The Cegua , La Sihuehuet or Siguanaba , Cigua or Siguanaba is a supernatural character from Central American folklore, though it can also be heard in Mexico. It is a shapeshifting spirit that typically takes the form of an attractive, long haired woman seen from behind. She lures men away into danger before revealing her face to be that of a horse or, alternatively, a skull.
185-793: The Siguanaba and its variants may have been brought to Latin America from Spain during the Colonial Period , used by the colonists as a means of exercising control over the indigenous and mestizo population. When encountered, she is a beautiful woman who is either naked or dressed in either flimsy white or black clothing; she usually appears bathing in a public water tank, river, or other water source, although she may also be found washing clothing. She likes to lure lone men out late on dark, moonless nights, without letting them see her face at first. She tempts such men away from their planned routes to lose them in deep canyons and dark forests. In Guatemala,
370-688: A coup d'état ), Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sánchez Cerén in El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who often declare themselves socialists , Latin Americanists , or anti-imperialists , often implying opposition to US policies towards the region . An aspect of this has been the creation of the eight-member ALBA alliance, or " The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America " (Spanish: Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América ) by some of these countries. Following
555-460: A Romance language (a language derived from Latin) predominates. Latin America are the countries and territories in the Americas which speak Spanish or Portuguese, with French being sometimes included. As is customary, Puerto Rico is included and Dominica , Grenada , and Saint Lucia (where French is spoken but not official language) are excluded from Latin America. *: Not a sovereign state Before
740-412: A beautiful woman of mixed race, who draws them towards a ravine, and when they approach her she reveals her horse face (or human skull, according to other versions; although also most of the time her face is not seen). This sight causes the man to fall into the ravine--leading them to suicide--and into the thorns so that they can bleed to death, although there are times when the victim survives, waking up in
925-747: A central role in both works. The first event happened less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works: the Invasion of Mexico or, in the US, the Mexican–American War , after which the United States annexed more than half of Mexico's territory. The second event, the Walker affair , which happened the same year that both works were written: the decision by US president Franklin Pierce to recognize
1110-575: A colossal statue weighing 168 tons was found that was thought to represent Tláloc. However, one scholar believes that the statue may not have been Tláloc at all but his sister or some other female deity. This is a classic confusion as nobody could seem to figure out what was Tláloc, and what was not. This statue was relocated to the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City in 1964. While pre-Hispanic cultures are thought to have become extinct once
1295-684: A considerable influence from Dutch and the Portuguese-based creole languages . Amerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, and Chile. In other Latin American countries, the population of speakers of Indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent, for example in Uruguay. Mexico
1480-537: A day, life expectancy , murder rates and a measurement of safety through the Global Peace Index . Green cells indicate the best performance in each category, and red the lowest. List of countries by life expectancy at birth for 2022 according to the World Bank Group . This service doesn't provide data for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Saint Barthélemy. Urbanization accelerated starting in
1665-550: A filthy horror that drives men crazy. In Costa Rica , this spectre is known by the name of Cegua, a spectre that is characterized by its face--that of a dead horse in a state of decomposition. In this country, La Cegua is a myth that is most common in rural areas, although the figure's actions are generally the same as in the rest of Mexico and Central America (especially her habit of bathing at night). La Cegua particularly sometimes appears among herds of horses, mounted on one of these, which causes panic. Other popular versions say that
1850-399: A horse's head and red eyes. Sometimes she says things like, "Do I still look beautiful to you?" or "I also like you a lot." The victim may scream in terror and flee, swearing never to drink again. If the victim is "touched," they die shortly thereafter, despite attempts by the family to "take him to clean" or "cure him of dread." Her appearance plays a sobering role that brings a consequence for
2035-493: A horse's hind legs, and her feet and arms got bigger, giving her great physical strength and speed, which ensure that her victim cannot escape. After this transformation, the Cegua would walk through the fields in search of womanizers and night owls to punish their behavior. When the rider or night owl is not cautious, the Cegua would ambush him first, playing with him, then tormenting him but not killing him immediately. The specter seizes
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#17328699800142220-515: A lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basin – including parts of Colombia and Venezuela ). The term's meaning is contested and not without controversy. Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the "allure and power" of the idea of Latin America. He remarks at the outset, "The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with
2405-402: A man approaches, turns into a horrendous old woman. There is also another version of the legend, from the department of León , which describes her as an ugly and old woman, with long white hair, breasts up to her stomach, who laughs mockingly. When she has her victim, who are men and boys, trapped, she offers him one of her breasts; it terrifies him until it drives him crazy. And still today, it
2590-499: A printed work to produce the term "Latin America" in 1856 at a conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in Paris. The conference had the title "Initiative of the America. The idea for a Federal Congress of Republics." The following year, Colombian writer José María Torres Caicedo also used the term in his poem "The Two Americas". Two events related with the United States played
2775-1191: A recent resurgence of left-wing politics in several countries. In many countries in the early 2000s, left-wing political parties rose to power, known as the Pink tide . The presidencies of Hugo Chávez (1999–2013) in Venezuela, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet in Chile, Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff of the Workers Party (PT) in Brazil, Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (removed from power by
2960-535: A role as not everyone is equally capable of taking advantage of its benefits. Differences in opportunities and endowments tend to be based on race , ethnicity, rurality, and gender . Because inequality in gender and location are near-universal, race and ethnicity play a larger, more integral role in discriminatory practices in Latin America. The differences have a strong impact on the distribution of income, capital and political standing. One indicator of inequality
3145-528: A role in Mexican cultures immediately after colonization. Despite the fact that it has been half a millennium since the conquest of Mexico, Tláloc still plays a role in shaping Mexican culture. At Coatlinchan , a giant statue of Tláloc continues to play a key role in shaping local culture, even after the statue was relocated to Mexico City. In Coatlinchan, people still celebrate the statue of Tláloc, so much so that some local residents still seek to worship him, while
3330-449: A slender body with pronounced curves. She is dressed in full black or white, or on some occasions, in a vaporous pink dress or a luxurious period dress. Legend has it that no man can resist such a beautiful body and sweet plea, which makes them climb it. Once climbing the woman, after a while of riding, she transforms into a monster with a head similar to that of a horse. La Cegua also appears to those womanizing men who walk late at night on
3515-436: A specific behavior, unlike La Llorona, whose victims can be anyone. The Siguanaba is an entity that enforces compliance with the classic recommendations of a grandmother or mother to young men: "don't go out now, and behave well." It should be mentioned that sometimes her face varies. In addition to a horse's head, she can also have the head of a dog, a pig, an old woman's face, a skull, or a disfigured and bloody face. Likewise,
3700-725: A speech delivered in France by the radical liberal Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in June 1856". By the late 1850s, the term was being used in California (which had become a part of the United States), in local newspapers such as El Clamor Público by Californios writing about América latina and latinoamérica , and identifying as Latinos as the abbreviated term for their "hemispheric membership in la raza latina ". The words "Latin" and "America" were first found to be combined in
3885-500: A term that refers to both Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries from the Americas, and sometimes from Europe. The term Latin America was first used in Paris at a conference in 1856 called "Initiative of America: Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics" ( Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas ), by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao . The term
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#17328699800144070-400: A vicious cycle. Inequality has been reproduced and transmitted through generations because Latin American political systems allow a differentiated access on the influence that social groups have in the decision-making process, and it responds in different ways to the least favored groups that have less political representation and capacity of pressure. Recent economic liberalisation also plays
4255-491: A while his "wife" flung herself from her mount and revealed herself to be the Siguanaba. In this same region, the Siguanaba is said to appear on moonlit nights to horseriders on lonely roads, asking to ride pillion. After riding with her victim for a short while, she reveals her fingernails as fearsome claws and her face as that of a horse, causing the rider to die of terror. Those lucky few that manage to flee find themselves lost in
