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87-577: The play was written in 1944 while Brecht was living in the United States. It was translated into English by Brecht's friend and admirer Eric Bentley and its world premiere was a student production at Carleton College , Northfield, Minnesota , in 1948 . Its first professional production was at the Hedgerow Theatre , Philadelphia, directed by Bentley. Its German premiere by the Berliner Ensemble

174-541: A group A streptococcal infection that involves a strep throat such as streptococcal tonsillitis or more usually streptococcal pharyngitis . Often these can present together known as pharyngotonsillitis . The signs and symptoms are therefore those of a strep throat but these are followed by the inclusion of the characteristic widespread rash . The rash usually appears one to two days later but may appear before or up to seven days following feeling ill. It generally hurts to swallow. However, not all cases present with

261-399: A sore throat , fever, headache, swollen lymph nodes , and a characteristic rash. The face is flushed and the rash is red and blanching . It typically feels like sandpaper and the tongue may be red and bumpy. The rash occurs as a result of capillary damage by exotoxins produced by S.pyogenes . On darker-pigmented skin the rash may be hard to discern. Scarlet fever develops in

348-514: A "peasant" and protects him from authorities by a demonstration of convoluted logic. He later realises that he sheltered the Grand Duke himself; since he thinks the rebellion is an uprising against the government itself, he turns himself in for his "class treason". But the rebellion isn't a populist one – in fact, the princes are trying to suppress a populist rebellion occurring as a result of their own – and Azdak renounces his revolutionary ideas to keep

435-412: A 35% chance of becoming infected. One in ten children who are infected with group A streptococcal pharyngitis will develop scarlet fever. The rash of scarlet fever, which is what differentiates this disease from an isolated group A strep pharyngitis (or strep throat), is caused by specific strains of group A streptococcus that produce a streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin , which is mainly responsible for

522-490: A book by Joannes Coyttarus of Poitiers , De febre purpura epidemiale et contagiosa libri duo , which was published in 1578 in Paris. Daniel Sennert of Wittenberg described the classical 'scarlatinal desquamation' in 1572 and was also the first to describe the early arthritis , scarlatinal dropsy , and ascites associated with the disease. In 1675 the term that has been commonly used to refer to scarlet fever, "scarlatina",

609-436: A characteristic red but not white strawberry tongue, and staphylococcal scarlatina which does not have the strawberry tongue at all. Other conditions that might appear similar include impetigo , erysipelas , measles , chickenpox , and hand-foot-and-mouth disease , and may be distinguished by the pattern of symptoms. One method is long-term use of antibiotics to prevent future group A streptococcal infections. This method

696-506: A completely nonsensical set of judgments. But it doesn't last forever; the Grand Duke returns to power, the Fat Prince is beheaded, and Azdak is about to be hanged by the Grand Duke's Ironshirts when a pardon arrives appointing "a certain Azdak of Nuka" as a judge in gratitude for "saving a life essential to the realm", i.e. the Grand Duke's own. "His Honour Azdak is now His Honour Azdak;" the wife of

783-456: A decade. About 60% of circulating strains of the group A streptococcus that cause scarlet fever in Hong Kong are resistant to macrolide antibiotics, according to Professor Yuen Kwok-yung , head of Hong Kong University 's microbiology department. Previously, observed resistance rates had been 10–30%; the increase is likely the result of overuse of macrolide antibiotics in recent years. There

870-413: A different subset of those toxins. The disease is caused by secretion of pyrogenic exotoxins by the infecting Streptococcus bacteria. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A ( speA ) is probably the best studied of these toxins. It is carried by the bacteriophage T12 which integrates into the streptococcal genome from where the toxin is transcribed. The phage itself integrates into a serine tRNA gene on

957-556: A fever, the degree of tiredness may vary, the sore throat and tongue changes might be slight or absent, and the rash can be patchy rather than diffuse in some. Cough, hoarseness, runny nose, diarrhea, and conjunctivitis are typically absent in scarlet fever; such symptoms indicate what is more likely a viral infection. Strep throat is usually associated with fatigue and a fever of over 39 °C (102.2 °F). The tonsils may appear red and enlarged and are typically covered in exudate . The throat may be red with small red spots on

