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120-537: Charles Michael Durkee (born June 25, 1944 in Tulsa, Oklahoma ) is a former professional American football player. In 1967, Durkee became the first kicker for the expansion New Orleans Saints . Durkee was with the Saints in 1967 and 1968, and again in 1971 and a portion of the 1972 season. He did not play in the NFL in 1969 or 1970. Durkee's most productive season was in 1968, when he

240-511: A mass shooting occurred in a medical center, killing at least 4 people, including the perpetrator. The United States Oil and Gas Association was founded in Tulsa on October 13, 1917. Over the city's history many large oil companies have been headquartered in the city, including Warren Petroleum (which merged with Gulf Oil in what was then the largest merger in the energy industry), Skelly Oil , Getty Oil and CITGO . In addition, ConocoPhillips

360-563: A Confederate alliance by American desertion." Unlike other tribes, Chickasaw tribal leaders never offered freedpeople citizenship. The slaves were freed and they could continue to live within the boundaries of the nation as second-class citizens, or they could move to Union states and no longer be associated with the tribe, which meant they did not participate in the Dawes Rolls of the 1890s, which registered tribal members. The Choctaw-Chickasaw Freedmen Association of Oklahoma currently represents

480-449: A bachelor's degree or higher, and 86.5% have a high school diploma or equivalent . The Tulsa metropolitan area , or the region immediately surrounding Tulsa with strong social and economic ties to the city, occupies a large portion of the state's northeastern quadrant. It is informally known as " Green Country ", a longstanding name adopted by the state's official tourism designation for all of northeastern Oklahoma (its usage concerning

600-761: A base in the sectors of aerospace , finance, technology, telecommunications, high tech , and manufacturing. A number of substantial financial corporations are headquartered in Tulsa, the largest being the BOK Financial Corporation . Among these financial services firms are energy trading operations, asset management firms, investment funds, and a range of commercial banks. The national convenience store chain QuikTrip , fast-casual restaurant chain Camille's Sidewalk Cafe , and pizza chain Mazzio's are all headquartered in Tulsa, as

720-574: A baseball stadium for the Tulsa Drillers opened in 2010. The city's historical residential core lies in an area known as Midtown, containing upscale neighborhoods built in the early 20th century with architecture ranging from art deco to Greek Revival . The University of Tulsa, the Swan Lake neighborhood, Philbrook Museum , and the upscale shopping districts of Utica Square , Cherry Street, and Brookside are located in this region. A large portion of

840-418: A consequence of evolving attitudes toward ethnocentric word usage and more rigorous ethnographical standards, the term "Five Civilized Tribes" is rarely used in contemporary academic publications. George Washington believed that the only way Indians could survive in proximity to White settlers was for them to become civilized. The United States accordingly adopted a policy of civilizing Indians while Washington

960-676: A doctrine that held that Indian Americans were biologically equals, but that their societies were inferior. He formulated and implemented a policy to encourage civilizing them, which Thomas Jefferson continued and expanded. Historian Robert Remini wrote that the American leaders "presumed that once the Indians adopted the practice of private property , built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity , these Native Americans would win acceptance from Americans of European descent. George Washington's six-point plan included: regulating

1080-486: A female householder with no husband present, and 41.9% were non-families. Of all households, 34.5% are made up of only one person, and 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 people and the average family size was 3.04. In the city proper, the age distribution was 24.8% of the population under the age of 18, 10.9% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 12.9% who were 65 years of age or older, while

1200-551: A free labor market, President Abraham Lincoln created the Freedmen's Bureau , which assigned agents throughout the former Confederate states. The Bureau also founded schools to educate freedmen, both adults and children; helped freedmen negotiate labor contracts; and tried to minimize violence against freedmen. The era of Reconstruction was an attempt to establish new governments in the former Confederacy and to bring freedmen into society as voting citizens. Northern church bodies, such as

1320-557: A large conservative following, with the majority of Tulsans being Christians. The second-largest religion in Tulsa is Islam, followed by Buddhism and Judaism. Tulsa is part of the Southern region demographers and commentators refer to as the " Bible Belt ," where Protestant and, in particular, Southern Baptist and other evangelical Christian traditions are very prominent. In fact, Tulsa, home to Oral Roberts University , Phillips Theological Seminary , and RHEMA Bible Training College (in

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1440-645: A main crop and instead raise wheat and cotton. The women were to become housekeepers, caring for children and weaving cotton for clothing. The Indians were also expected to acquire slaves and use them like their White plantation neighbors did. The word "civilized" was used by White settlers to refer to the Five Tribes, who, during the 18th and early 19th centuries, actively integrated Anglo-American customs into their own cultures. Sociologists, anthropologists, and interdisciplinary scholars alike are interested in how and why these native peoples assimilated certain features of

1560-625: A number of the ranch and Mid-Century Modern homes that reflect Tulsa's prosperous post-war period. The BOK Tower , built during this period, is the second tallest building in Oklahoma and the surrounding states of Missouri, New Mexico , Arkansas , and Kansas. Tulsa also has the third-, and fourth-tallest buildings in the state, including the Cityplex Tower , which is located in South Tulsa across from Oral Roberts University, far from downtown. One of

1680-702: A period, the Five Civilized Tribes tended to maintain stable political relations with the White population. However, White encroachment continued and eventually led to the removal of these tribes from the Southeast, most prominently along the Trail of Tears . In the 21st century, this term has been criticized by some scholars for its ethnocentric assumptions by Anglo-Americans of what they considered civilized , but representatives of these tribes continue to meet regularly on

1800-505: A philosophic mind to reflect that instead of exterminating a part of the human race by our modes of population that we had persevered through all difficulties and at last had imparted our Knowledge of cultivating and the arts, to the Aboriginals of the Country by which the source of future life and happiness had been preserved and extended. But it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize

