71-484: The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science ( Cefas ) is an executive agency of the United Kingdom government Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). It carries out a wide range of research, advisory, consultancy, monitoring and training activities for a large number of customers around the world. Cefas employs over 550 staff based primarily at two specialist laboratories within
142-465: A bed and reaching sexual maturity within a year. Oysters are filter feeders , drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia . Suspended plankton and non-food particles are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, and expelled as feces or pseudofeces that fall to the bottom and remain out of the water column. Oysters feed most actively at temperatures ranging from
213-442: A distinct family, the feathered oysters ( Pteriidae ). Both cultured pearls and natural pearls can be extracted from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as the freshwater mussels , also yield pearls of commercial value. The largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine Pinctada maxima , which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls. In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering
284-419: A minute invasive object with nacre . Over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the natural pigment of the nacre, and the shape of the original irritant. Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, inside the oyster. In three to seven years,
355-532: A popular treat celebrated in oyster festivals in many cities and towns. It was once assumed that oysters were only safe to eat in months with the letter 'r' in their English and French names. This myth is based in truth, in that in the Northern Hemisphere, oysters are much more likely to spoil in the warmer months of May, June, July, and August. In recent years , pathogens such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus have caused outbreaks in several harvesting areas of
426-483: A resting state, even when they are permanently submersed. Their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to the relative moon and sun positions. During neap tides, they exhibit much longer closing periods than during the spring tide. Some tropical oysters, such as the mangrove oyster in the family Ostreidae , grow best on mangrove roots. Low tide can expose them, making them easy to collect. The largest oyster-producing body of water in
497-449: A result of global change are also negatively impacting oysters around the world, with many impacts affecting molecular, physiological, and behavioral processes in species including Magallana gigas. Recycled oyster shells can help restore oyster reefs to provide marine life habitat that reduces flooding, and protects shorelines from storms. Shell-recycling non-profits retrieve shells from restaurants, wash and dry them, and set them in
568-564: A site where pollution was affecting beach tourism. Currently, for the installation cost of $ 3000, roughly 4.8 million liters of water are being filtered daily. In New Jersey, however, the Department of Environmental Protection refused to allow oysters as a filtering system in Sandy Hook Bay and the Raritan Bay, citing worries that commercial shellfish growers would be at risk and that members of
639-697: A sub-station in Pakefield a suburb of Lowestoft , Suffolk to research the Fishing industry . This was part of the UK contribution to the newly created International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). By 1921 the station had been expanded to include a laboratory with experimental facilities. Early research was focused on aspects of the marine biology of the North Sea . During
710-709: Is a part of a government department that is treated as managerially and budgetarily separate, to carry out some part of the executive functions of the United Kingdom government , Scottish Government , Welsh Government or Northern Ireland Executive . Executive agencies are "machinery of government" devices distinct both from non-ministerial government departments and non-departmental public bodies (or " quangos "), each of which enjoy legal and constitutional separation from ministerial control. The model has been applied in several other countries. Agencies include well-known organisations such as His Majesty's Prison Service and
781-845: Is a wholly owned subsidiary of Cefas that specialises in the application of Cefas technology to specific customer needs in a cost-effective and focussed manner. CTL was formed in order to utilise the intellectual property of Cefas, something that was difficult to achieve with Cefas's current legal status as an executive agency . Executive agency King Charles III [REDACTED] William, Prince of Wales [REDACTED] Charles III ( King-in-Council ) [REDACTED] Starmer ministry ( L ) Keir Starmer ( L ) Angela Rayner ( L ) ( King-in-Parliament ) [REDACTED] Charles III [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The Lord Reed The Lord Hodge Andrew Bailey Monetary Policy Committee An executive agency
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#1733094054503852-495: Is believed to be the last-built Connecticut oyster sloop, completed in 1948. Oysters can also be collected by divers . In any case, when the oysters are collected, they are sorted to eliminate dead animals, bycatch (unwanted catch), and debris. Then they are taken to market, where they are either canned or sold live. Oysters have been cultured since at least the days of the Roman Empire . The Pacific oyster ( Magallana gigas )