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1044-501: A former cook of the Governor and Simon Shashava, who will swear he is the father of the boy. Natella Abashvili comes in with two lawyers, who each reassure her things will be taken care of. Azdak is beaten by Ironshirts, who is told he is an enemy of the state. A rider comes in with a proclamation, stating the Grand Duke has reappointed Azdak as a judge. Azdak is cleaned up and the trial begins. The trial, however, does not begin with Grusha and

1131-405: A lower grade fever. Infants may present with symptoms of increased irritability and decreased appetite. The complications, which can arise from scarlet fever when left untreated or inadequately treated, can be divided into two categories: suppurative and nonsuppurative. Suppurative complications: These are rare complications that arise either from direct spread to structures that are close to

1218-446: A more virulent strain of the bacterium. A vaccine that will protect against the 180 to 200 types of bacteria causing the disease has been worked on for over 20 years, but as of 2020 a safe one had not yet been developed. Scarlet fever occurs equally in both males and females. Children are most commonly infected, typically between 5–15 years old. Although streptococcal infections can happen at any time of year, infection rates peak in

1305-614: A number of 'songs' as part of the piece, and one of its main characters is called the Singer . In 1944 the production was scored by Paul Dessau . Though there is no officially published score, the show is generally played with original music and songs performed by the cast. Many composers have created unique original scores for The Caucasian Chalk Circle . One score performed regularly is by American composer Mark Nichols , who based his music on traditional Georgian folk harmonies in polyphony . Georgian composer Giya Kancheli made an iconic score for

1392-453: A one time intramuscular injection as another alternative if swallowing pills is not possible. If the person is allergic to the family of antibiotics which both penicillin and amoxicillin are a part of ( beta-lactam antibiotics ), a first generation cephalosporin is used. Cephalosporin antibiotics, however, can still cause adverse reactions in people whose allergic reaction to penicillin is a Type 1 Hypersensitivity reaction . In those cases it

1479-433: A pale area around the mouth. The scarlet fever rash generally looks red on white and pale skin, and might be difficult to visualise on brown or black skin, in whom the bumps are typically larger, the skin less like sandpaper, and the perioral pallor less obvious. The palms and soles are spared. The reddened skin blanches when pressure is applied to it. The skin may feel itchy, but is not painful. A more intense redness on

1566-504: A poignant song is sung by the Singer as a reflection of Grusha's thoughts toward Michael. The others on stage cannot hear this, but they feel the overwhelming emotion through Grusha. Azdak declares that Grusha is the true mother, as she loves Michael too much to be able to hurt him. The Governor's wife is told that the estates shall fall to the city and be made into a garden for children called "Azdak's Garden". Simon pays Azdak his fine. Azdak tells

1653-478: A possible increase in the numbers of invasive GAS infections reported in children. In late December 2022, the CDC's Health Alert Network issued an advisory on the reported increases in invasive GAS infections. It is unclear when a description of this disease was first recorded. Hippocrates , writing around 400 BC, described the condition of a person with a reddened skin and fever. The first unambiguous description of

1740-435: A putative 30-amino-acid signal peptide ; removal of the signal sequence gives a predicted molecular weight of 25.787 kDa for the secreted protein. Both a promoter and a ribosome binding site ( Shine-Dalgarno sequence ) are present upstream of the gene. A transcriptional terminator is located 69 bases downstream from the translational termination codon . The carboxy terminal portion of the protein exhibits extensive homology with

1827-576: A separate illness which came to be known as Dukes' disease , Filatov's disease, or fourth disease. However, in 1979, Keith Powell identified it as in fact the same illness as the form of scarlet fever which is caused by staphylococcal exotoxin and is known as staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome . Scarlet fever serum from horses' blood was used in the treatment of children beginning in 1900 and reduced mortality rates significantly. In 1906, Austrian pediatrician Clemens von Pirquet postulated that disease-causing immune complexes were responsible for

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1914-400: A small number of people who have strep throat or streptococcal skin infections . The bacteria are usually spread by people coughing or sneezing. It can also be spread when a person touches an object that has the bacteria on it and then touches their mouth or nose. The diagnosis is typically confirmed by culturing swabs of the throat . There is no vaccine for scarlet fever. Prevention