4440-494: A while to see his face; reason why many pull it, showing that, that woman who was supposed to have a beautiful face, has a horse's head that smiles at them maliciously, for which many flee. And the demonic spirit stays to continue its "ritual of conquest". Many, at night, fear and avoid passing by so that the horrifying appearance comes out and fear that the legend is true. Finally, there is the Chiapas version. In this last version, it
4625-649: A while, anything that was abstract and on the scarier side was labelled as Tláloc. However, in reality, Tláloc's two main identifiers are fangs, along with ringed eyes. Furthermore, his lips are a very defining feature - they are shaped like a mustache. He is most often coupled with lightning, maize, and water in visual representations and artwork. Other forms of Tláloc include a variety of elements or symbols: jaguar, serpent, owl, water lily, bifurcated tongue, quetzal, butterfly, shell, spider, eye-of-the-reptile symbol, cross Venus / symbol. The number of different symbols associated with Tláloc stem from past, widespread confusion on
4810-399: A woman of great beauty who is very brooding and very well groomed; hence her name. Upon seeing her, she would convince the man to put her on his horse (or car, according to modern accounts). When turning to look lasciviously at the young woman, the man finds that he has mounted a specter on his horse who, instead of the head of a woman, now presents herself with the face of a human skull (or, in
4995-405: A woman with an attractive body, always seen from her back or walking away, with her face completely covered by either her hair or a large veil. The victim is fascinated and attracted to the beautiful woman, whom he decides to approach, plying her with compliments and flirtation. She always ignores him and tries to hide her face even more, and when the victim insists, she turns to reveal that she has
5180-515: A woman with enormous glowing eyes and a hoof for a hand. She wears a glittering dress and has very long hair and haunts the local rubbish dump, frightening disobedient children and drunken husbands. On the Guatemalan side of Lake Güija , in Jutiapa Department , the Siguanaba is able to take on many forms but the most common is that of a slim, beautiful woman with long hair who bathes herself on
5365-560: Is a monstrous being. In colonial legends she frightened night owls, rapists, or women who walked in bad steps, taking them to ravines and then killing then. There is a story of a supposed encounter between Hernán Cortés and this creature. In the state of Puebla , she is known as the Andalona, where it is described as a specter that has multiple forms; she is said to seduce men who roam the mountains in order to drive them mad or kill them. Some say she dresses in white, has chicken feet and floats in
5550-479: Is access to and quality of education. During the first phase of globalization in Latin America, educational inequality was on the rise, peaking around the end of the 19th century. In comparison with other developing regions , Latin America then had the highest level of educational inequality , which is certainly a contributing factor for its current general high inequality. During the 20th century, however, educational inequality started decreasing. Latin America has
5735-648: Is accompanied by the Cadejo and together they are in charge of scaring men out of living a bad life. In Honduras , she is known as "La Sucia" or Cigua. The most popular story describes her as a beautiful young woman denied marriage at the altar because she was unbaptized. She then wandered out of mind, never removing her increasingly filthy wedding dress until she died of heartbreak after her suitor married another woman. The story follows that she appears in beautiful form to lure men roaming drunk by rivers and streams, so enraptured by her beauty they follow her until she changes into
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5920-475: Is also spoken by some Panamanians of Afro- Antillean descent. Dutch is the official language in Suriname , Aruba , Curaçao and Bonaire . (As Dutch is a Germanic language , the territories are not necessarily considered part of Latin America.) However, the native and co-official language of Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao , is Papiamento , a creole language largely based on Portuguese and Spanish that has had
6105-557: Is associated with a "Zapotec" deity of death, known as Mictecacihuatl , who was in charge of collecting the souls of the deceased to take them to the underworld, and was the consort of Mictlantecuhtli , the lord of the dead. She is also believed to be the soul in pain of a woman who was cruel and murderous, and wanders in this world as a punishment. This specter is said to punish people's wrongdoings, or sins, but she generally appears to men (especially drunkards, womanizers, partygoers, or those who abandon their families). She appears to them as
6290-438: Is associated with pregnancies and childbirths and was believed to act as a guardian figure for new mothers. Unlike many other female deities, Xochiquetzal maintains her youthful appearance and is often depicted in opulent attire and gold adornments. Tláloc was the father of Tecciztecatl , possibly with Chalchiuhtlicue. Tláloc had an older sister named Huixtocihuatl . There is a sanctuary found atop Cerro Tláloc , dedicated to
6475-660: Is dominated by blacks, but is sometimes not considered part of Latin America. In the nineteenth century, a number of Latin American countries sought immigrants from Europe and Asia. With the abolition of black slavery in 1888, the Brazilian monarchy fell in 1889. By then, another source of cheap labor to work on coffee plantations was found in Japan. Chinese male immigrants arrived in Cuba, Mexico, Peru and elsewhere. With political turmoil in Europe during
6660-779: Is equally large white populations and smaller black populations, while Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are more Mulatto/Triracial dominated, with significant black and white minorities. Parts of Central America and northern South America are more diverse in that they are dominated by Mestizos and whites but also have large numbers of Mulattos, blacks, and indigenous, especially Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. The southern cone region, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile are dominated by whites and mestizos. The rest of Latin America, including México, northern Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras), and central South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay), are dominated by mestizos but also have large white and indigenous minorities. The French Caribbean
6845-505: Is found in Spain . The washerwomen, especially in the province of Asturias , constitute a kind of supernatural beings, "ghosts that almost always lead to death." They are fuzzy beings who wash clothes on the banks of rivers on moonless nights. The specter of the Wagtail is often described as an old woman with white hair and dressed in black. There are also versions in which it is said that she acquires
7030-480: Is international movement of populations, often fleeing repression or war. Other international migration is for economic reasons, often unregulated or undocumented. Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. during the violence of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) and the religious Cristero War (1926–29); during World War II, Mexican men worked in the U.S. in the bracero program . Economic migration from Mexico followed
7215-482: Is known as the Nöwayomo, Tisigua, or Tishanila. In some regions or places it is considered as an evil spirit and in others as a benign spirit. It is said that she is the wife of El Sombrerón . It is said that she appears to men who are unfaithful, bathes in any lake and when they approach it she reveals a demonized horse face (or a disfigured face, according to the best known versions) that kills them or lets them go. Many of
7400-431: Is now their punisher and a demon woman who scares the men. A second version tells that it was a Mayan princess named Suluay, daughter of Governor Halach Huinic, who had fallen in love with a young warrior and they saw each other in a ceiba tree. And that it was sent by the granddaughter of a witch, who spell it killing her immediately. Then they left the body in the bush. Although there are other versions that say that warrior
7585-508: Is of Tláloc as the figure portrays the iconic goggle eyes and large fangs. The other chacmool was found at the Tláloc half of the double pyramid-temple complex and clearly represents Tláloc for the same reasons. In addition to the chacmools, human corpses were found in close proximity to the Tlálocan half of Templo Mayor, which were likely war captives. These archaeological findings could explain why
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7770-474: Is only spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara , Quechua and Guaraní hold official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, like Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and is spoken by a majority of the population, which is, for the most part, bilingual, and it is co-official with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes . In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, but on
7955-403: Is possibly contains more Indigenous languages than any other Latin American country, but the most-spoken Indigenous language there is Nahuatl. In Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and other Indigenous languages in the areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while Quichua holds no official status, it is a recognized language under the country's constitution; however, it
8140-522: Is said that the Cegua also appears in the trees of Guanacaste, where a womanizer or night owl awaits her, under a beautiful veil. When the man approaches, she lifts her veil, showing a horrible skull in a decomposed state. In Panama , this entity is known as the Empollerada Woman. As in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, she is said to punish drunk and womanizing men who travel by transport. She is described as