923-436: Is dominated by the larger Pacific oyster and Rock oyster species which are farmed year-round. Oysters are harvested by simply gathering them from their beds. In very shallow waters, they can be gathered by hand or with small rakes . In somewhat deeper water, long-handled rakes or oyster tongs are used to reach the beds. Patent tongs can be lowered on a line to reach beds that are too deep to reach directly. In all cases,
994-746: Is estimated that one acre (0.40 ha) can produce nearly 750,000 oysters, which could filter between 57,000 to 150,000 m (2.0–5.3 million cu ft) of water daily. Also see nutrient pollution for an extended explanation of nutrient remediation . As an ecosystem engineer , oysters provide supporting ecosystem services , along with provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Oysters influence nutrient cycling , water filtration , habitat structure, biodiversity , and food web dynamics. Oyster reef habitats have been recognized as green infrastructure for shoreline protection. Assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus into shellfish tissues provides an opportunity to remove these nutrients from
1065-530: Is held in September. In fact, in Victorian England, it was quite common for people to go to the pub and enjoy their favorite beer with some oysters. They quickly realized that the "rich, sweet, malty stouts" were great with the "briny, creamy oyster". Then brewers found that oyster shells naturally clarify a beer and they started putting crushed oyster shells into their brews. The first known brewery to start this
1136-518: Is presently the most widely grown bivalve around the world. Two methods are commonly used, release and bagging. In both cases, oysters are cultivated onshore to the size of spat, when they can attach themselves to a substrate. They may be allowed to mature further to form "seed oysters". In either case, they are then placed in the water to mature. The release technique involves distributing the spat throughout existing oyster beds, allowing them to mature naturally to be collected like wild oysters. Bagging has
1207-409: Is technically possible for an oyster to fertilize its own eggs. The gonads surround the digestive organs, and are made up of sex cells, branching tubules, and connective tissue. Once her millions of eggs are fertilized, the female discharges them into the water. The larvae develop in about six hours and exist suspended in the water column as veliger larvae for two to three weeks before settling on
1278-444: Is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species, the valves are highly calcified , and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not all oysters, are in the superfamily Ostreoidea . Some species of oyster are commonly consumed and are regarded as a delicacy in some localities. Some types of pearl oysters are harvested for
1349-460: Is undertake statutory and inspection duties resulting from the EU Fish Health regime and other national legislation in the area of fish and shellfish health. The Inspectorate also licenses and monitors imports of fish and shellfish from other countries and runs an enforcement programme aimed at preventing the illegal importation of these animals. The Burnham laboratory was established in 1953 as
1420-610: The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency . The annual budget for each agency, allocated by HM Treasury , ranges from a few million pounds for the smallest agencies to £700m for the Court Service . Virtually all government departments have at least one agency. The initial success or otherwise of executive agencies was examined in the Sir Angus Fraser's Fraser Report of 1991. Its main goal was to identify what good practices had emerged from
1491-470: The Philippines , a local thorny oyster species known as Tikod amo is a favorite seafood source in the southern part of the country. Because of its good flavor, it commands high prices. Oysters breathe primarily via gills . In addition to their gills, oysters can exchange gases across their mantles , which are lined with many small, thin-walled blood vessels . A small, three-chambered heart , lying under
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#17330940545031562-671: The United States is the Chesapeake Bay , although these beds have decreased in number due to overfishing and pollution. Other large oyster farming areas in the US include the bays and estuaries along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Apalachicola, Florida , in the east to Galveston, Texas , in the west. Large beds of edible oysters are also found in Japan and Australia. In 2005, China accounted for 80% of
1633-593: The World Bank , the European Commission , the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), commercial organisations, non-governmental and environmental organisations, regulators and enforcement agencies, local authorities and other public bodies. There is an increasing focus on commercial research and consultancy as the level of funding available from Defra gradually reduces. Known previously as