2001-449: A throat culture is required to confirm, as the first test could have yielded a false negative result. In the early 21st century, the throat culture is the current "gold standard" for diagnosis. Serologic testing seeks evidence of the antibodies that the body produces against the streptococcal infection, including antistreptolysin-O and antideoxyribonuclease B. It takes the body 2–3 weeks to make these antibodies, so this type of testing

2088-408: A vaccine in the past few decades. These vaccines, which are still in the development phase, expose the person to proteins present on the surface of the group A streptococci to activate an immune response that will prepare the person to fight and prevent future infections. There used to be a diphtheria scarlet fever vaccine. It was, however, found not to be effective. This product was discontinued by

2175-427: Is Grusha's child and she is on her way to find the father's farm. Grusha catches scarlet fever and lives there for quite some time. Rumours spread in the village, and Lavrenti convinces Grusha to marry a dying peasant, Jussup, in order to quell them. She reluctantly agrees. Guests arrive at the wedding–funeral, including the Singer and musicians, which act as the hired musicians for the event, and gossip endlessly. It

2262-422: Is a very specific test but not very sensitive. This means that if the result is positive (indicating that the group A strep antigen was detected and therefore confirming that the person has a group A strep pharyngitis), then it is appropriate to treat the people with scarlet fever with antibiotics. But, if the rapid antigen detection test is negative (indicating that they do not have group A strep pharyngitis), then

2349-551: Is appropriate to choose clindamycin or erythromycin instead. Tonsillectomy , although once a reasonable treatment for recurrent streptococcal pharyngitis, is not indicated, as a person can still be infected with group A streptococcus without their tonsils. A drug-resistant strain of scarlet fever, resistant to macrolide antibiotics such as erythromycin , but retaining drug-sensitivity to beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin, emerged in Hong Kong in 2011, accounting for at least two deaths in that city—the first such in over

2436-438: Is by frequent handwashing , not sharing personal items, and staying away from other people when sick. The disease is treatable with antibiotics , which reduce symptoms and spread, and prevent most complications. Outcomes with scarlet fever are typically good if treated. Long-term complications as a result of scarlet fever include kidney disease , rheumatic fever , and arthritis . In the early 20th century , scarlet fever

2523-652: Is in modern Azerbaijan , although it was under Georgian rule for a time in the Middle Ages . Brecht did not necessarily intend his play to be a realistic portrayal of either contemporary or medieval Georgia. Even in the Soviet Union, some people found it more German than Russian or Georgian, and pointed out that it did not accurately portray the decision-making procedures in Soviet agriculture . Eric Bentley Eric Russell Bentley (September 14, 1916 – August 5, 2020)

2610-414: Is no longer contagious (able to pass the infection to another child) after 24 hours of antibiotics. The antibiotic of choice is Penicillin V which is taken by mouth. In countries without a liquid Penicillin V product, children unable to take tablets can be given amoxicillin which comes in a liquid form and is equally effective. Duration of treatment is 10 days. Benzathine penicillin G can be given as

2697-508: Is not useful for diagnosing a current infection. But it is useful when assessing a person who may have one of the complications from a previous streptococcal infection. Throat cultures done after antibiotic therapy can show if the infection has been removed. These throat swabs, however, are not indicated, because up to 25% of properly treated individuals can continue to carry the streptococcal infection while being asymptomatic. Scarlet fever might appear similar to Kawasaki disease , which has

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2784-455: Is only indicated for people who have had complications like recurrent attacks of acute rheumatic fever or rheumatic heart disease. Antibiotics are limited in their ability to prevent these infections since there are a variety of subtypes of group A streptococci that can cause the infection. Although there are currently no vaccines available, the vaccine approach has a greater likelihood of effectively preventing group A streptococcal infections in

2871-438: Is responsible for the production of speA. Streptococcal Pyrogenic Exotoxin A, speA, is the one most commonly associated with cases of scarlet fever that are complicated by the immune-mediated sequelae of acute rheumatic fever and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis. These toxins are also known as " superantigens " because they can cause an extensive immune response by activating some of the cells that are mainly responsible for