1920-654: A quarterly basis in their Inter-Tribal Council of the Five Civilized Tribes. The descendants of these tribes, who primarily live in what is now Oklahoma , are sometimes referred to as the Five Tribes of Oklahoma, although several other federally recognized tribes are also located in that state. The term "civilized tribes" was adopted to distinguish the Five Tribes from other Native American tribes that were described as "wild" or "savage". Texts written by non-indigenous scholars and writers have used words like "savage" and "wild" to identify Indian groups that retained their traditional cultural practices after European contact. As

2040-540: A regional hub with substantial innovation assets. Products from Tulsa manufacturers account for about sixty percent of Oklahoma's exports, and in 2001, the city's total gross product was in the top one-third of metropolitan areas, states, and countries, with more than $ 29 billion in total goods, growing at a rate of $ 250 million each year. Tulsa's primary employers are small and medium-sized businesses: there are 30 companies in Tulsa that employ more than 1,000 people locally, and small businesses make up more than 80% of

2160-644: A rush of entrepreneurs to the area's growing number of oil fields; Tulsa's population swelled to over 140,000 between 1901 and 1930. Unlike the early settlers of Northeastern Oklahoma, who most frequently migrated from the South and Texas , many of these new oil-driven settlers came to Tulsa from the commercial centers of the East Coast and lower Midwest. This migration distinguished the city's demographics from neighboring communities (Tulsa has larger and more prominent Catholic and Jewish populations than most Oklahoma cities) and

2280-665: A severe flood caused by a stalled weather front that dropped 15 in (380 mm) of rain overnight, killing 14, injuring 288, and destroying 7,000 buildings totaling $ 180 million in damage. In the early 1990s and again in 2000, the Federal Emergency Management Agency honored Tulsa as leading the nation in flood plain management. Triple-digit temperatures (≥38 °C) are observed on average 11 days per year, most of which occur from July to early September, and are usually accompanied by high humidity brought in by southerly winds. The highest recorded temperature

2400-498: A small ballroom in downtown Tulsa. In 1935, Cain's Ballroom became the base for the group, which is largely credited for creating Western Swing music. The venue continued to attract famous musicians through its history, and is still in operation today. For the rest of the mid-20th century, the city had a master plan to construct parks, churches, museums, rose gardens, improved infrastructure, and increased national advertising. The Spavinaw Dam , built during this era to accommodate

2520-533: A venue for major concerts and conventions. The multi-purpose arena, designed by famed architect Cesar Pelli , broke ground in 2005 and was opened on August 30, 2008. In July 2020 the Supreme Court ruled in McGirt v. Oklahoma that as it pertains to criminal law much of eastern Oklahoma, including Tulsa, remains as Native American lands. Specifically, prosecution of crimes by Native Americans on these lands falls into

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2640-559: Is Southern regional BBQ restaurant Rib Crib . Tulsa is also home to the Marshall Brewing Company . Tulsa is also home to a burgeoning media industry, including PennWell , consumer review website ConsumerAffairs , Stephens Media Group , This Land Press , Educational Development Corporation (the parent publisher of Kane/Miller ), GEB America , Blooming Twig Books, and a full range of local media outlets, including Tulsa World and local magazines, radio and television. Tulsa

2760-531: Is also a hub for national construction and engineering companies including Manhattan Construction Company and Flintco . A number of the Cherokee Nation Businesses are also headquartered or have substantial operations in Tulsa. Five Civilized Tribes Conventionally, the descriptor 'civilized' is seldom utilized nowadays due to its derogatory nature, and the historical usage of the term as an obscuration for cultural imperialism . Therewith,

2880-457: Is also home to the progressive All Souls Unitarian Church , reportedly the largest Unitarian Universalist congregation in the United States. Chùa Tam Bào (Vietnamese: "Three Jewels Temple"), then Oklahoma's only Buddhist temple, was established in east Tulsa in 1993 by Vietnamese refugees. A 57-foot-tall (17 m) granite statue of Quan Âm (commonly known by her Chinese name, Guanyin )

3000-639: Is located in the grounds. Tulsa experienced elevated levels of gang violence in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when crack cocaine flooded neighborhoods in North Tulsa. Tulsa gang problems became noticeable after an outbreak of gang-related crime between 1980 and 1983, which was traced to the Crips, a local gang which had been founded by two brothers whose family had recently moved to Oklahoma from Compton . In 1986, gang graffiti started to show up on walls and drive-by shootings started occurring on late nights. In 1990

3120-490: Is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. Agriculture was the primary economic pursuit. The bulk of the tribes lived in towns, some covering hundreds of acres and populated with thousands of people. They were known for building large, complex earthwork mounds. These communities regulated their space with planned streets, subdivided into residential and public areas. Their system of government

3240-644: Is possibly a corruption of the Spanish chato , meaning flattened, in allusion to the tribe's custom of flattening the heads of infants. Noted anthropologist John Swanton , however, suggests that the name belonged to a Choctaw leader. They were descended from people of the Mississippian culture which was located throughout the Mississippi River Valley. Historians such as Walter Lee Williams have documented some early Spanish explorers encountering chiefs of

3360-510: Is reflected in the designs of early Tulsa's upscale neighborhoods. Known as the "Oil Capital of the World" for most of the 20th century, the city's success in the energy industry prompted construction booms in the popular Art Deco style of the time. Profits from the oil industry continued through the Great Depression , helping the city's economy fare better than most in the United States during

3480-568: Is water. A building boom in Tulsa in the early 20th century coincided with the rise of art deco architecture in the United States. Most commonly in the zigzag and streamline styles, the city's art deco is dotted throughout its older neighborhoods, primarily in downtown and midtown. A collection of large art deco structures such as the Mid-Continent Tower , the Boston Avenue Methodist Church , Will Rogers High School , and