1704-469: The adductor muscle , pumps colorless blood to all parts of the body. At the same time, two kidneys , located on the underside of the muscle, remove waste products from the blood. Their nervous system includes two pairs of nerve cords and three pairs of ganglia . There is no evidence that oysters have a brain. While some oysters have two sexes ( European oyster and Olympia oyster ), their reproductive organs contain both eggs and sperm. Because of this, it
1775-575: The eastern oyster ( Crassostrea virginica ) was introduced to California waters in 1875, while the Pacific oyster was introduced there in 1929. Proposals for further such introductions remain controversial. The Pacific oyster prospered in Pendrell Sound , where the surface water is typically warm enough for spawning in the summer. Over the following years, spat spread out sporadically and populated adjacent areas. Eventually, possibly following adaptation to
1846-639: The pearl produced within the mantle . Others, such as the translucent Windowpane oysters , are harvested for their shells. The word oyster comes from Old French oistre , and first appeared in English during the 14th century. The French derived from the Latin ostrea , the feminine form of ostreum , which is the latinisation of the Ancient Greek ὄστρεον ( ostreon ) 'oyster'. Compare ὀστέον ( osteon ) 'bone'. True oysters are members of
1917-515: The tides . He was so famous for this, the Romans used to say he could breed oysters on the roof of his house. In the early 19th century, oysters were cheap and mainly eaten by the working class . Throughout the 19th century, oyster beds in New York Harbor became the largest source of oysters worldwide. On any day in the late 19th century, six million oysters could be found on barges tied up along
1988-571: The 1920s and 1930s biological studies expanded, the theory of fishing was developed and forecasting fish stocks became routine. In 1927–1928 Michael Graham was dispatched from the Lowestoft laboratory by the Colonial Office and conducted the first ever systematic Fisheries Survey of Lake Victoria . After the second world war, radiobiological facilities were installed to advise on the safe disposal of radioactive substances at sea. Research aboard
2059-419: The 1980s research shifted towards determining drug residues in fish for human consumption and environmental problems associated with release of medicines from fish farms. Further expansion occurred during the 90s from new inspection and monitoring responsibilities stemming from EC directives . These dealt with marine and freshwater fish health, and microbiological hygiene of molluscan shellfish. This resulted in
2130-580: The Directorate of Fisheries Research, the name and status was changed in 1997 to 'Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science' (Cefas). At this time it became an Executive Agency of what was then the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom) and is now the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). In 1902, the Marine Biological Association opened
2201-512: The Ministry's first-ever purpose-built fisheries laboratory. The role of the laboratory was expanded in 1957 to cover work on pollution, and by the mid-60s began to take the lead in the investigation of environmental protection problems, with the exception of those arising from radioactive waste . Early studies concentrated on determining the toxic effects of various contaminants and surveying their levels in coastal waters and inshore fisheries. By 1970,
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2272-667: The UK offshore petroleum industry. The scheme is regulated by the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), using scientific and environmental advice from Cefas and the Fisheries Research Services (FRS). The laboratory was closed in December 2008 and the work moved to the Lowestoft Laboratory. Ships that have been operated by the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science: Cefas Technology Limited (CTL)
2343-669: The UK, with additional staff based at small, port-based offices in Scarborough, Hayle, and Plymouth. In 2014 Cefas established a permanent base in the Middle East by opening an office in Kuwait, and since opened an office in Oman. They also operate an ocean-going research vessel Cefas Endeavour . The primary customer for Cefas is their parent organisation Defra. They also undertake work for international and UK government departments (central and local),
2414-458: The United Kingdom, the town of Whitstable is noted for oyster farming from beds on the Kentish Flats that have been used since Roman times. The borough of Colchester holds an annual Oyster Feast each October, at which "Colchester Natives" (the native oyster, Ostrea edulis ) are consumed. The United Kingdom hosts several other annual oyster festivals; for example, Woburn Oyster Festival
2485-415: The United Kingdom. By 1997, 76% of civil servants were employed by an agency. The new Labour government in its first such report – the 1998 Next Steps Report – endorsed the model introduced by its predecessor. A later review (in 2002, linked below) made two central conclusions (their emphasis): " The agency model has been a success . Since 1988 agencies have transformed the landscape of government and
2556-672: The United States, the Clinton administration imported the model under the name "performance-based organizations." In Canada, executive agencies were adopted on a limited basis under the name special operating agencies . One example is the Translation Bureau under Public Services and Procurement Canada . Executive agencies were also established in Australia, Jamaica, Japan and Tanzania. Oyster All other members of: Oyster