2958-490: Is revealed that the Grand Duke is overthrowing the princes and the civil war has finally ended, and no one can be drafted anymore. At this, the supposedly dead villager Jussup returns to "life", and it becomes clear he was only "ill" when the possibility of being drafted was present. Grusha finds herself married. For months, Grusha's new husband tries to make her a 'real wife' by consummating the marriage, but she refuses. Years pass, and Simon finds Grusha while washing clothes in

3045-422: Is the only sign that scarlet fever occurred. If the case of scarlet fever is uncomplicated, recovery from the fever and clinical symptoms, other than the process of desquamation, occurs in 5–10 days. After the desquamation, the skin will be left with a sunburned appearance. Children younger than five years old may have atypical presentations. Children younger than 3 years old can present with nasal congestion and

3132-428: Is very unlikely for the child to develop acute rheumatic fever. Antibiotic therapy has not been shown to prevent the development of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis. Another important reason for prompt treatment with antibiotics is the ability to prevent transmission of the infection between children. An infected individual is most likely to pass on the infection to another person during the first two weeks. A child

3219-722: The Brander Matthews Professor of Dramatic Literature at Columbia to concentrate on his writing. He cited his homosexuality as an influence on his theater work, especially his play Lord Alfred's Lover , based on the life of Oscar Wilde . He won an Obie Award for Lifetime Achievement in Theatre from the American Theatre Wing in 2006 and a Robert Chesley Award in 2007. Bentley became an American citizen in 1948 and had been living in New York City for many years at

3306-593: The John Addison Porter Prize. Bentley taught History and Drama during the 1942 summer session at Black Mountain College , as well as from 1943 to 1944. Beginning in 1953, he taught at Columbia University and was a theatre critic for The New Republic . He became known for his blunt style of theatre criticism, and was threatened with lawsuits from both Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller for his unfavorable reviews of their work. From 1960 to 1961, Bentley

3393-734: The Writers and Editors War Tax Protest pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War . His play The Red, White, and Black was produced at La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club in 1971 in collaboration with the Columbia University School of the Arts Theatre Division. Beginning in 1975, Andrei Serban directed multiple productions of Bentley's translation of Brecht's Good Woman of Setzuan at La MaMa, with music by Elizabeth Swados . The 1975 production

3480-446: The nephritis that followed scarlet fever. Bacteriophages were discovered in 1915 by Frederick Twort . His work was overlooked and bacteriophages were later rediscovered by Felix d'Herelle in 1917. The specific association of scarlet fever with the group A streptococci had to await the development of Rebecca Lancefield 's streptococcal grouping scheme in the 1920s. George and Gladys Dick showed that cell-free filtrates could induce

3567-444: The roof of the mouth . The uvula can look red and swollen. 30% to 60% of cases have associated enlarged and tender lymph nodes in the neck. During the first two days of illness the tongue may have a whitish coating from which red swollen papillae protrude, giving the appearance of a "white strawberry tongue". After four to five days when the white coating sheds it becomes a "red strawberry tongue". The symptomatic appearance of

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3654-451: The "trip", caring nothing for the loss of her husband. She is carried off, away from the flaming city of Nuhka and inadvertently leaves her son, Michael, behind. Grusha is left with the boy and, after seeing the Governor's head nailed to the church door, takes him with her to the mountains. Music is often incorporated throughout much of this scene with the aid of the Singer, musicians, and possibly Grusha, as Brecht includes actual "songs" within

3741-596: The 2021–2022 season (September to September) and so far also in the season 2022–2023. The World Health Organization has reported an increase in scarlet fever (and iGAS – invasive GAS cases) in England, and other European countries during this time. Increases have been reported in France and Ireland. In the US, cases of scarlet fever are not reported, but as of December 2022, the CDC was looking at

3828-429: The Fat Prince's nephew: "The judge was always a chancer; now let a chancer be the judge!" Azdak remains himself on the bench. He uses a large law book as a pillow to sit on. What follows is a series of short scenes, interspersed by the "song" of the Singer, in which he judges in favor of the poor, the oppressed, and good-hearted bandits; in one set of cases in which all the plaintiffs and the accused are corrupt, he passes

