides military advice to civilian leadership of the Department of Defense and the White House . Alongside the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force combine to form the Department of the Air Force, like how the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps combine to form
13167-587: The instantaneous (one-millionth of a second) evaluation of aerospace surveillance data. The Space Defense Center moved from Ent AFB to the complex in 1965. The NORAD Combat Operations Center was fully operational April 20, 1966 and The Space Defense Command's 1st Aerospace Control Squadron moved to Cheyenne Mountain that month. The following systems or commands became operational between May and October, 1966: The NORAD Attack Warning System, Combat Operations Command, and Delta I computer system, which recorded and monitored every detected space system. By January 4, 1967,
13300-636: The issue, recalling that Starfleet's logo was chosen as an homage to the Space Force's direct predecessors in military space operations. The service also chose the title "Guardian" to represent its personnel, becoming its counterpart to Soldier and Airman. The term "Guardian" has a long history within Air Force Space Command, originally serving as part of its motto: "Guardians of the High Frontier." The Space Force also adopted Semper Supra as its official motto and unveiled its service song , sharing
13433-608: The late 1950s, a plan was developed to construct a command and control center in a hardened facility as a Cold War defensive strategy against long-range Soviet bombers, ballistic missiles, and a nuclear attack. In 1957, the Strategic Air Command began construction in New England inside Bare Mountain for a hardened bunker to contain the command post for the 8th Air Force , which was located at nearby Westover Air Force Base , Chicopee, Massachusetts . This underground facility
13566-501: The long haul, our safety as a nation may depend upon achieving "space superiority." Several decades from now, the important battles may not be sea battles or air battles, but space battles, and we should be spending a certain fraction of our national resources to ensure that we do not lag in obtaining space supremacy. The beginnings of the U.S. Space Force can be traced to the Aftermath of World War II . General Henry H. Arnold , commander of
13699-539: The past, many units of NORAD, USSC, Aerospace Defense Command (ADCOM), Air Force Systems Command , Air Weather Service, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The complex's communication center is also used by the nearby U.S. Civil Defense Warning Center. The complex was built under 2,000 feet (610 metres) of granite on five acres (2 hectares). Fifteen three-story buildings are protected from movement, e.g., earthquake or explosion, by
13832-650: The program was also to "replace display screens of the Attack Warning and Attack Assessment System." It was delayed from 1993 to 1996. Granite Sentry and other Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade interfaces were tested in 1997, and Granite Sentry's processing regarding "simulated [nuclear] detonation messages…injected into the Defense Support Program Data Distribution Center [was] not adequate...". The Combatant Commander's Integrated Command and Control System (CCIC2S) program began in 2000 with
13965-580: The same name. The decision on if the Space Force's ranks would mirror the Army, like the Air Force and Marine Corps, or the Navy, generated significant controversy, with Congressman Dan Crenshaw introducing an amendment which would force the Space Force to pattern itself after the Navy's rank structure. Ultimately, the amendment failed and the Space Force followed an Air Force/Army/Marine Corps-based rank scheme. The Space Force began to officially incorporate former Air Force Space Command units in 2020 and 2021, standing up field commands to serve as counterparts to
14098-434: The same time, the 4600th Air Base Group was activated to provide support for Ent. The funding was part of a military expansion initiative for the Ent Air Force Base, Fort Carson, and Peterson Air Force Base, all in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Much of the construction at Ent was for additional residential facilities. The Air Defense Command began 24-hour Ground Observer Corps operations on 14 July 1952. Starting September 1953,
14231-458: The service gained its first astronaut when Colonel Michael S. Hopkins swore into the Space Force aboard the International Space Station on 18 December 2020. The Space Force also began to build out its culture and identity, however, it experienced several public relations challenges due to its perceived ties to science fiction and links to President Trump. The Space Force adopted the Army and Air Force's OCP Uniform with blue stitching and
14364-519: The service. Following the Persian Gulf War , the Air Force and Defense Department declared that "space power has now become as important to the nation as land, sea, and air power." Despite this public pronouncement, a growing section of Congress believed that space was being shortchanged and used only as an auxiliary to air operations. In 1998, drawing parallels between the challenges faced by post-World War I Army Aviators and post-Gulf War Air Force space operators, Senator Bob Smith publicly called for