3600-473: The 2020 census , its population increased to 413,066. As of the 2010 census , there were 391,906 people, 163,975 households, and 95,246 families residing in the city, with a population density of 2,033.4 inhabitants per square mile (785.1/km ) There were 185,127 housing units at an average density of 982.3 per square mile (379.3/km ). Of 163,975 households, 27% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% were married couples living together, 14.6% had

3720-730: The American Missionary Association and the Freewill Baptists , sent teachers to the South to assist in educating freedmen and their children, and eventually established several colleges for higher education. US Army occupation soldiers were stationed throughout the South via military districts enacted by the Reconstruction Acts ; they tried to protect freedmen in voting polls and public facilities from violence and intimidation by White Southerners, which were common throughout

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3840-529: The Arkansas River in 1901 when its first oil well, named Sue Bland No. 1, was established. Much of the oil was discovered on land whose mineral rights were owned by members of the Osage Nation under a system of headrights. By 1905, the discovery of the grand Glenn Pool Oil Reserve (located approximately 15 miles or 24 kilometers south of downtown Tulsa and site of the present-day town of Glenpool ) prompted

3960-572: The Cherokee and Osage Nations . Although Oklahoma was not yet a state during the Civil War , the Tulsa area saw its share of fighting. The Battle of Chusto-Talasah took place on the north side of Tulsa and several battles and skirmishes took place in nearby counties. After the War, the tribes signed Reconstruction treaties with the federal government that in some cases required substantial land concessions. In

4080-608: The Mississippian culture . Prior to the arrival of White settlers, these tribes generally had matrilineal kinship systems, with property and hereditary positions passed through the mother's family. But they were much more egalitarian and decentralized than the Mississippian culture peoples at their height. Based on the development of surplus foods from cultivation, Mississippian towns had more dense populations, and they developed artisan classes, and hereditary religious and political elites. The Mississippian culture flourished in what

4200-587: The Osage Hills extension into the northwestern part of the city further varies the landscape. Holmes Peak, north of the city, is the tallest point in the Tulsa Metro area at 1,360 ft (415 m) According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 186.8 square miles (484 km ), of which 182.6 square miles (473 km ) is land and 4.2 square miles (11 km ) (2.24%)

4320-560: The Philtower , have attracted events promoting the preservation and architectural interest. In addition, the city's early prosperity funded the construction of many elegant Craftsmen, Georgian, storybook, Tudor, Greek Revival, Italianate , Spanish revival , and colonial revival homes (many of which can be found in Tulsa's uptown and Midtown neighborhoods). Noted architects and firms working in Tulsa during this period include Charles Dilbeck, John Duncan Forsyth , and Nelle Peters . Growth in

4440-1022: The Second Continental Congress unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence , which was largely written by Thomas Jefferson . American independence was subsequently achieved by the victory of the Continental Army , led by George Washington , in the American Revolutionary War and codified in the Treaty of Paris in 1784. The Five Tribes generally adopted cultural practices from Americans that they found useful. Tribal groups who had towns or villages closer to European-descendant Americans, or interacted more with them through trading or intermarriage, took up more of such new practices. Those towns that were more isolated tended to maintain their traditional cultures. George Washington promulgated

4560-551: The U.S. Highway 66 Association in Tulsa, earning the city the nickname the "Birthplace of Route 66". Once completed, U.S. Route 66 took an important role in Tulsa's development as the city served as a popular rest stop for travelers, who were greeted by Route 66 icons such as the Meadow Gold Sign and the Blue Whale of Catoosa . During this period, Bob Wills and his group, The Texas Playboys , began their long performing stint at

4680-718: The Union prior to the war, in large part because they were promised their own state if the Confederacy won. During removal to Indian Territory, "the Five Tribes considered enslaved Black people an ideal way of transporting capital to the West" because they were "movable property." After the end of the Civil War, the US required these tribes to make new peace treaties, and to emancipate their slaves, as slaves had been emancipated and were granted citizenship in

4800-534: The county seat of Tulsa County , the most densely populated county in Oklahoma, with urban development extending into Osage , Rogers and Wagoner counties. Tulsa was settled between 1828 and 1836 by the Lochapoka Band of Creek Native American tribe and most of Tulsa is still part of the territory of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation . Historically, a robust energy sector fueled Tulsa's economy; however, today

4920-661: The 1930s. In 1923, Harwelden was built by oil baron E. P. Harwell and his wife Mary, and is an example of prosperity in Tulsa, Oklahoma in the 1920s. In the early 20th century, Tulsa was home to the " Black Wall Street ", one of the most prosperous Black communities in the United States at the time. Located in the Greenwood neighborhood, it was the site of the Tulsa Race Massacre , said to be "the single worst incident of racial violence in American history ", in which mobs of White Tulsans killed Black Tulsans, looted and robbed

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5040-413: The 1972 season. Tulsa, Oklahoma Tulsa ( / ˈ t ʌ l s ə / TUL -sə ) is the second-most-populous city in the state of Oklahoma , after Oklahoma City , and the 48th-most-populous city in the United States. The population was 413,066 as of the 2020 census . It is the principal municipality of the Tulsa metropolitan area , a region with 1,034,123 residents. The city serves as

5160-750: The 19th century, historians and ethnographers recorded their oral tradition that told of the tribe having migrated south in ancient times from the Great Lakes region, the base of most other Iroquoian-speaking peoples. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (UKB) have headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma . The UKB are mostly descendants of "Old Settlers", Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. They are related to