8325-597: Is seen as a punisher for drunks, womanizers and infidels, whom she chooses because they are easier to deceive and catch. An important version is the Concan version (from the town of Concá) of Querétaro of the Siguanaba, where it is said that it appears in a lake, under a bridge, which is known as the "Puente del Sapo", there it is He says that the Siguanaba appears as a beautiful woman who bathes naked to attract men, and always turns her back. The men approaching start talking while trying to see his face, many despair after waiting for
8510-497: Is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize, mostly by the Garifuna people , a mixed-race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language , it has influences from Caribbean and European languages. Archaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from Mesoamerican societies. Ancient Maya had
8695-622: Is spoken mostly in Brazil, the largest and most populous country in the region. Spanish is the official language of most of the other countries and territories on the Latin American mainland, as well as in Cuba, Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican Republic. French is spoken in Haiti and in the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe , Martinique , and Guiana . It
8880-416: Is supposed to be seen at night in the rivers of El Salvador , washing clothes and always looking for her son, Cipitio , who was also cursed by Teotl to remain a boy for eternity. In Guatemala, the Siguanaba is said to be encountered washing her hair with a golden bowl and combing her hair with a golden comb. She is said to wander the streets of Guatemala City , luring away men who are in love. In Guatemala,
9065-471: Is the god of rain in Aztec religion . He was also a deity of earthly fertility and water, worshipped as a giver of life and sustenance. This came to be due to many rituals, and sacrifices that were held in his name. He was feared, but not maliciously, for his power over hail, thunder, lightning, and even rain. He is also associated with caves, springs, and mountains, most specifically the sacred mountain where he
9250-663: Is the highest peak of the part of the Sierra Nevada called Sierra del Rio Frio that separates the valleys of Mexico and Puebla. It rises over two different ecological zones: alpine meadows and subalpine forests. The rainy season starts in May and lasts until October. The highest annual temperature occurs in April, the onset of the rainy season, and the lowest in December–January. Some 500 years ago weather conditions were slightly more severe, but
9435-603: Is unknown what they were called in these cultures, and in other cases we know that he was called by a different name, e.g., the Maya version was known as Chaac and the Zapotec deity as Cocijo . Chalchiuhtlicue, or "she of the jade skirt" in Nahuatl, was the deity connected with the worship of ground water. Therefore, her shrines were by springs, streams, irrigation ditches, or aqueducts, the most important of these shrines being at Pantitlan, in
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#17328699800149620-555: The República de indios [ es ] to paternalistically govern and protect Indigenous peoples. It also created the República de Españoles , which included not only European whites, but all non-Indigenous peoples, such as blacks, mulattoes, and mixed-race castas who were not dwelling in Indigenous communities. In the religious sphere, the Indigenous were deemed perpetual neophytes in
9805-539: The Broad Front candidate. Economically, the 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies. Another trend was the rapidly increasing importance of their relations with China . However, with the Great Recession beginning in 2008, there was an end to the commodity boom, resulting in economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries. A number of left-wing governments of
9990-661: The Caribbean and South America; the latter contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone , the Guianas and the Andean states. It may be subdivided on linguistic grounds into Spanish America , Portuguese America , and French America . The term "Latin America" is defined to mean parts of Americas south of the mainland of the United States of America where
10175-632: The Caribbean remains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators. A report released in 2013 by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs entitled Inequality Matters: Report of the World Social Situation , observed that: 'Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.' Such declines are likely to disproportionately affect individuals in
10360-636: The Guaraní in Paraguay and the Mapuche in Chile. The vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics belonging to the Latin Church . About 70% of the Latin American population considers itself Catholic. In 2012 Latin America constitutes in absolute terms the second world's largest Christian population , after Europe. According to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of
10545-412: The Latin Church , in a struggle with " Teutonic Europe " and " Anglo-Saxon America " with its Anglo-Saxonism , as well as " Slavic Europe " with its Pan-Slavism . Scholarship has political origins of the term. Two Latin American historians, Uruguayan Arturo Ardao and Chilean Miguel Rojas Mix , found evidence that the term "Latin America" was used earlier than Phelan claimed, and the first use of
10730-451: The Mexican drug war . Several right-wing leaders rose to power, including Argentina's Mauricio Macri and Brazil's Michel Temer , following the impeachment of the country's first female president. In Chile , the conservative Sebastián Piñera succeeded the socialist Michelle Bachelet in 2017. In 2019, center-right Luis Lacalle Pou ended a 15-year leftist rule in Uruguay, after defeating
10915-627: The arrival of Europeans in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the region was home to many indigenous peoples, including advanced civilizations, most notably from South: the Olmec , Maya , Muisca , Aztecs and Inca . The region came under control of the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal , which established colonies, and imposed Roman Catholicism and their languages. Both brought African slaves to their colonies as laborers, exploiting large, settled societies and their resources. The Spanish Crown regulated immigration, allowing only Christians to travel to
11100-486: The 1990s, economic stress in Ecuador during the La Década Perdida triggered considerable migration to Spain and to the U.S. Some Latin American countries seek to strengthen links between migrants and their states of origin, while promoting their integration in the receiving state. These emigrant policies focus on the rights, obligations and opportunities for participation of emigrated citizens who already live outside
11285-586: The Aztec capital. The children were either slaves or the second-born children of noblepeople, or pīpiltin. If the children did not cry, it meant a bad year for their whole system of living - agriculture. To signify when the rains were about to end, the Aztecs relied on the call from a bird known as the "cuitlacochin". This would also signify a switch to soft rain rolling in. The festival of Tozoztontli (24 March – 12 April) similarly involved child sacrifice. During this festival,
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#173286998001411470-517: The Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely-spoken creole language in Latin America and the Caribbean is Haitian Creole , the predominant language of Haiti, derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues, with Amerindian , English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from European languages and various African tongues. The Garifuna language
11655-541: The Catholic faith, which meant Indigenous men were not eligible to be ordained as Catholic priests; however, Indigenous were also excluded from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition . Catholics saw military conquest and religious conquest as two parts of the assimilation of Indigenous populations, suppressing Indigenous religious practices and eliminating the Indigenous priesthood. Some worship continued underground. Jews and other non-Catholics, such as Protestants (all called "Lutherans") were banned from settling and were subject to
11840-438: The Cegua appears on the roads as a beautiful woman before the womanizers or drunkards, who are asked to take her to her horse (or car or motorcycle, according to more modern versions). She is described as a very pretty young woman, white, with an oval face, large black eyes, long curly black hair (or brunette, depending on the version), and a beautiful mouth, with lips red as blood, with a divine voice that lulls like siren song, and
12025-466: The Indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans initially brought as slaves, and Asians, as well as new immigrants. Mixing of groups was a fact of life at contact of the Old World and the New, but colonial regimes established legal and social discrimination against non-white populations simply on the basis of perceived ethnicity and skin color. Social class was usually linked to a person's racial category, with European-born Spaniards and Portuguese on top. During
12210-407: The Inquisition. Considerable mixing of populations occurred in cities, while the countryside was largely Indigenous. At independence in the early nineteenth century, in many places in Spanish America formal racial and legal distinctions disappeared, although slavery was not uniformly abolished. Significant black populations exist in Brazil and Spanish Caribbean islands such as Cuba and Puerto Rico and
12395-409: The Latin America and Caribbean region have large-scale school feeding activities, altogether reaching 88% of primary school-age children in the region. Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of education. On average, they have completed two more years of school than their parents. However, there are still 23 million children in the region between
12580-422: The Latin American population is Catholic and 19% is Protestant. Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central America. More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism. The entire hemisphere was settled by migrants from Asia, Europe, and Africa. Native American populations settled throughout the hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and
12765-402: The Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!" Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the term Latin America itself had an "anti-imperial genesis," and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in any other place of