2627-435: The beds by the early 20th century. Oysters' popularity has put ever-increasing demands on wild oyster stocks. This scarcity increased prices, converting them from their original role as working-class food to their current status as an expensive delicacy. In Britain, the native species ( European flat oyster ) has five years to mature and is protected by the people during their May-to-August spawning season. The current market
2698-409: The capacity to dramatically alter nitrogen levels in estuaries. In the U.S., Delaware is the only East Coast state without aquaculture, but making aquaculture a state-controlled industry of leasing water by the acre for commercial harvesting of shellfish is being considered. Supporters of Delaware's legislation to allow oyster aquaculture cite revenue, job creation, and nutrient cycling benefits. It
2769-534: The city's waterfront. They were naturally quite popular in New York City , and helped initiate the city's restaurant trade. New York's oystermen became skilled cultivators of their beds, which provided employment for hundreds of workers and nutritious food for thousands. Eventually, rising demand exhausted many of the beds. To increase production, they introduced foreign species, which brought disease; effluent and increasing sedimentation from erosion destroyed most of
2840-449: The cliffs in the Kirkley area 1955. The site was expanded in the 1960s and 1980s to meet the needs of emerging work programmes monitoring the quality of the marine environment. Although the period 1964–1982 probably saw the fullest flowering of fisheries research, per se, at Lowestoft, the increasing awareness of both politicians and the public about the importance of maintaining the quality of
2911-549: The cultivator putting spat in racks or bags and keeping them above the bottom. Harvesting involves simply lifting the bags or rack to the surface and removing the mature oysters. The latter method prevents losses to some predators, but is more expensive. The Pacific oyster has been grown in the outflow of mariculture ponds. When fish or prawns are grown in ponds, it takes typically 10 kg (22 lb) of feed to produce 1 kg ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 lb) of product ( dry-dry basis). The other 9 kg (20 lb) goes into
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2982-444: The eastern United States during the summer months, lending further credence to this belief. Oysters can be eaten on the half shell, raw, smoked , boiled , baked , fried , roasted , stewed , canned , pickled , steamed , or broiled , or used in a variety of drinks. Eating can be as simple as opening the shell and eating the contents, including juice. Butter and salt are often added. Poached oysters can be served on toast with
3053-528: The ecology of coastal waters and coastal zone management. This work was transferred to the Weymouth laboratory when the Conwy facilities were closed in 2000. The Weymouth laboratory was established in 1969 with four staff, specifically to study the cause of a disease in salmon . The laboratory was expanded in the 1970s and 1980s to investigate serious disease risks threatening the expanding fish farming industry. During
3124-536: The existing facilities becoming over stretched. In 1994 a new laboratory, housing state-of the art equipment and the most modern facilities, was opened. The Weymouth Laboratory is the European Union and UK national reference laboratory for monitoring bacteriological and viral contamination of bivalve molluscs. The Weymouth Laboratory is the base for the Fish Health Inspectorate (FHI). FHI's primary role
3195-791: The family Ostreidae . This family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea , Crassostrea , Magallana , and Saccostrea . Examples include the European flat oyster , eastern oyster , Olympia oyster , Pacific oyster , and the Sydney rock oyster . Ostreidae evolved in the Early Triassic epoch : The genus Liostrea grew on the shells of living ammonoids . Almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable. Pearls can form in both saltwater and freshwater environments. Pearl oysters are not closely related to true oysters, being members of
3266-494: The general aim of the work had become the establishing of the effects on commercial fish and shellfish resources of disposal of wastes, mineral and hydrocarbon extraction, and engineering and development work. This involved environmental impact assessments and a major monitoring programme. The Burnham Laboratory hosts the UK Offshore Chemical Notification Scheme which manages chemical use and discharge by
3337-412: The global oyster harvest. In Europe, France remained the industry leader. Common oyster predators include crabs , seabirds , starfish , and humans . Some oysters contain crabs, known as oyster crabs . Bivalves , including oysters, are effective filter feeders and can have large effects on the water columns in which they occur. As filter feeders, oysters remove plankton and organic particles from
3408-419: The high 60s to the high 70s (20–26 °C). Under ideal laboratory conditions, an oyster can filter up to 190 L (50 US gal) of water per day. Under average conditions, mature oysters filter 11–45 L (3–12 U.S. gal). Chesapeake Bay 's once-flourishing oyster population historically filtered excess nutrients from the estuary's entire water volume every three to four days. As of 2008 it