3915-485: The Fat Prince. He sucks up to the pair and remarks how their new child Michael is "a governor from head to toe." They enter the church, leaving the peasants behind. Next to be introduced is the heroine Grusha Vashnadze, a maid to the governor's wife. Grusha, while carrying a goose for the Easter meal, meets a soldier, Simon Shashava, who reveals he has watched her bathe in the rivers. She storms off enraged. The Singer continues

4002-619: The Governor's wife, but with a very elderly married couple who wishes to divorce. Azdak is unable to make a decision on this case, so he sets it aside to hear the next case on the docket. The prosecution comes forth and liberally bribes Azdak in hopes of swinging the verdict. It is revealed that Natella only wants the child because all the estate and finances of the Governor are tied to her heir and cannot be accessed without him. Grusha's defense does not go over well, as it develops into her and Simon insulting Azdak for taking bribes. Azdak fines them for this but, after consideration, claims he can't find

4089-515: The Ironshirts from killing him as a radical. The Fat Prince enters, looking to secure the Ironshirts' support in making his nephew a new judge. Azdak suggests they hold a mock trial to test him; the Fat Prince agrees. Azdak plays the accused in the trial – the Grand Duke. He makes several very successful jabs against the Princes' corruption, and amuses the Ironshirts enough that they appoint him instead of

4176-530: The UK in 2014, and occurrence of the disease rose by 68% in the UK between 2014 and 2018. Research published in October 2020 showed that infection of the bacterium by three viruses has led to more virulent strains of the bacterium. Scarlet fever typically presents with a sudden onset of sore throat , fever, and malaise . Headache, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain may also be present. Scarlet fever usually follows from

4263-728: The Un-American Activities Committee 1947–1958 (1972), was based on the transcripts from the House Un-American Activities Committee collected in Thirty Years of Treason . The following are recordings done by Bentley for Folkways Records . Scarlet fever Scarlet fever , also known as scarlatina , is an infectious disease caused by Streptococcus pyogenes , a Group A streptococcus (GAS). It most commonly affects children between five and 15 years of age. The signs and symptoms include

4350-457: The beheaded governor instantly dislikes him, but decides he'll be needed for the trial in which she'll recover her son from Grusha. The act closes with Azdak obsequious and afraid for his life, promising to restore Michael to the Governor's Wife, behead Grusha, and do whatever else the Governor's Wife wants: "It will all be arranged as you order, your Excellency. As you order." We have returned to Grusha's story. We meet Grusha in court, supported by

4437-416: The body further away from the pharynx. A few examples of the many complications that can arise from those methods of spread include endocarditis , pneumonia , or meningitis . Nonsuppurative complications: These complications arise from certain subtypes of group A streptococci that cause an autoimmune response in the body through what has been termed molecular mimicry . In these cases, the antibodies which

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4524-543: The carboxy terminus of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins B and C1. Streptococcal phages other than T12 may also carry the speA gene. Although the presentation of scarlet fever can be clinically diagnosed, further testing may be required to distinguish it from other illnesses. Also, history of a recent exposure to someone with strep throat can be useful in diagnosis. There are two methods used to confirm suspicion of scarlet fever; rapid antigen detection test and throat culture . The rapid antigen detection test

4611-475: The child back and Grusha must go to court back in Nukha. The Singer ends the act with questions about Grusha's future, and reveals that there is another story we must learn: the story of Azdak. If an intermission is used, this is generally where it is placed. The scene opens as if a different play entirely, yet set within the same war setting, is beginning. The Singer introduces another hero named Azdak. Azdak shelters

4698-517: The chromosome. The T12 virus itself has not been placed into a taxon by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses . It has a double-stranded DNA genome and on morphological grounds appears to be a member of the Siphoviridae . The speA gene was cloned and sequenced in 1986. It is 753 base pairs in length and encodes a 29.244 kilodalton (kDa) protein . The protein contains