12950-429: The Macihuatli was a moon deity called Metztli , who suffers the betrayal of their husband Tláloc. Other versions indicate that she was a woman of lousy behavior, which is why she was cursed by her husband or her father-in-law to wander as a ghost hunting men. Today, in some versions, she is described as a woman with a skull similar to that of a horse and with legs of a horse, which is beautiful at first glance, but up close
13135-405: The Maya had also worshipped their own version of Tláloc, so did the Mixtec people of Oaxaca , who were known to worship a rain god that is extremely similar to other manifestations of Tláloc. In Aztec cosmology , the four corners of the universe are marked by "the four Tlálocs" ( Classical Nahuatl : Tlālōquê [tɬaːˈloːkeʔ] ) which both hold up the sky and function as the frame for
13320-439: The Maya tended to associate their version of Tláloc, Chaac , with the bloodiness of war and sacrifice, because they adopted it from the Aztecs, who used Maya captives for sacrifice to Tláloc. Furthermore, Tláloc can be seen in many examples of Maya war imagery and war-time decoration, such as appearing on “shields, masks, and headdresses of warriors.” This evidence affirms the Maya triple connection between war-time, sacrifice, and
13505-469: The Nahua as cempohualxochitl, was another important symbol of the god, and was burned as a ritual incense in native religious ceremonies. Representations of Tláloc are distinguished by the presence of fangs, whether that be three or four of the same size, or just two, paired with the traditional bifurcated tongue. Often, but not always, Tláloc will also be carrying some sort of vessel that contains water. Although
13690-603: The New World. The colonization process led to significant native population declines due to disease, forced labor, and violence. They imposed their culture, destroying native codices and artwork. Colonial-era religion played a crucial role in everyday life, with the Spanish Crown ensuring religious purity and aggressively prosecuting perceived deviations like witchcraft. In the early nineteenth century nearly all of areas of Spanish America attained independence by armed struggle, with
13875-532: The Pink tide lost support. The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severe social and economic upheaval . Charges of against a major Brazilian conglomerate, Odebrecht , has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (see Operation Car Wash ). This bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history. As of July 2017, the highest ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , who
14060-443: The Siguanaba appears as a beautiful, seductive woman with very long hair. She will not reveal her face until the last moment, when it is revealed as either the face of a horse or, alternatively, a human skull. If her victim (usually an unfaithful man) does not die of fear, then he is driven mad by the sight. From afar, the Siguanaba can imitate the appearance of a man's girlfriend in order to lead him astray. When appearing to children,
14245-406: The Siguanaba will take on the appearance of the child's mother in order to lure her victim into her grasp; once touched by the Siguanaba the child is driven mad and she will lead her victim into the wilderness to leave the child lost and insane. Traditional methods are said to ward off the Siguanaba. In the border regions between Guatemala and El Salvador, those who see the Siguanaba make the sign of
14430-525: The Spanish had completed the colonization of Mexico , aspects of pre-Hispanic cultures continue to influence Mexican culture. Accordingly, Tláloc has continued to be represented in Mexican culture even after the Spanish were thought to have completed evangelizing in Mexico. In fact, even as the Spanish were beginning to proselytize in Mexico, religious syncretism was occurring. Analyses of evangelization plays put on by
14615-700: The Spanish, in order to convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity , suggests that the Spanish might have unknowingly created connections between Christianity and indigenous religious figures, such as Tláloc. Indigenous Mexicans viewing these plays might have made connections between the sacrifice Abraham was willing to make of Isaac , to the sacrifices that were made to Tláloc and other deities. These connections may have allowed indigenous peoples to retain ideas about sacrifice even as they were being forcibly converted to Christianity. Early syncretism between indigenous religions and Christianity, also included more direct connections to Tláloc. Some churches built during
14800-498: The U.S. settled in northern Mexico. When the U.S. acquired its southwest by conquest in the Mexican American War , Latin American populations did not cross the border to the U.S., the border crossed them. In the twentieth century there have been several types of migration. One is the movement of rural populations within a given country to cities in search of work, causing many Latin American cities to grow significantly. Another
14985-558: The United Kingdom during the region's political turmoil, compounded by the rise of narcotrafficking and guerrilla warfare . During the Central American wars of the 1970s to the 1990s, many Salvadorans, Guatemalans, and Hondurans migrated to the U.S. to escape narcotrafficking, gangs, and poverty. As living conditions deteriorated in Venezuela under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro , many left for neighboring Colombia and Ecuador. In
15170-614: The United Nations ECLAC , Latin America is the most unequal region in the world. Inequality in Latin America has deep historical roots in the Latin European racially based Casta system instituted in Latin America during colonial times that has been difficult to eradicate because of the differences between initial endowments and opportunities among social groups have constrained the poorest's social mobility , thus causing poverty to transmit from generation to generation, and become
15355-466: The United States and Canada, but a significant number arrived in Latin America. Although Mexico tried to attract immigrants, it largely failed. As black slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, coffee growers recruited Japanese migrants to work in coffee plantations. There is a significant population of Japanese descent in Brazil. Cuba and Peru recruited Chinese labor in the late nineteenth century. Some Chinese immigrants who were excluded from immigrating to
15540-438: The afterlife for those who died violently from phenomena associated with water, such as by lightning, drowning, and water-borne diseases. These violent deaths also included leprosy, venereal disease, sores, dropsy, scabies, gout, and child sacrifices. The Nahua believed that Huitzilopochtli could provide them with fair weather for their crops and they placed an image of Tláloc, who was the rain-god, near him so that if necessary,
15725-579: The ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students, and only 66% of these advance to secondary school. These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17 years attend school. Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the education system. Currently, more than half of low income or rural children fail to complete nine years of education. Tlaloc Tláloc ( Classical Nahuatl : Tláloc [ˈtɬaːlok] )
15910-558: The ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system. Estimates indicate that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this proportion exceeds 40 percent. Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), attendance is almost universal; however there is still a need to enroll five million more children in the primary education system. These children mostly live in remote areas, are Indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in extreme poverty. Among people between
16095-527: The air. In the state of Guerrero , she is known as the Chaneca, where she is said to be the fruit of a relationship between a common woman and a chaneque . She was given the opportunity to get to know the outside world. She fell in love, but men rejected her. For that reason, she decided to take revenge on men by seducing them and then killing them. In Oaxaca , where he is known as the Matlazihua or Bandolera, he
16280-454: The augury, or omen, and the patron deity or deities associated with the trecena. In Aztec mythic cosmography, Tláloc ruled the fourth layer of the upper world, or heavens, which is called Tlálocan ("place of Tláloc") in several Aztec codices, such as the Vaticanus A and Florentine codices. Described as a place of unending springtime and a paradise of green plants, Tlálocan was the destination in
16465-452: The banks of the Ostúa River , although she may also appear by other water sources or simply by lonely roadsides. To lustful men she appears just as a beautiful woman, while to lovestruck men she takes the form of the object of the man's affections. A tale from San Juan La Isla relates how a man went to meet his wife who was returning on horseback from El Salvador, and after accompanying her for
16650-406: The best time to climb the mountain was practically the same as today: October through December, and February until the beginning of May. The date of the feast of Huey Tozotli celebrated atop Cerro Tláloc coincided with a period of the highest annual temperature, shortly before dangerous thunderstorms might block access to the summit. The first detailed account of Cerro Tláloc by Jim Rickards in 1929
16835-744: The borders of the country of origin. Research on Latin America shows that the extension of policies towards migrants is linked to a focus on civil rights and state benefits that can positively influence integration in recipient countries. In addition, the tolerance of dual citizenship has spread more in Latin America than in any other region of the world. Despite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend primary school , and access to secondary education has increased considerably. Quality issues such as poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment, and overcrowding exist throughout
17020-489: The center of Lake Texcoco. Sometimes described as Tláloc's sister, Chalchiuhtlicue was impersonated by ritual performers wearing the green skirt that was associated with Chalchiuhtlicue. Like that of Tláloc, her cult was linked to the earth, fertility and nature's regeneration. Tláloc was first married to the goddess of flowers, Xochiquetzal , which literally translates to "Flower Quetzal." Xochiquetzal personifies pleasure, flowers, and young female sexuality. In doing so, she