3479-521: The late 1880s, when the bay's population was in the billions, and watermen harvested about 910,000 m (25 million imp bsh) annually. The 2009 harvest was less than 7,300 m (200,000 imp bsh). Researchers claim the keys to the project were: The "oyster-tecture" movement promotes the use of oyster reefs for water purification and wave attenuation. An oyster-tecture project has been implemented at Withers Estuary, Withers Swash, South Carolina, by Neil Chambers-led volunteers, at
3550-524: The local conditions, the Pacific oyster spread up and down the coast and now is the basis of the North American west coast oyster industry. Pendrell Sound is now a reserve that supplies spat for cultivation. Near the mouth of the Great Wicomico River in the Chesapeake Bay , five-year-old artificial reefs now harbor more than 180 million native Crassostrea virginica . That is far lower than in
3621-666: The loss of half of California's Olympia oysters . Oyster reefs occupy a small fraction of their distribution prior to mass harvesting during the last three centuries. In October 2017, it was reported that underwater noise pollution can affect oysters as they close their shells when exposed to low frequencies of sounds in experimental conditions. Oysters rely on hearing waves and currents to regulate their circadian rhythms , and perception of weather events—such as rain —may induce spawning . Cargo ships , pile drivers , and explosions conducted underwater produce low frequencies that may be detected by oysters. Environmental stressors as
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#17330940545033692-509: The marine environment, meant that an increasing proportion of the work programme of that period was devoted to problems associated with investigating both radioactive and non-radioactive contamination at sea. Research at Conwy started in 1918 to find a more effective method of mussel purification. The Conway Corporation mussel purification tanks were taken over by the then Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and research. Research expanded into developing hatchery culture techniques, initially on
3763-509: The native oyster , and subsequently, in the 1960s, on the Pacific oyster , work which now forms the basis of the UK bivalve cultivation industry. The laboratory was expanded in the 1970s in order to increase the capacity to research other aspects of shellfish cultivation. This included responsibilities for dealing with ecological and management problems in various shellfisheries. More recent research shifted emphasis away from shellfish cultivation to
3834-407: The new model and spread them to other agencies and departments. The report also recommended further powers be devolved from ministers to chief executives. A series of reports and white papers examining governmental delivery were published throughout the 1990s, under both Conservative and Labour governments. During these the agency model became the standard model for delivering public services in
3905-538: The newly acquired Arctic-going Research Vessel Ernest Holt established an important link between fishable cod concentrations and water temperatures and identified cod migration routes. The migration routes of plaice stocks were identified and the deterioration in the North Sea herring fishery was investigated. From this ground-breaking work came theories of fishing and fish population trends that have become international recognised. The laboratory moved to its current site on
3976-425: The next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing eggs . Bay oysters usually spawn from the end of June until mid-August. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster can produce up to 100 million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in
4047-489: The oyster can produce a perfect pearl. Since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls, the cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market. A number of bivalve molluscs (other than true oysters and pearl oysters) also have common names that include the word "oyster", usually because they either taste like or look somewhat like true oysters, or because they yield noticeable pearls. Examples include: In
4118-463: The pond and after mineralization, provides food for phytoplankton, which in turn feeds the oyster. To prevent spawning, sterile oysters are now cultured by crossbreeding tetraploid and diploid oysters. The resulting triploid oyster cannot propagate, which prevents introduced oysters from spreading into unwanted habitats. In many areas, non-native oysters have been introduced in attempts to prop up failing harvests of native varieties. For example,
4189-430: The public might disregard warnings and consume tainted oysters. New Jersey Baykeepers responded by changing their strategy for utilizing oysters to clean up the waterway, by collaborating with Naval Weapons Station Earle. The Navy station is under 24/7 security and therefore eliminates any poaching and associated human health risk. Oyster-tecture projects have been proposed to protect coastal cities, such as New York, from
4260-421: The responsive and effectiveness of services delivered by Government." Some agencies have, however, become disconnected from their departments ... The gulf between policy and delivery is considered by most to have widened." The latter point is usually made more forcefully by critics of the government, describing agencies as "unaccountable quangos ". Several other countries have an executive agency model. In