5280-493: The 20th century brought a wealth of modern architecture to Tulsa. Tulsa's Mies-trained modernist Robert Lawton Jones designed many buildings in the region, including the Tulsa International Airport. Other noted modernists working in Tulsa include the pioneering Texas architect O'Neil Ford and Joseph R. Koberling Jr. , who had also been active during the art deco period. South, East, and Midtown Tulsa are home to

5400-512: The 20th century, the Freedmen have argued that the Dawes Rolls were often inaccurate in terms of recording Cherokee ancestry among persons of mixed race, even if they were considered Cherokee by blood within the tribe. The registrars confused appearance with culture. In addition, the Freedmen have argued that the post-Civil War treaties made between the tribes and the US granted them full citizenship in

5520-602: The 20th century, the city held the nickname " Oil Capital of the World " and played a major role as one of the most important hubs for the American oil industry . It is situated on the Arkansas River between the Osage Hills and the foothills of the Ozark Mountains in northeast Oklahoma, a region of the state known as " Green Country ". Considered the cultural and arts center of Oklahoma, Tulsa houses two art museums, full-time professional opera and ballet companies, and one of

5640-558: The American government in the early 19th century. Mvskoke is their name in the Muskogee language. The Muscogee Creek were not one tribe but a confederacy of several, each of which had their own distinct land and sometimes dialects or languages in the Muskogean family. Starting in 1836, the US government forced them to remove west of the Mississippi along with the other Southeast tribes to what

5760-598: The Black community, and burned down homes and businesses. Sixteen hours of massacring on May 31 and June 1, 1921, ended only when National Guardsmen were brought in by the governor. An official report later claimed that 23 Black and 16 White citizens were killed, but other estimates suggest as many as 300 people died, most of them Black. Over 800 people were admitted to local hospitals with injuries, and an estimated 1,000 Black people were left homeless as 35 city blocks, composed of 1,256 residences, were destroyed by fire. Property damage

5880-479: The Central United States. Located near the western edge of the U.S. Interior Highlands , northeastern Oklahoma is the most topographically diverse part of the state, containing seven of Oklahoma's 11 eco-regions and more than half of its state parks. The region encompasses 30 lakes or reservoirs and borders the neighboring states of Kansas , Missouri , and Arkansas . The city developed on both sides of

6000-516: The Cherokee Nation voted to restrict membership to only those descendants of persons listed as "Cherokee by blood" on the Dawes Rolls of the early 20th century. This decision excluded most Cherokee Freedmen ; by this time, this term referred to descendants of the original group. At the time, registrars tended to classify any person with visible African American features as a Freedman, not inquiring or allowing them to document Indian descent. Since

6120-657: The Cherokee who were forcibly relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina, and are descendants of those who resisted or avoided relocation. Although the Cherokee Nation sponsors some satellite communities, it does not recognize Cherokee heritage groups that are seeking federal recognition. The Cherokee tribe has 729,533 enrolled members. The Chickasaw are Indian people of

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6240-552: The Chickasaw Nation at that time was to have one or more Chickasaw parents, or to petition for citizenship and go through the process available to other non-Natives, even if they were known to have been of partial Chickasaw descent in an earlier generation. Because the Chickasaw Nation did not provide citizenship to their freedmen after the American Civil War, which they felt would be akin to formal adoption of individuals into

6360-649: The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. The Chickasaw Nation is the thirteenth largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. The Chickasaw built some of the first banks, schools, and businesses in Indian Territory. They also signed a treaty with the Southern United States during the Civil War and brought troops to fight for

6480-601: The Confederates. The Choctaw are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States , including present-day Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana. There were about 20,000 members of this tribe when they were forced to move to Indian Territory. Many of them did not survive. They are of the Muskogean linguistic group. The word Choctaw (also rendered as Chahta , Chato , Tchakta , and Chocktaw )

6600-521: The Five Tribes have participated in shaping the current BIA Federal Acknowledgment Process for tribes under consideration for such recognition. They are suspicious of groups that claim Indian identity but appear to have no history of culture and community. The Cherokee , ( / ˈ tʃ ɛ r ə k iː / ; Cherokee : ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ , romanized:  Aniyvwiyaʔi ) are people of the Southeastern United States, principally upland Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. They speak an Iroquoian language . In

6720-445: The Indians of North America – This opinion is probably more convenient than just. Following the establishment of independence following the American Revolutionary War, Americans pushed into the interior and into the Deep South, areas that were still largely dominated by Native Americans. The invention of the cotton gin made cultivation of short-staple cotton profitable in the interior, and settlers encroached on Native American lands in

6840-411: The Mississippian culture, ancestors of some of the Five Tribes. Although smaller Choctaw groups are located in the southern region, the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma and the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians are the two primary federally recognized tribes. This people historically cultivated beans, maize, and squash, like other settled Indians. They also hunted and fished for some of their diet. Since

6960-473: The Tulsa Metropolitan Area can be traced to the early part of the 20th century). The U.S. Census Bureau defines the sphere of the city's influence as the Tulsa metropolitan statistical area (MSA), spanning seven counties: Tulsa, Rogers , Osage, Wagoner, Okmulgee , Pawnee , and Creek . The 2020 U.S. census shows the Tulsa MSA to have 1,015,331 residents The 2020 U.S. census shows the Tulsa-Muscogee-Bartlesville CSA to have 1,134,125 residents. Tulsa has

7080-429: The US government formally initiated Indian removal , forcing those tribes still living east of the Mississippi River , including the Five Tribes, to lands west of the river. Congress passed authorizing legislation in 1830, to fund such moves and arrange for new lands in what became known as Indian Territory to the west. Most members of the Five Tribes were forced to Indian Territory before 1840, many to what later became