17205-407: The chacmool is shaped like a captive who has been bound. Likewise, two of the chacmools that have been found at Templo Mayor make clear reference to Tláloc. The first chacmool portrays Tláloc three times. Once on the vessel for collecting the blood and heart of sacrificed victims, once on the underpart of the chacmool with aquatic motifs related to Tláloc, and the actual figure of the chacmool itself
17390-813: The children were sacrificed in caves. The flayed skins of sacrificial victims that had been worn by priests for the last twenty days were taken off and placed in these dark caverns. The winter veintena of Atemoztli (9 December – 28 December) was also dedicated to the Tlaloque. This period preceded an important rainy season, so statues were made out of amaranth dough. Their teeth were pumpkin seeds and their eyes, beans. Once these statues were offered copal, fine scents, and other food items, while they were also prayed to and adorned with finery. Afterwards, their doughy chests were opened, their "hearts" taken out, before their bodies were cut up and eaten. The ornaments with which they had been adorned were taken and burned in peoples’ patios. On
17575-641: The circum-Caribbean mainland (Venezuela, Colombia, Panama), as long as in the southern part of South America and Central America (Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Ecuador, and Peru) a legacy of their use in plantations. All these areas also have significant white populations. In Brazil, coastal Indigenous peoples largely died out in the early sixteenth century, with Indigenous populations surviving far from cities, sugar plantations, and other European enterprises. Many mixed-race people in much of Latin America are tri-racial, usually of European, African, and Indigenous blood, where European (mostly Spanish/Portuguese) tends to be
17760-453: The clearing of the Guanacaste pampa, and under a leafy Guanacaste tree, surrenders to her love affairs. Late at night, when the man finally tries to kiss her, the metamorphosis occurs. In Nicaragua , she is also known as the Cegua (or also Ceguanaba or Ceguanagua). In this country, Cegua is also more present in rural areas and her actions are the same as in other countries. It is said that she
17945-482: The colonial era, with a dearth initially of European women, European men and Indigenous women and African women produced what were considered mixed-race children. In Spanish America, the so-called Sociedad de castas or Sistema de castas was constructed by white elites to try to rationalize the processes at work. In the sixteenth century the Spanish crown sought to protect Indigenous populations from exploitation by white elites for their labor and land. The crown created
18130-457: The cosmic race ", according to Mexican intellectual José Vasconcelos , thus erasing other populations. There was considerable discrimination against Asians, with calls for the expulsion of Chinese in northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) and racially motivated massacres . In a number of Latin American countries, Indigenous groups have organized explicitly as Indigenous, to claim human rights and influence political power. With
18315-410: The country's Caribbean coast English and Indigenous languages such as Miskito , Sumo , and Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all Indigenous languages spoken within its territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 Native languages spoken by Indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by
18500-474: The crash of the Mexican economy in the 1980s. Spanish refugees fled to Mexico following the fascist victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936–38), with some 50,000 exiles finding refuge at the invitation of President Lázaro Cárdenas . Following World War II a larger wave of refugees to Latin America, many of them Jews, settled in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, and Venezuela. Some were only transiting through
18685-428: The creature, ending Yeisun's life. When Tlaloc found out about this, he sought the help of the almighty god, Teotl whom condemned and cursed Sihuehuet: She would be called Sihuanaba ("hideous woman"); she would be beautiful at first sight, but she would turn into a horrible abomination after luring her victims to isolated gorges. She was forced to wander the countryside, appearing to men who travelled alone at night. She
18870-486: The cross upon her or bite their machete , while simultaneously banishing both the evil spirit and the fear that grips the victim. The word siguanaba or sihuanaba has its origin in the indigenous languages of Mesoamerica . Various words have been suggested as its source. In parts of Mexico the Siguanaba is known as macihuatli , a Nahuatl word that can be broken down to two elements; cihuatl (meaning "woman") and matlatl (meaning "net"). This "net-woman" encompasses
19055-540: The deity's appearance, along with the old, widespread worship of this deity. Offerings dedicated to Tláloc in Tenochtitlan were known to include several jaguar skulls and even a complete jaguar skeleton. The Mexica held Jaguars to a very high standard, associated with the underworld, Jaguars were considered the ultimate sacrificial animal due to their value, which the Mexica decided was high. Tláloc's impersonators often wore
19240-475: The distinctive mask and heron-feather headdress, usually carrying a cornstalk or a symbolic lightning bolt wand; another symbol was a ritual water jar. Along with this, Tláloc is manifested in the form of boulders at shrine-sites, and in the Valley of Mexico the primary shrine of this deity was located atop Cerro Tláloc. Cerro Tláloc was where human sacrifice was held, in the name of the water deity. In Coatlinchan ,
19425-488: The earth with seeds planted in their faces and blue paint covering their foreheads. Their bodies were dressed in paper and accompanied by a digging stick for planting put in their hands. The second shrine on top of the main pyramid at Tenochtitlan was dedicated to Tláloc. Both his shrine, and Huitzilopochtli's next to it, faced west. Sacrifices and rites took place in these temples. The Aztecs believed Tláloc resided in mountain caves, thus his shrine in Tenochtitlan's pyramid
19610-448: The eastern rim of the Valley of Mexico . Here the Aztec ruler would come and conduct important ceremonies annually. Additionally, throughout the year, pilgrims came to the mountain and offered precious stones and figures at the shrine. Many of the offerings found here also related to water and the sea. The Tlálocan-bound dead were not cremated as was customary, but instead they were buried in
19795-503: The exceptions of Cuba and Puerto Rico . Brazil , which had become a monarchy separate from Portugal, became a republic in the late nineteenth century. Political independence from European monarchies did not result in the abolition of black slavery in the new nations, it resulted in political and economic instability in Spanish America, immediately after independence. Great Britain and the United States exercised significant influence in
19980-622: The fact that many scholars believe that Tláloc also has Mayan roots, this widespread appreciation is common in Mesoamerica. Accordingly, people throughout Mexico, and especially in Coatlinchan, refer to Tláloc in very anthropomorphized ways, referring to Tláloc as a person, as the Mexica did with many deities. Furthermore, people continue to observe superstitions about Tláloc. Despite centuries of colonial erasure, Tláloc continues to be represented in American culture. Evidence suggests that Tláloc
20165-415: The figurative idea of a woman capturing men in her metaphorical net of attraction. Likewise, cigua or cegua , names for the spirit in Honduras and Costa Rica, also have their origin in the Nahuatl word cihuatl , simply meaning "woman". Guatemalan historian and folklorist Adrián Recinos gave two possible origins for the word siguanaba . In one source, he claimed ciguanaba meant "naked woman" in one of
20350-573: The final day of the "veintena," people celebrated and held banquets. Tláloc was also worshipped during the Huey Tozotli festival, which was celebrated annually. Evidence from the Codex Borbonicus suggests that Huey Tozotli was a commemoration of Centeotl , the god of maize . While Tláloc is not normally associated with Huey Tozotli, evidence from the Codex Borbonicus indicates that Tláloc
20535-448: The final one would freeze it. Sacrifices that took place on Cerro Tláloc were thought to favor early rains. The Atlcahualo festivals was celebrated from 12 February until 3 March. Dedicated to the Tlaloque, this veintena involved the sacrifice of children on sacred mountaintops, like Cerro Tláloc. This form of human sacrifice was not only specific, but necessary in the eyes of the Aztecs. The children were beautifully adorned, dressed in
20720-472: The forced migration of slaves from Africa. In the post-independence period, a number of Latin American countries sought to attract European immigrants as a source of labor as well as to deliberately change the proportions of racial and ethnic groups within their borders. Chile, Argentina, and Brazil actively recruited labor from Catholic southern Europe, where populations were poor and sought better economic opportunities. Many nineteenth-century immigrants went to
20905-469: The form of a beautiful woman before men, but when men approach her, she turns into a monster and then kills them. The Salvadoran legend of La Siguanaba says that the woman, originally called Sihuehuet ( beautiful woman ), was a peasant girl that ascended to queen using her charms (and a witch's brew) to lure into marriage Tlaloc 's son, Yeisun, who was a Nahuatl prince. After marriage, when her husband went to war, she had affairs with other men, and Cipitio
21090-409: The globe. The distinction between Latin America and Anglo-America is a convention based on the predominant languages in the Americas by which Romance language- and English-speaking cultures are distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin America (e.g., highland Peru , Bolivia , Mexico, Guatemala ), Native American cultures and, to
21275-519: The god, Tláloc; it is thought that the location of this sanctuary in relation to other temples surrounding it may have been a way for the Aztecs to mark the time of year and keep track of important ceremonial dates. Research has shown that different orientations linked to Cerro Tláloc revealed a grouping of dates at the end of April and beginning of May associated with certain astronomical and meteorological events. Archaeological, ethnohistoric, and ethnographic data indicate that these phenomena coincide with