4785-776: The device of a " play within a play ". The "frame" play is set in the Soviet Union around the end of the Second World War . It shows a dispute between two communes , the Collective Fruit Farm Galinsk fruit growing commune and the Collective Goat Farmers, over who is to own and manage an area of farm land after the Nazis have retreated from a village and left it abandoned. A parable has been organised by one group, an old folk tale, to be played out to cast light on

4872-564: The disease in the medical literature appeared in the 1553 book De Tumoribus praeter Naturam by the Sicilian anatomist and physician Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia , where he referred to it as rossalia . He also made a point to distinguish that this presentation had different characteristics from measles . It was redescribed by Johann Weyer during an epidemic in lower Germany between 1564 and 1565; he referred to it as scarlatina anginosa . The first unequivocal description of scarlet fever appeared in

4959-462: The dispute. The Singer, Arkadi Tcheidse, arrives with his band of musicians, then tells the peasants the parable, which forms the main narrative, and intertwines throughout much of the play. The Singer often takes on the thoughts of characters, enhances the more dramatic scenes with stronger narration than simple dialogue , and is responsible for most scene and time changes. Often the role is accompanied by several "musicians" (which incorporate music into

5046-428: The doorstep, he is adopted by a peasant woman. Grusha has mixed emotions about this, which change when she meets a perverted Corporal and Ironshirts who are looking for the child. He suspects something about her, and Grusha is forced to knock him out to save Michael. She wearily retreats to her brother's mountain farm. Lavrenti, Grusha's brother, fabricates a story to his jealous wife Aniko, claiming that Michael Abashwili

5133-507: The end of World War II. Antibiotics to combat the streptococcal infection are the mainstay of treatment for scarlet fever. Prompt administration of appropriate antibiotics decreases the length of illness. Peeling of the outer layer of skin, however, will happen despite treatment. One of the main goals of treatment is to prevent the child from developing one of the suppurative or nonsuppurative complications, especially acute rheumatic fever. As long as antibiotics are started within nine days, it

5220-486: The erythematous reaction characteristic of scarlet fever, proving that this reaction was due to a toxin. Karelitz and Stempien discovered that extracts from human serum globulin and placental globulin can be used as lightening agents for scarlet fever and this was used later as the basis for the Dick test. The association of scarlet fever and bacteriophages was described in 1926 by Cantacuzène ( Ioan Cantacuzino ) and Bonciu. There

5307-511: The future because vaccine formulations can target multiple subtypes of the bacteria. A vaccine developed by George and Gladys Dick in 1924 was discontinued due to poor efficacy and the introduction of antibiotics. Difficulties in vaccine development include the considerable strain variety of group A streptococci present in the environment and the amount of time and number of people needed for appropriate trials for safety and efficacy of any potential vaccine. There have been several attempts to create

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5394-415: The inside of skin folds and creases might be noticed. These are lines of petechiae , appearing as pink/red areas located in arm pits and elbow pits. It takes around a week for the main rash to disappear. This may be followed by several weeks of peeling of the skin of typically fingers and toes. The desquamation process usually begins on the face and progresses downward on the body. Sometimes, this peeling

5481-614: The name to its current one, Streptococcus pyogenes, after further looking at the bacteria in the skin lesions. The organism was first cultured in 1883 by the German surgeon Friedrich Fehleisen from erysipelas lesions. Also in 1884, the German physician Friedrich Loeffler was the first to show the presence of streptococci in the throats of people with scarlet fever. Because not all people with pharyngeal streptococci developed scarlet fever, these findings remained controversial for some time. The association between streptococci and scarlet fever

5568-488: The old couple he shall divorce them, but "accidentally" divorces Grusha and the peasant man, leaving her free to marry Simon. Everyone dances off happily as Azdak disappears. The Singer remarks upon Azdak's wisdom and notes that in the ending, everyone got what they deserved. The play is sometimes played without the prologue, and it was always played that way in the US during the McCarthy era . (The first US production to include

5655-452: The past century. There have been several reported outbreaks of the disease in various countries in the past decade. The reason for these increases remains unclear in the medical community. Between 2013 and 2016 population rates of scarlet fever in England increased from 8.2 to 33.2 per 100,000 and hospital admissions for scarlet fever increased by 97%. Further increases in the reporting of scarlet fever cases have been noted in England during