4331-569: The sun for up to a year to kill bacteria. Some states encourage shell recycling by offering tax incentives. Jonathan Swift is quoted as having said, "He was a bold man that first ate an oyster". Evidence of oyster consumption goes back into prehistory, evidenced by oyster middens found worldwide. Oysters were an important food source in all coastal areas where they could be found, and oyster fisheries were an important industry where they were plentiful. Overfishing and pressure from diseases and pollution have sharply reduced supplies, but they remain
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#17330940545034402-424: The surface area of a flat bottom 50-fold. An oyster's mature shape often depends on the type of bottom to which it is originally attached, but it always orients itself with its outer, flared shell tilted upward. One valve is cupped and the other is flat. Oysters usually reach maturity in one year. They are protandric ; during their first year, they spawn as males by releasing sperm into the water. As they grow over
4473-529: The task is the same: the oysterman scrapes oysters into a pile, and then scoops them up with the rake or tongs. In some areas, a scallop dredge is used. This is a toothed bar attached to a chain bag. The dredge is towed through an oyster bed by a boat, picking up the oysters in its path. While dredges collect oysters more quickly, they heavily damage the beds, and their use is highly restricted. Until 1965, Maryland limited dredging to sailboats , and even since then motor boats can be used only on certain days of
4544-478: The threat of rising sea levels due to climate change . Additionally Oyster reef restoration has shown to increase the population of oyster beds within the oceans while also conserving the biolife within the oyster reefs. The accidental or intentional introduction of species by humans has the potential to negatively impact native oyster populations. For example, non-native species in Tomales Bay have resulted in
4615-503: The water and develop into larvae, which eventually find suitable sites, such as another oyster's shell, on which to settle. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than 25 mm (1 in) long. Many species of bivalves, oysters included, seem to be stimulated to settle near adult conspecifics . Oysters filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe (exchange O 2 and CO 2 with water) but they are not permanently open. They regularly shut their valves to enter
4686-541: The water column. In California's Tomales Bay , native oyster presence is associated with higher species diversity of benthic invertebrates. As the ecological and economic importance of oyster reefs has become more acknowledged, restoration efforts have increased. Middens testify to the prehistoric importance of oysters as food, with some middens in New South Wales , Australia, dated at ten thousand years. They have been cultivated in Japan from at least 2000 BC. In
4757-416: The water column. Multiple studies have shown individual oysters are capable of filtering up to 190 litres (42 imp gal; 50 US gal) of water per day, and thus oyster reefs can significantly improve water quality and clarity. Oysters consume nitrogen-containing compounds ( nitrates and ammonia ), phosphates , plankton, detritus, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter, removing them from
4828-480: The water. What is not used for animal growth is then expelled as solid waste pellets, which eventually decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen. In Maryland , the Chesapeake Bay Program had implemented a plan to use oysters to reduce the amount of nitrogen compounds entering the Chesapeake Bay by 8,600 t (9,500 short tons) per year by 2010. Several studies have shown that oysters and mussels have
4899-474: The week. These regulations prompted the development of specialized sailboats (the bugeye and later the skipjack ) for dredging. Similar laws were enacted in Connecticut before World War I and lasted until 1969. The laws restricted the harvesting of oysters in state-owned beds to vessels under sail. These laws prompted the construction of the oyster sloop-style vessel to last well into the 20th century. Hope
4970-679: Was estimated that a complete cycle would take nearly a year. A group of oysters is commonly called a bed or oyster reef . As a keystone species , oysters provide habitat for many marine species. Crassostrea and Saccostrea live mainly in the intertidal zone , while Ostrea is subtidal . The hard surfaces of oyster shells and the nooks between the shells provide places where a host of small animals can live. Hundreds of animals, such as sea anemones , barnacles , and hooked mussels , inhabit oyster reefs . Many of these animals are prey to larger animals, including fish, such as striped bass , black drum and croakers . An oyster reef can increase
5041-674: Was in 1938 at the Hammerton Brewery in London. That is where the oyster stout was first started. The French seaside resort of Cancale in Brittany is noted for its oysters, which also date from Roman times. Sergius Orata of the Roman Republic is considered the first major merchant and cultivator of oysters. Using his considerable knowledge of hydraulics , he built a sophisticated cultivation system, including channels and locks, to control
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