21460-1064: The government as "national languages" along with Spanish. Other European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by half of the current population in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or may not be considered Latin American, like Belize and Guyana , and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina and Chile. German is spoken in southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian in Brazil , Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian , Polish , and Russian in southern Brazil and Argentina; and Welsh , in southern Argentina. Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay, Korean in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout South America. Countries like Venezuela, Argentina and Brazil have their own dialects or variations of German and Italian. In several nations, especially in
21645-533: The head of a horse. In other regions she is known like the Yegualcíhuatl who, like the Mayan and Oaxacan version, bewitches men with her beautiful body, leads them to a ravine, and then causes them to fall down the ravine, killing them. It is said that they see that the woman, instead of walking, is floating through the air, but they do not give so much importance to wanting to reach her. In addition, some also sign that she
21830-522: The highest levels of income inequality in the world. The following table lists all the countries in Latin America indicating a valuation of the country's Human Development Index , GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of inequality through the Gini index , measurement of poverty through the Human Poverty Index , a measure of extreme poverty based on people living on less than 1.25 dollars
22015-512: The horse's head also varies: it can be that of a normal horse, a horse's skull, a putrefied head, a face with rotten meat, or a horse face with skin. In the state of Nayarit , there is a version similar to the Salvadoran version. According to the Nayarit version, she was a woman or a moon goddess who was the wife of the god Tlaloc , with whom she had a son, who treated her badly and abandoned her. She
22200-484: The land," identifying Tláloc as a cloud resting on the mountaintops. Other names of Tláloc were Tlamacazqui ("Giver") and Xoxouhqui ("Green One"); and (among the contemporary Nahua of Veracruz), Chaneco. In the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan , one of the two shrines on top of the Great Temple was dedicated to Tláloc. The high priest who was in charge of the Tláloc shrine was called " Quetzalcoatl Tláloc Tlamacazqui. " It
22385-409: The languages of Guatemala (of which there are more than 20), but he failed to identify the exact language of origin. In another source, he claimed that its origin is the Nahuatl ciuanauac or ciguanauac , meaning "concubine". In Guatemala, the word siguanaba has been linked to siwan , a Kʼicheʼ Maya word meaning a cliff or deep ravine, and Guatemalan folk etymology gives this as the origin of
22570-625: The larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed. Research has shown that the idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic and cultural affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier , who postulated that a part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a " Latin race ", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with " Latin Europe ", ultimately overlapping
22755-447: The legend and its origin. In the southeast of the republic, they call it the Xtabay or Xtabal, which is, according to Mayan legend, an evil spirit that lives in ceiba trees and seduces anyone who comes near some of these trees. This was a Mayan goddess, dominated as Íxtab , who was the goddess of the hanged, the latter rewarded suicides with heaven but, with the arrival of Christianity, she
22940-473: The legend is more common in Guatemala City, Antigua Guatemala (the old colonial capital) and the eastern departments of the country. The most common variant in these areas is that where the spirit has the face of a horse. In Guatemala the Siguanaba is often said to appear to men who are unfaithful in order to punish them. A Kaqchikel Maya version of the Siguanaba from San Juan Comalapa describes her as
23125-540: The likelihood that crops are destroyed to them being nourished. This would explain why so much effort and resources were put forth by the Central Americans in order to appease the Gods. Additionally, Tláloc is thought to be one of the patron deities of the trecena of 1 Quiahuitl (along with Chicomecoatl). Trecenas are the thirteen-day periods into which the 260-day calendar is divided. The first day of each trecena dictates
23310-475: The lives of the people of Coatlinchan, the god also plays an important role in shaping the Mexican identity. Images of Tláloc are found throughout Mexico from Tijuana to the Yucatán, and images of the statue of Tláloc found at Coatlinchan are deployed as a symbol of the Mexican nation. Tláloc and other pre-Hispanic features are critical to creating a common Mexican identity that unites people throughout Mexico. Due to
23495-451: The local municipality has also erected a reproduction of the original statue. This makes sense as Tláloc is one of the most renowned deities, who has to this day many believers and followers. Many residents of Coatlinchan, relate to the statue of Tláloc in the way that they might associate themselves with a patron saint, linking their identity as a resident of the town with the image of Tláloc. While Tláloc plays an especially important role in
23680-458: The man and bites his cheek to mark him as an adulterer, leaving him crazy and scared to death. Of those who were left alive, they remain in a state of idiocy. From there, the Nicaraguan popular saying derives: "It is played by Cegua." There are also stories that their is not just one Cegua, but several, that can cooperate to catch victims. Other versions include the Cegua as a beautiful girl who, when
23865-471: The men stunned. In the state of Durango , she is better known as the Caballona, where she also appears to men with sinful behavior. Here she devours or warns them. In the state of Jalisco, she is generally described as a woman dressed entirely in black, and she also appears to lovers and drunkards. In the state of Aguascalientes , especially in the city of Calvillo , it is believed that the horse-faced woman
24050-399: The mid-nineteenth century and widespread poverty, Germans, Spaniards, and Italians immigrated to Latin America in large numbers, welcomed by Latin American governments both as a source of labor as well as a way to increase the size of their white populations. In Argentina, many Afro-Argentines married Europeans. In twentieth-century Brazil, sociologist Gilberto Freyre proposed that Brazil
24235-522: The mid-twentieth century, especially in capital cities , or in the case of Brazil, traditional economic and political hubs founded in the colonial era. In Mexico, the rapid growth and modernization in country's north has seen the growth of Monterrey , in Nuevo León . The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America. Entries in "bold" indicate they are ranked the highest. Latin American populations are diverse, with descendants of
24420-427: The middle and bottom of the income distribution , as they rely mostly on wages for income. In addition, the report noted that 'highly-unequal land distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source of economic inefficiency , as small landholders frequently lack access to credit and other resources to increase productivity , while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so. According to
24605-565: The most sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed down orally. Oral traditions also prevailed in other major Indigenous groups including, but not limited to the Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers, Quechua and Aymara of the Andean regions, the Quiché of Central America, the Tupi-Guaraní in today's Brazil,
24790-482: The most versions, as a hatched skeleton), thus terrifying the man. In this version, the ghost originated as a woman who committed suicide because her boyfriend or lover was unfaithful to her, and her spirit wanders in search of revenge, punishing womanizers and drunkards like her partner. Other spellings are: Cihuanaba, Sihuanaba, Ciguanaba, Ciguapa . Latin America Latin America often refers to
24975-597: The name Tláloc is specifically Nahuatl, worship of a storm god , associated with mountaintop shrines and with life-giving rain, is as at least as old as Teotihuacan . It was likely adopted from the Maya god Chaac , perhaps ultimately derived from an earlier Olmec precursor. Tláloc was mainly worshiped at Teotihuacan, while his big rituals were held on Cerro Tláloc. An underground Tláloc shrine has been found at Teotihuacan which shows many offerings left for this deity. In Aztec iconography, many different sculptures, and pieces of work have been mislabeled or mistaken as Tláloc. For
25160-404: The obsolescence of racial theory... But it is not easy to declare something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed," going on to say, "The term is here to stay, and it is important." Following in the tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America, Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized
25345-405: The part of the Spanish authors. It is argued that Tláloc was incorporated into celebrations of Huey Tozotli because of his role as the god of rain. Huey Tozotli was a celebration of the maize harvest, and it would make sense that worshippers might want to celebrate Tláloc during this festival as his powers of the rain would be critical to having a successful harvest of maize. Tláloc was linked to
25530-631: The passage of anti-colonial resolutions in the United Nations General Assembly and the signing of resolutions for Indigenous rights, the Indigenous are able to act to guarantee their existence within nation-states with legal standing . Spanish is the predominant language of Latin America. It is spoken as first language by about 60% of the population. Portuguese is spoken by about 30%, and about 10% speak other languages such as Quechua , Mayan languages , Guaraní , Aymara , Nahuatl , English , French , Dutch and Italian . Portuguese
25715-563: The passing of time. Tláloc was the patron of the Calendar day Mazātl. In Aztec mythology, Tláloc was the lord of the third sun which was destroyed by fire. On page 28 of the Codex Borgia , the Five Tlaloque are pictured watering maize fields. Each Tláloc is pictured watering the maize with differing types of rains, of which only one was beneficial. The rain that was beneficial to the land