5742-460: The person's immune system developed to attack the group A streptococci are also able to attack the person's own tissues. The following complications result, depending on which tissues in the person's body are targeted by those antibodies. Strep throat spreads by close contact among people, via respiratory droplets (for example, saliva or nasal discharge). A person in close contact with another person infected with group A streptococcal pharyngitis has

5829-404: The person's immune system. Although the body responds to the toxins it encounters by making antibodies, those antibodies will only protect against that particular subset of toxins. They will not necessarily completely protect a person from future group A streptococcal infections, because there are 12 different pyrogenic exotoxins that may be produced by the disease, and future infections may produce

5916-416: The play itself) that help the Singer keep the play running smoothly. At the end he states that the land should go to those who will use it most productively, the fruit growers, and not those who had previous ownership. The Singer's story begins with Governor Georgi Abashwili and his wife Natella blatantly ignoring the citizens on the way to Easter Mass. The Singer shows us the show's antagonist, Arsen Kazbeki,

6003-401: The primary site of infection, or spread through the lymphatic system or blood. In the first case, scarlet fever may spread to the pharynx. Possible problems from this method of spread include peritonsillar or retropharyngeal abscesses, cellulitis , mastoiditis , or sinusitis . In the second case, the streptococcal infection may spread through the lymphatic system or the blood to areas of

6090-630: The production of Rustaveli Theatre in Tbilisi. The setting of the play is clearly Georgia in the Caucasus, although it is described as " Grusinia " (one of the Russian names for the country) in the main play. Most of the characters have Georgian names, and Tiflis and the poet Mayakovsky , who was born and raised in Georgia, are mentioned in the prologue. However the city where much of the action takes place, Nuka ,

6177-403: The prologue was in 1965.) There is some dispute about how integral the prologue is to Brecht's conception of the play. Some claim that he regarded it as an integral part of his play, and it was present in the earliest drafts. Others claim that it was only included in later drafts. However, there is agreement that he originally intended to set it in the 1930s, but later updated it. Brecht wrote

6264-456: The river. They have a sweet exchange before Simon jokingly asks if she has found another man. Grusha struggles to tell him she has unwillingly married, then Simon spots Michael. The following scene between the two is told predominantly by the Singer, who speaks for each of the two characters. However, Ironshirts arrive carrying Michael in, and ask Grusha if she is his mother, she says that she is, and Simon leaves distraught. The Governor's Wife wants

6351-508: The skin manifestation of the infection. These toxin-producing strains cause scarlet fever in people who do not already have antitoxin antibodies . Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins – SPEs A, B, C. and F have been identified. The pyrogenic exotoxins, also called erythrogenic toxins , cause the erythematous rash of scarlet fever. The strains of group A streptococcus that cause scarlet fever need specific bacteriophages for there to be pyrogenic exotoxin production. Specifically, bacteriophage T12

6438-413: The story: as the soldier contacts two architects for the Governor's new mansion, the Ironshirts, gestapo -esque guards, turn on him. The Fat Prince has orchestrated a coup and is now in control. The Governor is quickly beheaded. Simon finds Grusha and proposes, giving her his silver cross. Grusha accepts. Simon runs off to fulfill his duty to the Governor's wife, who has been foolishly packing clothing for

6525-425: The text. The Singer opens the scene with an air of escape. At the beginning of this act Grusha is seen trying to escape but has to stop to get milk for the baby, Michael, and is forced to buy milk expensively from an old man who claims his goats have been taken away by the soldiers. This encounter slows her and she is followed shortly by the Ironshirts. Grusha then finds a home for Michael to stay in. Abandoning him on

6612-636: The time of his death. He turned 100 on September 14, 2016. Bentley died at his home in Manhattan on August 5, 2020, at the age of 103. He wrote numerous books of theatre criticism. In addition, he edited The Importance of Scrutiny (1964), a collection from Scrutiny: A Quarterly Review , and Thirty Years of Treason: Excerpts from Hearings Before the House Committee on Un-American Activities, 1938–1968 (1971). His most-produced play, Are You Now Or Have You Ever Been: The Investigations of Show-Business by

