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45-868: Cerro San Cristóbal began to be used in 1903 with the installation of the Mills Observatory, currently known as the Manuel Foster Observatory , twin of the Lick Observatory of the University of California . On its summit there is a sanctuary dedicated to the Immaculate Conception , with a 22-meter statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary , an amphitheater and a chapel. The statue of the Immaculate Conception measures 14 meters tall, and

90-447: A national monument in 2010. The main telescope is a cassegrain reflector with a 0.93 m (3.1 ft) aperture and an equatorial mount . This instrument is housed inside a rotating dome. In 1897, the astronomer William Wallace Campbell , assisted by William H. Wright , began a program of measuring the radial velocity of all stars in the northern hemisphere having an apparent visual magnitude of 5.51 or brighter. This task

135-800: A 45-minute walk, involving a 300m change in elevation), by car via the road joining the Santiago Metropolitan Park, by the Funicular de Santiago (the base of which sits next to the Zoo at the North end of Pio Nono in Barrio Bellavista), or by a Teleferico (cable car located northeast at the Oasis station). A cable car provided service to the top of the hill from the Pedro de Valdivia entrance since 1980 until 2009, when

180-661: A degree in astronomy from the latter. From 1902 to 1920 Curtis worked at Lick Observatory , continuing the survey of nebulae initiated by Keeler . He headed up the Lick southern station in Chile from 1905 until 1909, when he returned to take charge of the Crossley telescope . In 1912 he was elected president of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific . In 1918 he observed Messier 87 and

225-539: A lower limit of about magnitude 7.0. By late 1909, 2,700 photographic plates had been produced. 48 candidate spectroscopic binaries had been identified, along with several stars with high proper motion . During February and March, 1909, the telescope was used to observe Comet Morehouse . On June 5, Joseph H. Moore arrived at Santiago to take charge of the observatory. Curtis departed for California on June 17, and Paddock left in July, to be succeeded by Roscoe F. Sanford . By

270-503: A spare 92 cm (36.25 in) silvered parabolic glass mirror in its possession, but the shape was imperfect. After deciding on a Cassegrain-style reflecting telescope , during the spring of 1901 the mirror was shipped to the John A. Brashear Company in Allegheny for refiguring . However, the mirror broke while the central hole was being cut, so a new mirror had to be ordered. The mount

315-509: A two year period. Because Campbell had been seriously injured, the expedition was headed up by his assistant, William H. Wright . After setting up the telescope and the observation dome, the instrument quality was found to be satisfactory and operations began late in 1903. A total of 800 spectrograms had been successfully collected by October 1905. Heber D. Curtis took over operations in March 1906, and new financing from Mills allowed improvements to

360-641: Is packed in crates and resided at UCO Lick Observatory as of Aug 2011. His article describing the device appears in the Publications of the Allegheny Observatory , vol. VIII, no. 2. In 1930 Curtis was appointed director of the University of Michigan observatories, but the shortage of funds following the Great Depression prevented the construction of a large reflector he had designed for

405-416: The declination axis , which had proven difficult to move. Two new spectrograms were built for studying fainter stars, a refrigeration unit was provided for keeping the dome artificially chilled in the evening, and an apparatus was assembled for rapidly silvering the mirror. The first resilvering of the mirror occurred in March 1906. Following this, exposure times were reduced by 40%. However, the efficiency of

450-481: The spiral nebulae . After four years in charge, Moore returned to California in 1913, being replaced by Ralph E. Wilson as of August 1, the same year. Sanford remained behind for two more years, departing in June 1915. Full funding by Ogden Mills ended in 1917, and the remaining period was financed by fourteen friends of the observatory, which included Mills. Wilson was assisted by math instructor Arthur A. Scott from

495-518: The Chilean government, who had agreed to assist by prior arrangement. After a search for a suitable site for the observatory, the middle rise of the Cerro San Cristóbal was settled upon as the best location for meeting Campbell's general requirements. This ridge is located in the northeastern suburbs of Santiago, with a height of around 262 metres (860 ft) above the city. This placed it above