14497-423: The two countries was signed 12 May 1958. In 1958, the base put $ 36,904,558 into the Colorado Springs economy in the form of pay to 3,639 military and 1,222 civilian personnel and dependents allowances, which was more than $ 7 million more than the previous year. These numbers exclude individuals that work for 15 U.S. industries—such as Boeing and Lockheed Aircraft —on Ent. Due to improvements in radar technology,
14630-637: The various regions of the United States. The Colorado Springs Tent Camp was the headquarters for the Second Air Force beginning early June 1943. It was moved from Fort George Wright in the state of Washington to the more central location within the western half of the United States—the Second Air Force territory. The tent city was used for soldiers who worked on the conversion of the National Methodist Sanatorium for military use and construction of additional buildings for
14763-471: The western world. The first Aerospace Surveillance and Control Squadron were assigned to the 9 ADD. The Air Defense Command's SPACETRACK Center and NORAD's Space Detection and Tracking System (SPADATS) Center merged to form the Space Defense Center . It was moved from Ent AFB to the newly completed Cheyenne Mountain Combat Operations Center and was activated on 3 September 1965. A Major General
14896-528: The wholesale transfer of United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command , to include the 100th Missile Defense Brigade and the 1st Space Brigade . The 100th Missile Defense Brigade operates the Ground Based Interceptor system and is located at Schriever Space Force Base , Vandenberg Space Force Base , and Fort Greely . Former Air Force space officers have called to move the missile defense and intercontinental ballistic missile mission to
15029-580: The world, establishing the Western Development Division in 1954 and placing it under the command of General Schriever. The Army followed a year later, creating the Army Ballistic Missile Agency under the leadership of General John Bruce Medaris and Dr. Wernher von Braun . The Army led the United States into space, launching the first American spacecraft, Explorer 1 , on 31 January 1958. Space exploration continued to be
15162-463: Was a potential threat, interceptor aircraft were scrambled to the target. Because this process was cumbersome, it made a rapid response unattainable. An automated command and control system, Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), based upon the Whirlwind II ( AN/FSQ-7 ) computer was implemented to process ground radar and other sources for an immediate view of potential threats in the 1950s. There
15295-499: Was an operational plan for a SAGE implementation for Ent by 7 March 1955. A modern 15,000 square feet (1,400 m ) concrete block Combat Operations Center (COC) became operational at the base on 15 May 1954. 1 September of that year, the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) was activated as a joint command at Ent AFB: The Colorado Springs Chamber of Commerce purchased 8.1 acres of land and donated it to
15428-595: Was assigned as the first Director of the Combat Operations Center as recommended by the Cheyenne Mountain Complex Task Force Study Report on 1 October 1965. This established a separate Battle Staff organization. The Director was responsible directly to CINCNORAD for tactical matters and the Joint Chiefs of Staff for all others. CINCNORAD transferred Combat Operations Center operations from Ent Air Force Base to Cheyenne Mountain and declared
15561-590: Was established on 26 February 1940, by the War Department. On 2 March 1940, it was put under the First Army Commander. It managed air defense within four geographic air districts. It was inactivated in mid-1944 when the threat of air attack seemed minimal. With the beginning of the Cold War, American defense experts and political leaders began planning and implementing a defensive air shield, which they believed
15694-635: Was excavated under the supervision of the Army Corps of Engineers for the construction of the NORAD Combat Operations Center beginning on May 18, 1961, by Utah Construction & Mining Company . The Space Defense Center and the Combat Operations Center achieved full operational capability on February 6, 1967. The total cost was $ 142.4 million. Its systems included a command-and-control system developed by Burroughs Corporation . The electronics and communications system centralized and automated
15827-438: Was followed by the establishment of the joint United States Space Command in 1985, aligning Air Force Space Command, Naval Space Command , and Army Space Command under a single operational commander. These two moves, along with the Strategic Defense Initiative 's establishment by President Ronald Reagan , led to a renaissance of military space operations in the 1980s. Space forces were first used in combat operations during
15960-430: Was held 16 June 1961 at the construction site of the new NORAD Combat Operations Center. Generals Lee (ADC) and Laurence S. Kuter (NORAD) simultaneously set off symbolic dynamite charges. Estimated cost of the combat operations center construction and equipment was $ 66 million. The 9th Aerospace Defense Division was activated at Ent Air Force Base on 15 July 1961. It was the first large military space organization in
16093-627: Was immediately redesignated as United States Space Force, however, the command and its 16,000 Airmen technically remained part of the Air Force. On 3 April 2020, Chief Master Sergeant Roger A. Towberman became the Space Force's second member and was appointed its first senior enlisted leader . The service gained its first new second lieutenants when 86 members of the U.S. Air Force Academy class of 2020 became Space Force members 3 through 88 on 18 April 2020. Currently serving Air Force space operators began to become Space Force members in September 2020 and