6699-439: The tongue is part of the rash that is characteristic of scarlet fever. The characteristic rash has been denoted as "scarlatiniform", and it appears as a diffuse redness of the skin with small bumps resembling goose bumps. It typically appears as small flat spots on the neck or torso before developing into small bumps that spread to the arms and legs. It tends to feel rough like sandpaper. The cheeks might look flushed with

6786-532: The true mother. He decides that he will have to devise a test. A circle of chalk is drawn, and Michael is placed in the center. The true mother, Azdak states, will be able to pull the child from the center. If they both pull, they will tear the child in half and get half each. The test begins but (akin to the Judgment of Solomon ) Grusha refuses to pull as she cannot bear to hurt Michael. Azdak gives her one more chance, but again she cannot pull Michael. During this dilemma,

6873-435: The winter and spring months, typically in colder climates. The morbidity and mortality of scarlet fever has declined since the 18th and 19th centuries when there were epidemics of this disease. Around 1900 the mortality rate in multiple places reached 25%. The improvement in prognosis can be attributed to the use of penicillin in the treatment of this disease. The frequency of scarlet fever cases has also been declining over

6960-833: Was a British-born American theater critic, playwright , singer, editor, and translator. In 1998, he was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame . He was also a member of the New York Theater Hall of Fame, recognizing his many years of cabaret performances. Bentley was born in Bolton, Lancashire , the son of Laura Evelyn and Fred Bentley. Bentley attended University College, Oxford , where his tutors were J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis ; he received his degree in English in 1938. He subsequently attended Yale University ( B. Litt. in 1939 and PhD in 1941), where he received

7047-421: Was a leading cause of death in children, but even before World War II and the introduction of antibiotics, its severity was already declining. This decline is suggested to be due to better living conditions, the introduction of better control measures, or a decline in the virulence of the bacteria. In recent years, there have been signs of antibiotic resistance ; there was an outbreak in Hong Kong in 2011 and in

7134-675: Was also an outbreak in the UK in 2014, and the National Health Service reported a 68% increase in the number of S. pyogenes identified in laboratory reports between 2014 and 2018. New research published in October 2020 indicates that the bacterium appears to be getting more robust after being infected with viruses, specifically the North-East Asian serotype M12 (emm12) (group A Streptococcus, GAS). They found three new genes, acquired from viruses, which cause development of " superantigens " targeting white blood cells , resulting in

7221-403: Was confirmed by Alphonse Dochez and George and Gladys Dick in the early 1900s. Also in 1884, the world's first convalescent home for people with scarlet fever was opened at Brockley Hill, Stanmore, founded by Mary Wardell . Nil Filatov (in 1895) and Clement Dukes (in 1894) described an exanthematous disease which they thought was a form of rubella , but in 1900, Dukes described it as

7308-570: Was followed by a production in 1976 and another production in 1978. The Great Jones Repertory Company also took the show on tour to Europe in 1976. Bentley was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1969. That same year, he made his homosexuality public. In an interview in The New York Times on November 12, 2006, he said he was married twice before coming out at age 53, at which time he left his position as

7395-507: Was on October 7, 1954, at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm in Berlin. The Caucasian Chalk Circle is one of Brecht's most celebrated works and one of the most regularly performed 'German' plays. It reworks Brecht's earlier short story " Der Augsburger Kreidekreis ." Both derive from the 14th-century Chinese play The Chalk Circle by Li Xingdao . Brecht, in his typical anti-realist style, uses

7482-619: Was the Charles Eliot Norton Professor at Harvard University . Bentley was one of the preeminent experts on Bertolt Brecht , whom he met at the University of California, Los Angeles as a young man and whose work he translated extensively. He edited the Grove Press issue of Brecht's work, and recorded two albums of Brecht's songs for Folkways Records , most of which had never before been recorded in English. In 1968, he signed

7569-406: Was written by Thomas Sydenham , an English physician. In 1827, Richard Bright was the first to recognize the involvement of the renal system in scarlet fever. The association between streptococci and disease was first described in 1874 by Theodor Billroth , discussing people with skin infections. Billroth also coined the genus name Streptococcus . In 1884 Friedrich Julius Rosenbach edited

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