25900-496: The peak, they would have to stay overnight with the priests at the vigil. The priests were not allowed to leave this site, or else they would be considered "mocauhque", meaning they who are abandoned. Then, at the shrine, the children's hearts would be pulled out by Aztec priests. If, on the way to the shrine, these children cried, their tears were viewed as positive signs of imminent and abundant rains. Every Atlcahualo festival, seven children were sacrificed in and around Lake Texcoco in
26085-499: The pink tide, there was a Conservative wave across Latin America. In Mexico, the rightwing National Action Party (PAN) won the presidential election of 2000 with its candidate Vicente Fox , ending the 71-year rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party . He was succeed six-years later by another conservative, Felipe Calderón (2006–2012), who attempted to crack down on the Mexican drug cartels and instigated
26270-652: The post-independence era, resulting in a form of neo-colonialism , where political sovereignty remained in place, but foreign powers exercised considerable power in the economic sphere. Newly independent nations faced domestic and interstate conflicts, struggling with economic instability and social inequality. The 20th century brought U.S. intervention and the Cold War 's impact on the region, with revolutions in countries like Cuba influencing Latin American politics. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw shifts towards left-wing governments, followed by conservative resurgences, and
26455-401: The rain deity as they likely adopted the rain deity from the Aztecs, but blurred the line between sacrifice and captive capture, and religion. Tláloc was also associated with the earth, and it is believed this is also a reason why sacrifices may have been made to him. Sacrifices to Tláloc were not solely a Maya phenomenon, and it is known that the Aztecs also made sacrifices to Tláloc. Just as
26640-514: The regenerative capacity of weather, and, as such, he was worshipped at Cerro Tláloc because much of the rain in Central Mexico is formed over range of which Cerro Tláloc is a part. Tláloc was worshipped on Cerro Tláloc during the Etzalcualiztli festival, in which rulers from across Central Mexico performed rituals to Tláloc in order to ask for rain, and to celebrate fertility and the change of
26825-480: The regime recently established in Nicaragua by American William Walker and his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a year (1856–57) and attempted to reinstate slavery there, where it had been already abolished for three decades In both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and William Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of dangers for
27010-458: The region, but others stayed and created communities. A number of Nazis escaped to Latin America, living under assumed names, in an attempt to avoid attention and prosecution. In the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, middle class and elite Cubans moved to the U.S., particularly to Florida. Some fled Chile for the U.S. and Europe after the 1973 military coup. Colombians migrated to Spain and
27195-456: The region. For Bilbao, "Latin America" was not a geographical concept, as he excluded Brazil, Paraguay, and Mexico. Both authors also asked for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign US interventions. Both also rejected European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger for Latin American countries, and used
27380-415: The region. These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early. Most educational systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early 1990s. School meal programs are also employed to expand access to education, and at least 23 countries in
27565-698: The regions in the Americas in which Romance languages are the main languages. It is "commonly used to describe South America (with the exception of Suriname , Guyana and the Falkland islands ), plus Central America , Mexico , and most of the islands of the Caribbean ". In a narrow sense, it refers to Spanish America , and often it may also include Brazil ( Portuguese America ). The term "Latin America" may be used more broadly than Hispanic America , which specifically refers to Spanish-speaking countries; and more narrowly than categories such as Ibero-America ,
27750-667: The rumblings of the jaguar and associated thunder with Tláloc as well. It is likely that this god was given these associations because he is also known as "the provider" among the Aztecs. A chacmool excavated from the Maya site of Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán by Augustus Le Plongeon possesses imagery associated with Tláloc. This chacmool is similar to others found at the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán . The chacmool found at Chichén Itzá appears to have been used for sacrificial purposes, as
27935-722: The same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: "despotism." Several years later, during the French invasion of Mexico , Bilbao wrote another work, "Emancipation of the Spirit in America", where he asked all Latin American countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. He asked Latin American intellectuals to search for their "intellectual emancipation" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: "Hypocrite, because she [France] calls herself protector of
28120-591: The seasons. An important part of these pilgrimages to Cerro Tláloc during Etzalcualitztli was the sacrifice of both adults and children to Tláloc. Archaeological evidence indicates Tláloc was worshipped in Mesoamerica before the Aztecs even settled there in the 13th century AD. He was a prominent god in Teotihuacan at least 800 years before the Aztecs. This has led to Meso-American goggle-eyed rain gods being referred to generically as "Tláloc," although in some cases it
28305-544: The sixteenth century, such as the Santiago Tlatelolco church had stones depicting Tláloc within the interior of the church. Even as the Roman Catholic Church sought to eradicate indigenous religious traditions, depiction of Tláloc still remained within worship spaces, suggesting that Tláloc would still have been worshipped after Spanish colonization. It is clear that Tláloc would have continued to have played
28490-416: The sowing of maize in dry lands associated with agricultural sites. The precinct on the summit of the mountain contains 5 stones which are thought to represent Tláloc and his four Tlaloque , who are responsible for providing rain for the land. It also features a structure that housed a statue of Tláloc in addition to idols of many different religious regions, such as the other sacred mountains. Cerro Tláloc
28675-504: The state of Coahuila , within the city of Torreón , this terrible specter that frightens men was a woman who received a curse or was the victim of witchcraft, black magic , or a satanic ritual, so she became an evil or a demonic entity seeking "revenge." They tend to appear to lustful people, womanizers, or night owls. Another version tells that she was a beautiful young woman who received a curse, turning her into this being. The young woman would appear normal at first, but when she approached
28860-418: The street, she appears to them and with her sweetness makes them believe that she is a new conquest, but later shows them her horse face. The Cegua can also appear in the form of a child who cries inconsolably on the side of the road or near a river, and when the rider picks him up and puts him on the horse to calm him, he transforms into the monster with horse face. In Costa Rica, it is believed that La Cegua
29045-816: The strongest of the three. In most of Brazil and the Spanish Caribbean, the average ancestral mix is European and African blood, with much smaller amounts of indigenous blood. While the opposite is true in many mainland Spanish-speaking Latin American countries like Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama, where the average ancestral mix is of European and indigenous blood, with smaller amounts of African. But in Mexico, and other places in northern Central America and southern South America, mixed race people tend to be completely of European and indigenous blood. Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Brazil have dominant Mulatto/Triracial populations ("Pardo" in Brazil), in Brazil and Cuba, there
29230-411: The style of Tláloc and the Tlaloque. The children were "chosen" by the community, and although this selection came with honor, being selected came with great responsibility. Furthermore, these children were not usually of high social class. The children to be sacrificed were carried to Cerro Tláloc on litters strewn with flowers and feathers, while also being surrounded by dancers. Once the children reached
29415-527: The term 'Latin America' had already been used in 1856 by Central Americans and South Americans protesting US expansion into the Southern Hemisphere". Edward Shawcross summarizes Ardao's and Rojas Mix's findings in the following way: "Ardao identified the term in a poem by a Colombian diplomat and intellectual resident in France, José María Torres Caicedo, published on 15 February 1857 in a French based Spanish-language newspaper, while Rojas Mix located it in
29600-583: The term Latin America for "disguising" and "diluting" the Spanish character of a region (i.e. Hispanic America ) with the inclusion of nations that, according to him, do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization . The Francophone part of North America which includes Quebec , Acadia , and Louisiana is generally excluded from the definition of Latin America. Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, democracy , demographics and culture. The basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America,
29785-861: The term was in fact in opposition to imperialist projects in the Americas. Ardao wrote about this subject in his book Génesis de la idea y el nombre de América latina (Genesis of the Idea and the Name of Latin America, 1980), and Miguel Rojas Mix in his article "Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria" (Bilbao and the Finding of Latin America: a Continental, Socialist, and Libertarian Union, 1986). As Michel Gobat points out in his article "The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy , and Race", "Arturo Ardao, Miguel Rojas Mix, and Aims McGuinness have revealed [that]