16226-483: Was included in the Trump Administration's original legislative proposal to give the Space Force additional independence and autonomy but was removed by the Senate. There have also been numerous calls from inside and outside the Space Force for it to have its own public affairs and judge advocate generals, independent from Air Force. When the Space Force was established in 2019 it was intended to consolidate
16359-571: Was naive to believe that the same trends were not expected to be seen in space and must be prepared for. Although the Air Force made significant progress in developing the X-20 spaceplane , Manned Orbiting Laboratory , and Blue Gemini , opposition from the Department of Defense prevented operational fielding. The Air Force was also forced to cancel Project SAINT , a satellite inspector with satellite neutralization capabilities, when details were leaked to The New York Times in 1962. Despite these setbacks,
16492-517: Was necessary to defend against a possible attack by long-range, manned Soviet bombers. The Air Defense Command was established 21 March 1946 and the major command was established at Mitchel Field (later Mitchel Air Force Base ) in New York on 27 March 1946, which was commanded by Lieutenant General George E. Stratemeyer . By the time of the United States Air Force creation in 1947, as
16625-424: Was nicknamed " The Notch " (or formally as the 8th AF "Post-Attack Command and Control System Facility, Hadley") and was hardened to protect it from the effects of a nearby nuclear blast and designed so that the senior military staff could facilitate further military operations. Four years later, construction at Cheyenne Mountain was started to create a similar protection for the NORAD command post. Cheyenne Mountain
16758-548: Was outlined in Space Policy Directive-4, initially organizing the U.S. Space Force as part of the Department of the Air Force, but with plans to build out a separate Department of the Space Force in the future. In 2019, Congress passed legislation establishing the U.S. Space Force as a military service under the Department of the Air Force. On 20 December 2019, the National Defense Authorization Act
16891-419: Was recognized as the lead military service for space by the early 1960s, with the Army and Navy operating in supporting roles. Early military space efforts were focused on developing and fielding spacecraft to accomplish national objectives, with a focus on weather , reconnaissance and surveillance , communications , and navigation . On 18 August 1961, the Air Force and National Reconnaissance Office launched
17024-728: Was reconstituted by the United States Air Force 1 January 1951, to protect the United States air space, with two geographically based organizations. The portion of the country east of the 103rd meridian was managed by the Eastern Air Defense Force (also First Air Force territory). The command for the Western Air Defense Force (also Second Air Force territory) was at Ent Air Force Base. The functions included an early warning system to identify and respond to impending air attacks, including fighter interception. Subordinate Air Force commands were given responsibility to protect
17157-399: Was signed into law and the U.S. Space Force was established as the sixth armed service, meeting the Rumsfeld and Allard commissions' recommendations to create a Space Corps within the Department of the Air Force, but still falling short of creating a separate Department of the Space Force. We are at the dawn of a new era for our Nation’s Armed Forces. The establishment of the U.S. Space Force
17290-578: Was subject to delays and cost overruns. By 1992, the project was estimated to be delayed to 1995 and cost projected to increase from $ 142 million to $ 234 million. By 1992, the U.S. Space Command Space Surveillance Center (SSC) was the data analysis and tracking center for Baker-Nunn camera images and Cheyenne Mountain was connected to the AN/URC-117 Ground Wave Emergency Network (GWEN) communication site in Pueblo, Colorado . By 1995,
17423-469: Was the base commander beginning 29 July 1951 and commander of the Air Defense Command from 25 August 1951 and until 31 May 1955. The Senate appropriated an additional $ 3 million for expansion of the base in September 1951. The Peterson Air Force Base , which became inactive in 1949 when the 15th Air Force was moved to the March Air Force Base, was activated when the Ent Air Force Base opened. At
17556-421: Was updated, and staff and commander processes were improved to better respond to warnings. The Cheyenne Mountain Upgrade (CMU) of November 1988, designed to consolidate five improvement programs, was not installed because it was not compatible with other systems at Cheyenne Mountain and it did not meet the defined specifications according to deficiencies identified during testing. The five improvement programs were
17689-475: Was upgraded to the more robust UNIVAC 1100/42 . The 427M system, intended to modernize systems and improve performance, was initially "wholly ineffective" and resulted in several failures of the Worldwide Military Command and Control System (WWMCCS) system. In 1979 and 1980, there were a few instances when false missile warnings were generated by the Cheyenne Mountain complex systems. For instance,
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