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540-721: The Instituto Ingles in Santiago, beginning in 1913 until he resigned June, 1917, then by Charles M. Huffer . During June 1918, Wilson resigned his position and returned to the United States, whereupon he was engaged in war service constructing aircraft in Dayton, Ohio for use by the United States in World War I . This left Huffer alone at the station, as Paddock was not given permission by

585-489: The additional time to make spectrographic measurements of nebulae in the southern hemisphere. These would supplement the previous measurement of 13 nebulae made by James E. Keeler in the northern hemisphere. Observations of 12 nebulae in the Greater Magellanic Cloud indicated that this formation was receding with a velocity of 250 to 300 km/s (160 to 190 mi/s), which suggested that it may be related to

630-412: The attention of D. O. Mills, the banker agreed to finance this expedition. In sum, an amount of $ 26,075 would be provided, to cover the cost of instruments, building construction, salaries, travel expenses, and supplies for this two year expedition. This is equivalent to $ 954,971 in 2023. The plan was for the completed observatory to be a much less costly duplicate of the spectroscopic capabilities of

675-414: The coat was back at its old level after a month. Wilson concluded it should be resilvered every two months for best results. The leaky canvas covering of the dome was replaced with galvanized iron early in 1906. Data collection continued during the next three years, with around 200 nights per year being highly favorable for viewing. Most of the work was performed with the two-prism spectroscope, which had

720-522: The dust and haze of the urban area, and free of the frequent fogs that occurred in the valley. Even better, the temperature range on the mount was found to be lower than below. Unfortunately the weather was unusually cloudy that year, limiting observation tests. Late in May the strike ended in Valparaíso, which allowed the observatory equipment to be shipped and construction begun. Only minor damage had been done to

765-549: The gearbox controlling the system's speed exploded, leaving the system unusable. A project was presented in 2011 to open for tender on the system, giving it new cabins and restore infrastructure. The service was expected to be back in 2012, however the Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning received only one offer that was rejected, so the tender was ended and a new public contest was announced, that began in 2013. Then, in December 2014 it

810-403: The growth of the Santiago metropolis, observing conditions grew steadily worse. Part of the observatory was damaged in a fire and an assistant lost an eye in an accident. Heilmeier complained about the lack of running water, astronomers, and funding. The University continued to operate it sporadically until 1948, when technical and economic problems caused it to cease operations. Restoration of

855-407: The growth of the city and its light pollution . The observatory ceased operations altogether in 1995, and was declared a national monument in 2010. The site is now used primarily for education purposes and is open for guided tours of the general public. Heber D. Curtis Heber Doust Curtis (June 27, 1872 – January 9, 1942) was an American astronomer . He participated in 11 expeditions for

900-611: The instruments used for the northern survey. The resulting cost was one eighteenth the cost of the Lick observatory main telescope. For the observatory location, Campbell initially considered possible sites in Australia. However, climate records and the reports from other astronomers indicated that Chile would be a better site. He finally settled on placing it in the vicinity of the Chilean capital of Santiago , so that supplies and living quarters would be readily available. The Lick observatory had

945-417: The military authorities for that service. Huffer ran the station until October, 1919, when Paddock returned for five years. The observatory was renamed Chile Station of Lick Observatory in 1919. The final head of the observatory was Ferdinand J. Neubauer , who assumed control on January 22, 1924. In 1926, Campbell was able to estimate a velocity and apex of solar motion in equatorial coordinates based on

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990-531: The need for similar radial velocity measurements of stars in the Southern Hemisphere. This would allow a more complete investigation of the Solar System 's motion with respect to the neighboring stars. The director of the Lick observatory, James Edward Keeler , died on August 12, 1900, and Campbell was named to succeed him as of January 1, 1901. When Campbell brought the need for a southern observatory to

1035-464: The now-accepted view that other galaxies apart from the Milky Way existed. Curtis also invented a type of film plate comparator in about 1925, allowing 2 plates, each 8×10  in , to be compared using a set of prisms and placing the plates on stacked and aligned stages rather than next to one another as was the norm, this allowed the body of the device to measure just 60×51  cm . This device