29970-486: The thorns, in pain and without remembering anything that happened. Other versions that say that the Matlazihua bathes or combs her hair in the rivers of Oaxaca, and whoever invades her space or takes her comb suffers the consequences. In other versions, like the Guatemalan and Nicaraguan versions, it is stated that she is not a single being, but that there are several that even cooperate with each other to scare their victims, communicating with each other with whistles, and leave
30155-457: The unfortunate ones who have seen her change forever. Many of their relatives notice that they no longer eat and see that, in a corner or anywhere, they are seen sitting or standing waiting for the Tisigua or Tishanila. In other regions of Chiapas, it is also said that the Siguanaba may appear on the roads asking motorcyclists to climb it and, after a while of walking, she transforms into a monster with
30340-478: The war god could compel the rain maker to exert his powers. Tláloc was also associated with the world of the dead and with the earth. His name is thought to be derived from the Nahuatl word tlālli "earth", and its meaning has been interpreted as "path beneath the earth," "long cave," "he who is made of earth", as well as "he who is the embodiment of the earth". J. Richard Andrews interprets it as "one that lies on
30525-513: The wilderness. In Mexico, the legend of the Siguanaba is present in almost the entire country, mostly throughout Mesoamerica, where they call her Macihuatli, Matlazihua, X'tabay , X'tabal or, more popularly, "horse-faced woman". Some even relate her to La Llorona . There are multiple testimonies and stories about this horror. Their common trait is that she can only be seen at night on lonely roads or places, showing herself to night owls, partiers, womanizers, and/or drunkards. She presents herself as
30710-507: The word. Some scholars, including Recinos and Roberto Paz y Paz, disagree. In Guatemala the Sihuanaba is known as La Siguanaba ; she is known as Cigua in Honduras, Ciguanaba in El Salvador and as Cegua in Costa Rica. Although the name varies from place to place, the appearance and actions of the Sihuanaba remain unchanged. In other latitudes and cultures, not connected to each other, the theme also appears. For example, an original variant
30895-415: Was a " racial democracy ", with less discrimination against blacks than in the U.S. Even if a system of legal racial segregation was never implemented in Latin America, unlike the United States, subsequent research has shown that in Brazil there's discrimination against darker citizens, and that whites remain the elites in the country. In Mexico, the mestizo population was considered the true embodiment of "
31080-424: Was a beautiful woman who was unfaithful to him with many suitors (or with her lover, according to other versions). But, one day, the husband discovered her doing one of her infidelities with her lover, who, in an incredible state of jealousy, killed her lover. In the meantime, he tied his hands with a rope and, holding her by the horse, he made a swift run. This caused the poor woman to be seriously injured and her face
31265-410: Was a shrine containing stone images of the mountain itself and other neighboring peaks. The shrine was called Tlálocan , in reference to the paradise. Also, the shrine contained four pitchers containing water. Each pitcher would produce a different fate if used on crops: the first would bring forth a good harvest, the second would cause the harvest to fail and rot, the third would dry the harvest out, and
31450-404: Was a witch who was betrayed by her partner and that she is looking for revenge against the womanizing men and night owls, for which she made a pact with the devil in a cornfield, where she performed a ritual to vomit her soul and begin a transformation. First, she transformed her face into that of a skeletal mare. Following that, the rest of her body transformed: her legs become as long and robust as
31635-517: Was a young libertine who had been denied permission to go to a party by her mother. When she tried to hit her mother, her mother cursed her. Still others also affirm that it is a demonic manifestation, like the Devil. In the province of Guanacaste , La Cegua, in addition to appearing to men on the roads, could also appear at dances and festivals in the towns, where she flirts with every man who approaches her. The one who manages to win her, accompanies her to
31820-586: Was an assistant to the witch to help her kill Suluay. Well, whatever the origin of the Xtabay, it is said that it is a woman who appears in the ceibo trees, combing her long black hair, waiting for a man to approach her and start seducing them, to later reveal her true identity: demonic-looking and face with horse features (disfigured face or a pale woman's face with yellow eyes and snake tongue, according to other versions). Sometimes she lets them go, which drives them crazy or, at other times, they die of fright. Sometimes, she
32005-455: Was approached, her face would become that of a horse, frightening everyone away, condemning her to never find true love and be alone forever. In the state of Nuevo León , they say that she is seen on the roads at night in search of machistas, gangsters, womanizers, the lustful, or any man who goes astray to kill them. She is also said to cause accidents. In Mexico City , according to the Mexica ,
32190-488: Was arrested, and former Peruvian presidents Ollanta Humala and Alejandro Toledo , who fled to the United States and was extradited back to Peru. The COVID-19 pandemic proved a political challenge for many unstable Latin American democracies, with scholars identifying a decline in civil liberties as a result of opportunistic emergency powers. This was especially true for countries with strong presidential regimes, such as Brazil . Wealth inequality in Latin America and
32375-441: Was believed to reside. Cerro Tláloc is very important in understanding how rituals surrounding this deity played out. His followers were one of the oldest and most universal in ancient Mexico . There are many different representations of Tláloc, and there are many different offerings given to him. Tláloc is often represented through iconography of butterflies, jaguars, and serpents. The Mexican marigold, Tagetes lucida , known to
32560-407: Was burnished with jade crystals and likely represented the type of rain that would make a bountiful harvest. The other forms of rain were depicted as destroyers of crops, “fiery rain, fungus rain, wind rain, and flint blade rain”. This depiction shows the power that Tláloc had over the Central American crop supply. Also, the high ratio of damaging rains to beneficial rains likely symbolizes the ratio of
32745-434: Was called "mountain abode." Many rich offerings were regularly placed before it, especially those linked to water, such as shells, jade, and sand. Cerro Tláloc was situated directly east of the pyramid, which is very in-line with classic Aztec architecture. The Mexica did and designed everything with cosmological direction. It was forty-four miles away, with a long road connecting the two places of worship. On Cerro Tláloc, there
32930-464: Was disfigured, which looked like a horse. The injuries were so severe that he ended up dying. Since then, it is said that, at night, an attractive woman can be seen walking who seduces men with bad behavior (especially unfaithful men), as punishment; to later reveal that he has a horse's face. In the town square, there is a monument of the Horse Face Woman, of which many of the inhabitants do not know
33115-419: Was followed by visits or descriptions by other scholars. In 1953 Wicke and Horcasitas carried out preliminary archaeological investigations at the site; their conclusions were repeated by Parsons in 1971. Archaeo-astronomical research began in 1984, some of which remains unpublished. In 1989 excavation was undertaken at the site by Solis and Townsend. The current damage that is present at the top of Cerro Tláloc
33300-586: Was further popularized by French emperor Napoleon III 's government of political strongman that in the 1860s as Latin America to justify France's military involvement in the Second Mexican Empire and to include French-speaking territories in the Americas, such as French Canada , Haiti , French Louisiana , French Guiana , Martinique , Guadeloupe and the French Antillean Creole Caribbean islands Saint Lucia , and Dominica , in
33485-497: Was represented in many other Mesoamerican cultures and religions. Tláloc is thought to be one of the most commonly worshipped deities at Teotihuacan and it is specifically here, in Teotihuacan, that representations of Tláloc often show him having jaguar teeth and features. This differs from the Maya version of Tláloc, as the Maya representation depicts no specific relation to jaguars. The inhabitants of Teotihuacan thought of thunder as
33670-449: Was the child of this relationship. Sihuehuet was a bad mother, neglecting her son, leaving him alone to meet her lovers. To inherit the throne she concocted a plot to use another magic potion to poison Yeisun during a festival, and so claim the throne for her lover. But the plan worked too well. Yeisun was transformed into a savage giant monster with two heads, who ravaged the attendants to the palace's feast. The guard struggled and defeated
33855-495: Was the northernmost side of this temple that was dedicated to Tláloc, the god of rain and agricultural fertility. In this area, a bowl was kept in which sacrificial hearts were placed on certain occasions, as offerings to the rain gods. Although the Great Temple had its northern section dedicated to Tláloc, the most important site of worship of the rain god was on the peak of Cerro Tláloc , a 4,100 metres (13,500 ft) mountain on
34040-453: Was unfaithful to her husband, who, after discovering her actions, cursed her calling her Sihuanaba, which means 'horrible woman'. He condemned to wander the countryside, appearing to men at first as a beautiful woman, but revealing a hideous horse face by the time they got close. She has always been seen more frequently on roads, rivers, fields, and elsewhere. Her victims are mainly infidels, whom she attracts to drive them crazy or kill them. In
34225-593: Was worshipped during this festival. Additional evidence from the Book of Gods and Rites suggest rulers from the Aztec Empire and other states would make a pilgrimage to Cerro Tláloc during the Huey Tozotli festival in order to present offerings to Tláloc. The Book of Gods and Rites also suggests that a child was sacrificed as a part of this pilgrimage as well, although this could simply be the result of colonial sensationalism on
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