7200-399: The US government promised that their lands would be free of American settlers. But settlers soon began to violate that, and enforcement was difficult in the western frontier. The Five Tribes participated in Native American slave ownership that had enslaved Black people before and during the American Civil War . The Five Tribes largely supported the Confederacy , which had severed ties with

7320-467: The US. All Five Tribes acknowledged "in writing that, because of the agreements they had made with the Confederate States during the Civil War, previous treaties made with the United States would no longer be upheld, thus prompting the need for a new treaty and an opportunity for the United States to fulfill its goal of wrenching more land" from their grasp. They were required to offer full citizenship in their tribes to those freedmen who wanted to stay with

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7440-401: The Union, but slavery everywhere in the nation was abolished with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in December 1865. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 , passed over the veto of President Andrew Johnson , gave ex-slaves full citizenship , except for voting, in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified to make clear that Congress had

7560-429: The United States became an English-speaking nation. Originating further west, the Chickasaw moved east of the Mississippi River long before European contact. All historical records indicate the Chickasaw lived in northeastern Mississippi from the first European contact until they were forced to remove to Oklahoma, where most now live. The Chickasaw are related to the Choctaw , who speak a similar language, both forming

7680-409: The United States who originally resided along the Tennessee River and other parts of present-day Tennessee , in the southwest side of present-day Kentucky , west of present-day Huntsville, Alabama , and in parts of Mississippi. They spoke some French and some English. Some historians credit the Chickasaw intervention in the French and Indian War on the side of the British as decisive in ensuring that

7800-500: The Upper South, including western Georgia , and the future states of Alabama , Louisiana , and Mississippi . They demanded the chance to cultivate these lands for agriculture. Armed conflicts occurred between some of the tribes and the settlers, who kept pushing west and acquired additional territories through negotiated treaties with European colonial powers and sometimes by force. In the early 19th century, under such leaders as Andrew Jackson , elected president in 1828, and others,

7920-447: The Western Group of the Muskogean languages . "Chickasaw" is the English spelling of Chikasha ( Creek pronunciation: [tʃikaʃːa] ), that either means "rebel" or "comes from Chicsa". The Chickasaw are divided in two groups: the "Impsaktea" and the "Intcutwalipa". The Chickasaw were one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" who went to the Indian Territory during the era of Indian removal. Unlike other tribes, who exchanged land grants,

8040-412: The alien culture of the White settlers who were encroaching on their lands. Historian Steve Brandon asserts that this "adaptation and incorporation of aspects of white culture" was a tactic employed by the Five Nations peoples to resist removal from their lands. While the term "Five Civilized Tribes" has been institutionalized in federal government policy to the point that the US Congress passed laws using

8160-416: The area with a disproportionate share of its annual rainfall. Severe weather is not limited to this season, however. For instance, on December 5, 1975, and on December 24, 1982, Tulsa experienced tornadoes. Due to its potential for major flooding events , the city has developed one of the most extensive flood control systems in the nation. A comprehensive flood management plan was developed in 1984 following

8280-418: The area's historic architecture. Much of Tulsa's convention space is located in downtown, such as the Tulsa Performing Arts Center , the Tulsa Convention Center , and the BOK Center . Prominent downtown sub-districts include the Blue Dome District, the Brady Arts district, the "Oil Capital Historic District", the Greenwood Historical District, Owen Park Historical Neighborhood, and the site of ONEOK Field ,

8400-411: The area's unique architectural complexes, Oral Roberts University, is built in a Post-Modern Futuristic style, incorporating bright gold structures with sharp, jetting edges and clear geometric shapes. The BOK Center , Tulsa's new arena, incorporates many of the city's most prominent themes, including Native American, art deco, and contemporary architectural styles. Intended to be an architectural icon,

8520-562: The blood quantum requirement for land allotment for the Five Tribes, though it had not been a tribal citizenship requirement. Historian Mark Miller noted: Even so-called purely 'descendancy' tribes such as the Five Tribes with no blood quantum requirement jealously guard some proven, documentary link by blood to distant ancestors. More than any single BIA [ Bureau of Indian Affairs ] requirement, however, this criterion has proven troublesome for southeastern groups [seeking federal recognition] because of its reliance on non-Indian records and

8640-531: The building was designed by César Pelli , the architect of the Petronas Towers in Malaysia . Downtown Tulsa is an area of approximately 1.4 square miles (3.6 km ) surrounded by an inner-dispersal loop created by Interstate 244, Highway 64, and Highway 75. The area serves as Tulsa's financial and business district, and is the focus of a large initiative to draw tourism, which includes plans to capitalize on

8760-538: The buying of Indian lands, promoting commerce with the tribes, promoting experiments to civilize or improve Indian society, authorizing presidential authority to bestow presents on the tribes, and punish those who violated Indian rights. The US government appointed Indian agents, such as Benjamin Hawkins in the Southeast , to live among Indians and to encourage them, through example and instruction, to assimilate and adopt

8880-629: The city has diversified and leading sectors include finance, aviation, telecommunications and technology. Two institutions of higher education within the city have sports teams at the NCAA Division I level: the University of Tulsa and Oral Roberts University . As well, the University of Oklahoma has a secondary campus at the Tulsa Schusterman Center, and Oklahoma State University has a secondary campus located in downtown Tulsa. For most of

9000-542: The city hit a record of 60 homicides, the highest since the 1981 peak. North Tulsa has the highest crime rate in the city, with public housing projects being the most heavily affected areas. , the Broken Arrow murders took place on July 22, 2015, when five members of the Bever family were murdered in Broken Arrow, Oklahoma . the attackers were identified as 18 year-old Robert Bever and 16 year-old Michael Bever. On June 1, 2022,