1080-434: The observatory began in the 1980s, and, since 1982, the observatory was used once more by the University for research and instruction. Particular attention was paid to the study of RS CVn variables , Wolf–Rayet stars , and Beta Cephei stars. In 1986, observations of Halley's Comet were made for the general public, then of the supernova SN 1987A in 1984. However, the observation quality became degraded over time due to

1125-592: The observatory. Using the data collected from this observatory, Campbell completed his study on the motion of the Sun in 1926. With added funding, operations continued at the observatory until 1928, when it was purchased by Chilean lawyer Manuel Foster Recabarren for the Universidad Católica de Chile and transferred to their control. The observatory is located in the Santiago Metropolitan Park and became

1170-451: The pedestal on which it rests is 8.3 meters in height. It weighs 36,610 kilograms. Within the pedestal there is a small chapel in which Pope John Paul II prayed and blessed the city of Santiago on April 1, 1987. The statue is lit up at night by lights placed on its sides, allowing it to be viewed from all over Santiago both day and night. At the foot of the statue there is an amphitheater for holding masses or other religious ceremonies. Near

1215-426: The radial velocity study: This is located in the constellation of Hercules not far from the present day estimated position of (α = 271°, δ = 30°) and velocity 19.7 km/s . The observatory remained in operation under Lick observatory control until 1928, with about 10,700 spectrograms being produced. The results of the observation program from both hemispheres were published at that time. The observatory

1260-431: The spectrogram plates. Curtis assumed command of the expedition on March 1, 1906, whereupon Wright returned to the United States. Curtis' assistant, George F. Paddock, arrived August 2, 1906. The new financing was used to fund improvements to the observatory. The first change was the construction of an additional building to accommodate a machine shop , plus two rooms for the observers. New bearings were provided for

1305-513: The spectrograph was found to be on the same order of accuracy as the instrument at Lick Observatory. 380 successful spectrograms had been collected at the station by June 1, 1904. The funded observation program ended in October 1905. At this point, the spectra of the brighter stars south of declination –25° had been taken, producing a working list of 145 stars of which at least four photographic plates had been taken. The total number of specrograms

1350-422: The start of December, a total of 725 stars, mostly below a declination of –20°, had spectrograms taken, measured, and the data collected. A total of 3,608 spectrographic plates had been made. After D. O. Mills died in 1910, his son, Ogden Mills , agreed to fund the site until 1913. A sum totaling $ 30,000 was provided, covering expenses up through 1914. In addition to normal measurements, Campbell decided to use

1395-471: The statue, there is also a small chapel for praying. At the foothills of Cerro San Cristóbal are the Chilean National Zoo and a Japanese-style garden, and up there are also two municipal pools, Tupahue and Antilén . Cerro San Cristóbal houses Santiago's largest public park: the Santiago Metropolitan Park ( Parque Metropolitano ). The summit of Cerro San Cristóbal can be reached by foot (about

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1440-470: The study of solar eclipses , and, as an advocate and theorist that additional galaxies existed outside of the Milky Way, was involved in the 1920 Shapley–Curtis Debate concerning the size and galactic structure of the universe. Curtis was born on June 27, 1872, the elder son of Orson Blair Curtis and Sarah Eliza Doust. He studied at the University of Michigan and at the University of Virginia , earning

1485-470: The telescope in transit. However, the dome had arrived badly rusted and repairs were necessary. The ground for the observatory was broken on May 27. The dome consisted of a steel framework sheathed in wood and covered in heavy painted canvas, which did not prove watertight. The observers were housed down in the city, necessitating a nightly climb to the observatory. The initial testing of the main telescope commenced on September 11, 1903. Some zonal aberration

1530-572: The top of the hill are two pools – Tupahue and Antilén, and access the National Zoo of Chile at the Bellavista entrance to Cerro San Cristóbal. The Children's Park of Cerro San Cristóbal also provides entrance to the hill via Avenida Perú. Manuel Foster Observatory The Observatorio Manuel Foster , or Manuel Foster Observatory , is an astronomical observatory constructed on Cerro San Cristóbal near Santiago, Chile in 1903. This site