9120-484: The city was in a significant economic development and investment surge. This economic improvement is also seen in Tulsa's housing trends which show an average of a 6% increase in rent in 2010. Since 2006, more than 28,000 jobs have been added to the city. The unemployment rate of Tulsa in August 2014 was 4.5%. Though the oil industry has historically dominated Tulsa's economy, efforts in economic diversification have created

9240-471: The city's companies. During a national recession from 2001 to 2003, the city lost 28,000 jobs. In response, a development initiative, Vision 2025 , promised to incite economic growth and recreate lost jobs. Projects spurred by the initiative promised urban revitalization, infrastructure improvement, tourism development, riverfront retail development, and further diversification of the economy. By 2007, employment levels had surpassed pre-recession heights and

9360-399: The city's southern half has developed since the 1970s, containing low-density housing and retail developments. This region, marked by secluded homes and suburban neighborhoods, contains one of the state's largest shopping malls, Woodland Hills Mall , as well as Southern Hills Country Club , and Oral Roberts University. East of Highway 169 and north of 61st street, a diverse racial makeup marks

9480-424: The city's water needs, was considered one of the largest public works projects of the era. A national recession greatly affected the city's economy in 1982, as areas of Texas and Oklahoma heavily dependent on oil suffered the freefall in gas prices due to a glut, and a mass exodus of oil industries. Tulsa, heavily dependent on the oil industry, was one of the hardest-hit cities by the fall of oil prices. By 1992,

9600-554: The confused (and confusing) nature of surviving documents. In July 2021, the Cherokee Freedmen asked Congress to withhold housing assistance money until the Five Civilized Tribes addressed the citizenship status of freedmen's descendants. They took this action although the Cherokee Nation had already updated its constitution to end their exclusion of the Cherokee Freedmen as members. Like other federally-recognized tribes,

9720-415: The drier plains of the west to the wetter forests of the east. With a wetter climate than points westward, Tulsa serves as a gateway to " Green Country ", a popular and official designation for northeast Oklahoma that stems from the region's green vegetation and relatively large number of hills and lakes compared to central and western areas of Oklahoma, which lie largely in the drier Great Plains region of

9840-652: The early nineteenth century, the tribe has recovered and increased in number. The federally recognized tribes have about 231,000 members in total, making the Choctaw the third-largest Native American population in the United States. The capital of the Choctaw Nation is in Tuskahoma, Oklahoma . The Muscogee , or Creek, are originally from present-day Alabama, Florida , Georgia, and South Carolina . They resided there from approximately 1500 AD until they were forcibly displaced by

9960-590: The eastern portions of the city, with large Asian and Mexican communities and much of the city's manufacturing industry. Areas of Tulsa west of the Arkansas River are called West Tulsa and are marked by large parks, wilderness reserves, and large oil refineries. The northern tier of the city is home to OSU-Tulsa , Gilcrease Museum , Tulsa International Airport , the Tulsa Zoo , the Tulsa Air and Space Museum , and

10080-480: The end of August is frequently dry. On average, Tulsa experiences a secondary rainfall peak in September and early October. As is typical of temperate zones, weather patterns vary by season with occasional extremes in temperature and rainfall. Primarily in the spring and early summer months, the city is subjected to severe thunderstorms containing large hail , damaging winds, and, occasionally, tornadoes , providing

10200-412: The grouping of these aforementioned nations is referred to as The Five Tribes or simply Five Tribes . Examples of such colonial attributes adopted by these five tribes included Christianity , centralized governments , literacy , market participation, written constitutions , intermarriage with White Americans, and chattel slavery practices, including purchase of enslaved Black Americans. For

10320-607: The interests of freedmen descendants in both of these tribes. The freed people of the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole nations were able to enjoy most citizenship rights immediately after emancipation. But the Chickasaw Nation and Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma never granted citizenship to their Freedmen. They enacted legislation similar to the US Black Codes , which set certain wages for ex-slaves and attempted to force freed people to find employment under Indian tribal members. The only way that African Americans could become citizens of

10440-637: The jurisdiction of the tribal courts and federal judiciary under the Major Crimes Act , rather than Oklahoma's courts. Tulsa is located in the northeastern corner of Oklahoma between the edge of the Great Plains and the foot of the Ozarks in a generally forested region of rolling hills. The city touches the eastern extent of the Cross Timbers , an ecoregion of forest and prairie transitioning from

10560-434: The legal authority to do so. The Fifteenth Amendment extended the franchise to all adult males; only adult males among Whites had previously had the franchise, and it was sometimes limited by certain requirements. The 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments are known as the "civil rights amendments", the "post-Civil War amendments", and the " Reconstruction Amendments ". To help freedmen transition from slavery to freedom, including

10680-405: The lifestyle of White settlers. The tribes of the Southeast adopted Washington's policy as they established schools, took up yeoman farming practices, converted to Christianity , and built homes similar to those of their colonial neighbors. These five tribes also adopted the practice of chattel slavery: holding enslaved African Americans as forced workers. How different would be the sensation of

10800-503: The line of the St. Louis-San Francisco Railroad chose that spot for a sidetrack. However, an area merchant persuaded them to move the site further west into the Muscogee Nation, which had friendlier laws for white business owners. On January 18, 1898, Tulsa was officially incorporated and elected Edward E. Calkins as the city's first mayor. Tulsa was still a micro town near the banks of

10920-424: The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.5 males, while for every 100 females over the age of 17 there were 90.4 males. In 2011, the median income for a household in the city was $ 40,268 and the median income for a family was $ 51,977. The per capita income for the city was $ 26,727. About 19.4% of the population were below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 29.8% holds

11040-406: The most recent such occurrence being a −2 °F (−19 °C) reading on January 16, 2024. The average seasonal snowfall is 8.7 inches (22.1 cm) with the record highest seasonal snowfall of 26.1 inches (66.3 cm) occurring in the winter of 2010–2011. Only three winters on record have officially recorded trace amounts or no snowfall, the most recent being 1910–11. The lowest recorded temperature

11160-659: The name, the Five Nations themselves have been less accepting of it in formal matters, and some members have declared that grouping the different peoples under this label is effectively another form of colonization and control by White society. Other modern scholars have suggested that the very concept of "civilization" was internalized by individuals who belonged to the Five Nations, but because much of Native North American history has been communicated by oral tradition , little scholarly research has been done to substantiate this. In present-day commentary on Native American cultures,

11280-527: The nation's largest concentrations of art deco architecture. The area where Tulsa now exists is considered Indian Territory , on the land of the Kiikaapoi (Kickapoo), Wahzhazhe Ma zha ( Osage ), Muscogee (Creek), and Caddo tribes, among others, before it was first formally settled by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation in 1836. They established a small settlement under the Creek Council Oak Tree at

11400-534: The nation's third-largest municipal park, Mohawk Park . Tulsa has a temperate climate of the humid subtropical variety ( Köppen : Cfa ) with a yearly average temperature of 61.3 °F (16.3 °C) and average precipitation of just under 41 inches (1,000 mm) per year. Average monthly precipitation is lowest from December to February, and peaks dramatically in May, which averages 5.9 inches (150 mm) of rainfall. Early June can still be wet, but late June through

11520-513: The present-day intersection of Cheyenne Avenue and 18th Street. They named their new settlement Tallasi , meaning "old town" in Creek, which later became "Tulsa". The area around Tulsa was also settled by members of the other so-called " Five Civilized Tribes " who had been relocated to Oklahoma from the Southern United States. Most of modern Tulsa is located in the Creek Nation , with parts located in

11640-634: The prominent Arkansas River , which flows in a wide, sandy-bottomed channel. Its flow through Tulsa is controlled by reservoirs at Keystone Lake , and a low-water dam was built at Zink Lake in downtown Tulsa to maintain a full channel at all times. This dam deteriorated and eventually failed, and was repaired and reopened in 2014. Heavily wooded and with abundant parks and water areas, the city has several prominent hills, such as "Shadow Mountain" and " Turkey Mountain ", which create varied terrain, especially in its southern portions. While its central and northern sections are generally flat to gently undulating,

11760-405: The question of just what qualities define "civilization". Consequently, it is considered a judgmental term whose meaning is dependent on the user's perspective, and thus best avoided. The Five Civilized Tribes is a term used by some Americans for five major indigenous tribes who lived in the Southeastern United States . They coalesced historically in an area that had been strongly influenced by

11880-472: The region. The Chickasaw were allied with the Confederacy. After the Civil War, the US government required the nation also to make a new peace treaty in 1866. It included the provision that they emancipate the enslaved African Americans and provide full citizenship to those who wanted to stay in the Chickasaw Nation. The Chickasaw and Choctaw negotiated new treaties "without a clause accepting their guilt, allowing them to declare that they had been forced into

12000-463: The right to determine their rules. But descendants of freedmen believe their long standing as citizens since the post-Civil War treaties should be continued. In 2017, the Cherokee Freedmen were granted citizenship again in the tribe. The Cherokee Nation was the first among the five tribes to update its constitution to include the Cherokee Freedmen as full citizens. In 2018, the US Congress removed

12120-639: The state of Oklahoma has fewer Roman Catholics than the national average, Holy Family Cathedral serves as the Cathedral for the Diocese of Tulsa. Tulsa is also home to the largest Jewish community in Oklahoma, with active Reform, Conservative and Orthodox congregations. Tulsa's Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art offers the largest collection of Judaica in the South-Central and Southwestern United States. Tulsa

12240-454: The state's economy had fully recovered, but leaders worked to expand into sectors unrelated to oil and energy. In 2003, the " Vision 2025 " program was approved by voters, to enhance and revitalize Tulsa's infrastructure and tourism industry. The keystone project of the initiative, the BOK Center , was designed to be a home for the city's minor league hockey and arena football teams, as well as

12360-596: The states of Kansas and Oklahoma . The Cherokee Nation resisted removal until 1838 and lost thousands of members in removal, along what they called the Cherokee Trail of Tears . President Martin Van Buren had enforced the Treaty of New Echota , although the Senate had not ratified it, and a majority of the tribe said they had not agreed to its cessions of communal land. Once the tribes had been relocated to Indian Territory,

12480-622: The suburb of Broken Arrow ), is sometimes called the " buckle of the Bible Belt ". Tulsa is also home to a number of vibrant Mainline Protestant congregations. Some of these congregations were founded during the oil boom of the early twentieth century and are noted for striking architecture, such as the art deco Boston Avenue Methodist Church and First Presbyterian Church of Tulsa . The metropolitan area has at least four religious radio stations ( KCFO , KNYD , KXOJ , & KPIM ), and at least two religious TV stations ( KWHB & KGEB ). While

12600-604: The term "civilized" is contentious and not commonly used in academic literature. Some commentators, including the Indian activist Vine Deloria Jr. , have declared that it is demeaning and implies that the indigenous peoples of the North American continent were "uncivilized" before their contact with the habits, customs, and beliefs of Anglo-American settlers. The term is based on the assumption that different peoples possess objective "degrees" of civilization that may be assessed and raises

12720-520: The territories and admit Oklahoma as a state. In 1893, the government opened the " Cherokee Strip " to outside settlement in the Oklahoma Land Run . In 1907, the Oklahoma Territory and the Indian Territory were merged to form the state of Oklahoma. Relative to other states, all Five Tribes are represented in significant numbers in the population of Oklahoma today. In the late 20th century,