1575-600: The university at Ann Arbor . He contributed to develop the McMath–Hulbert private observatory at Lake Angelus . Curtis was an opponent of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity . He died on January 9, 1942. The Heber Doust Curtis Memorial Telescope at the Portage Lake Observatory was dedicated in 1950 in Curtis' memory. It no longer operates, but remains as a memorial to Curtis. A small lunar crater east of

1620-436: Was 800, with 676 of stars on the list and 92 that were found to be unmeasureable. The astronomers discovered 22 stars with variable radial velocities. Mills agreed to continue funding the station for an additional five years. To head up this new observation period, acting astronomer Heber D. Curtis set sail from San Francisco on December 30, 1905. The same month, Palmer returned to Lick observatory where he began measurements of

1665-481: Was announced that the cable car would re-open in the second semester of 2016 after a series of maintenance and remodeling works to be done from March 2015, costing US$ 9.5 million. These works complete the installation of the new 46 cabin network, of which 8 will be enabled for the transport of bicycles, strollers or wheelchairs. The transport cabins have a 6-person capacity and the system was reopened in November 2016. From

1710-522: Was constructed by the Fulton Engine Works in Los Angeles , and it arrived at the observatory in December 1901. A rotating steel dome for the observatory was constructed by Warner and Swasey Company , and the spectroscope and other optics by Brashear. When the mirror arrived in 1902, it was found to be again shaped to the wrong figure and had to be returned for correction. With the schedule delayed, it

1755-702: Was facilitated by the newly installed Mills spectrograph , which was attached to the 91 cm (36 in) telescope at the Lick Observatory . This instrument was specifically designed for photographing stellar spectra , and was made possible by a grant from the banker Darius O. Mills . It saw first use in May 1895 and proved highly successful, improving accuracy by an order of magnitude over previous instruments. The design included three prisms and an iron arc comparison system. However, there were flexure and light loss issues that limited its capabilities. By 1903, an improved design allowed measurements of stars at fainter magnitudes. In 1894 Campbell first recognized

1800-499: Was found, which decreased later in the night as the instrument cooled. However, this defect was not found to be significant for spectroscopic work of this type. The telescope was found to change focus as it cooled. The nature of the silvered mirror precluded its use on clear damp nights, which occurred frequently during the rainy season. The silver coating showed a rapid decline in reflectivity over time due to tarnish , which required longer exposure times to compensate. The operation of

1845-545: Was headed up by Campbell's associate, William H. Wright, with Harold K. Palmer as his assistant. They set sail from San Francisco on February 28, 1903 in the Pacific Mail steamship Peru . After transferring to the steamship Columbia at Panama , they arrived at Valparaíso on April 18. After a month-long delay due to a riotous strike in the port, the gear was unloaded and then transported 193 kilometres (120 miles) to Santiago by rail. There they were greeted by members of

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1890-476: Was originally known as the D. O. Mills Observatory after the philanthropist Darius Ogden Mills . It was built as an offshoot of the Lick Observatory to observe stars in the southern hemisphere, and, under the direction of the American astronomer W. W. Campbell , was used in an extensive project to determine the apex of the Sun's motion through space. The initial funding for the project financed operations for

1935-462: Was purchased by the Chilean lawyer Manuel Foster Recabarren , who then donated it to the Universidad Católica de Chile in 1928. At that time it was the largest operational telescope in the southern hemisphere and the tenth largest in the world. During the 1940s, it was used by the German astronomer Erich P. Heilmeier for the spectroscopic study of Beta Cephei and other variable stars . Because of

1980-508: Was resolved that the instruments would be shipped to their final destination without testing the completed instrument. The finished mirrors arrived in February 1903, and, as a result, the expedition reached Chile in April at the start of the southern rainy season. W. W. Campbell had intended to travel with the expedition, but he was severely injured while testing the equipment. Instead, the expedition

2025-610: Was the first to notice the polar jet which he described as a "curious straight ray ... apparently connected with the nucleus by a thin line of matter." In 1920 he was appointed director of the Allegheny Observatory . In the same year he participated in the Great Debate with Harlow Shapley (also called the Shapley–Curtis Debate) on the nature of nebulae and galaxies , and the size of the universe. Curtis advocated

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