12840-494: The tribe, they were penalized by the US government. It took more than half of their territory, with no compensation. They lost territory that had been negotiated in treaties in exchange for their use after removal from the Southeast. In the late 19th century, under the Dawes Act and related legislation, the US government decided to break up communal tribal lands, allocating 160-acre plots to heads of households of enrolled members of

12960-469: The tribes. It determined that land left over was "surplus" and could be sold, including to non-Native Americans. Allotment was also a means to extinguish Indian title to these lands, and the US government required the dissolution of tribal governments prior to admission of the territories as the US state of Oklahoma. As American settlement increased in the Oklahoma Territory , pressure built to combine

13080-429: The tribes. The Choctaw Freedmen and Creek Freedmen have similarly struggled with their respective tribes over the terms of citizenship in contemporary times. The tribes have wanted to limit those who can benefit from tribal citizenship, in an era in which gaming casinos are yielding considerable revenues for members. The majority of members of the tribes have voted to limit membership, and as sovereign nations, they have

13200-468: The tribes. Those who wanted to leave could become US citizens. By that time, numerous families had intermarried or had other personal ties with African Americans. The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 declared all slaves in the Confederacy , which were states that had separated from the Union , to be permanently free. The proclamation did not fully end slavery in the five border states that remained in

13320-522: The twentieth century gave the city a larger base of contemporary architectural styles, including several buildings by famed Tulsa architects Bruce Goff and Adah Robinson . The Prairie School was very influential in Tulsa: Barry Byrne designed Tulsa's Christ the King Church and, in 1927, Frank Lloyd Wright 's midtown Tulsa residential project Westhope was completed. In particular, the middle of

13440-467: The years after the Civil War and around the turn of the century, the area along the Arkansas River that is now Tulsa was periodically home to or visited by a series of colorful outlaws, including the legendary Wild Bunch , the Dalton Gang , and Little Britches . Around August 1, 1882, the town was almost centered at a location just north of the current Whittier Square, when a construction crew laying out

13560-667: Was 115 °F (46 °C) on August 10, 1936. Lack of air circulation due to heat and humidity during the summer months leads to higher concentrations of ozone , prompting the city to release "Ozone Alerts", encouraging all parties to do their part in complying with the Clean Air Act and United States Environmental Protection Agency standards. The autumn season is usually short, consisting of pleasant, sunny days followed by cool nights. Winter temperatures, while generally mild, dip below 10 °F (−12 °C) on average three nights per year, and occasionally below 0 °F (−18 °C),

13680-425: Was estimated at $ 1.8 million . Efforts to obtain reparations for survivors of the violence have been unsuccessful, but the events were re-examined by the city and state in the early 21st century, acknowledging the terrible actions that had taken place. In 1925, Tulsa businessman Cyrus Avery , known as the "Father of Route 66 ," began his campaign to create a road linking Chicago to Los Angeles by establishing

13800-587: Was headquartered in nearby Bartlesville . Industry consolidation and increased offshore drilling threatened Tulsa's status as an oil capital, but new drilling techniques and the rise of natural gas have buoyed the growth of the city's energy sector. Today, Tulsa is again home to the headquarters of many international oil- and gas-related companies, including Williams Companies , ONE Gas , Syntroleum , ONEOK , Laredo Petroleum , Samson Resources, Helmerich & Payne , Magellan Midstream Partners , and Excel Energy. Tulsa has diversified to capitalize on its status as

13920-486: Was hereditary. Chiefdoms were of varying size and complexity, with high levels of military organization. President George Washington and Henry Knox , the first Secretary of War , implemented a policy of cultural transformation in relation to Native Americans. The Cherokee and Choctaw tended, in turn, to adopt and appropriate certain cultural aspects of the federation of colonies. In 1776, assembled in Philadelphia ,

14040-644: Was later bulldozed, and rebuilt in 2019. According to the 2010 census , Tulsa had a population of 391,906 and the racial and ethnic composition was as follows: White American : 62.6% (57.9% Non-Hispanic Whites ); Black , 15.6%; Hispanic or Latino (of any race), 14.1% (11.5% Mexican , 0.4% Puerto Rican , 0.3% Guatemalan , 0.2% Spanish , 0.2% Honduran , 0.2% Salvadoran ); some other race, 8.0%; Two or more races , 5.9%; Native American , 5.3%; Asian American , 2.3% (0.5% Hmong , 0.4% Vietnamese , 0.3% Chinese , 0.2% Indian , 0.2% Korean , 0.2% Burmese ); and Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander : 0.1%. In

14160-410: Was president. The policy assumed that civilized Indians would require less land, and would need money, so that they would be willing to sell the excess land to White settlers. In White American terms, Indians became civilized by the men giving up hunting and becoming farmers, displacing the women who traditionally had been the primary farmers. They were expected to use draft animals and to give up maize as

14280-504: Was responsible for 84 points as the Saints' kicker. He made 19 of 37 field goal attempts and 27 out of 27 extra points. However, the Saints would use Tom Dempsey in 1969 and 1970 . Although Dempsey made a 63-yard field goal to win a game against Detroit in 1970, an NFL record at the time, he was traded by the Saints to the Philadelphia Eagles in 1971. Durkee then returned to the Saints, serving as their kicker in 1971 and part of

14400-570: Was −16 °F (−27 °C) on January 22, 1930. See or edit raw graph data . An EF2  tornado struck Tulsa early on the morning of Sunday, August 6, 2017. The funnel touched down just after 1 A.M. near 36th Street and Harvard Avenue, then travelled in an easterly direction for about six minutes. The heaviest property damage occurred along 41st Street between Yale Avenue and Sheridan Road. Two restaurants, TGI Friday's and Whataburger , were particularly hard hit, with several people being sent to hospitals for treatment. The Whataburger

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