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42-785: The Conemaugh Group consists of cyclic sequences of shale, siltstone, sandstone, red beds, thin impure limestone, and thin nonpersistent coal. Red beds are associated with landslides. The thickness of the Conemaugh Group averages about 400 feet in Ohio, and it ranges from 450 feet on the Ohio River in West Virginia to 520 feet in Washington County, Pennsylvania, and then to 890 feet in Somerset County, Pennsylvania. Fedexia remains are among

84-435: A Russian team noted that biogenic substances can enter the marine environment due to input from either external sources, transport inside the water masses, or development by metabolic processes within the water. They can likewise be expended due to biotransformation processes, or biomass formation by microorganisms. In this study the biogenic substance concentrations, transformation frequency, and turnover were all highest in

126-422: A boiled leaf broth, biomass powder, whole plant immersion in solution, or fruit and vegetable juice extracts. C. annuum juices have been shown to produce Ag nanoparticles at room temperature when treated with silver ions and additionally deliver essential vitamins and amino acids when consumed, making them a potential nanomaterials agent. Another procedure is through the use of a different biogenic substance:

168-484: A few million years prior to Fedexia , Actiobates , and Anconastes . Earlier trematopids may have inhabited upland regions, and would have later immigrated to lowland and coastal regions as the climate continued to change. Some 20 million years after the appearance of Fedexia , during the Permian period, trematopids and other terrestrial vertebrates experienced rapid diversification. Biogenic A biogenic substance

210-440: A granular skin texture formed by bony protuberances. These protuberances would have served as protection from predators and would have lessened water loss through the skin. Unlike other trematopids, Fedexia has a tall, arching lateral profile to the skull. The margin forms a broad arc from the tip of the snout to the occipital region. Other trematopids have a lower, straighter profile to the skull. Another distinguishing feature

252-418: A large scale using photobioreactors . Different system types can be used to yield different biogenic products. In the field of paleochemotaxonomy the presence of biogenic substances in geological sediments is useful for comparing old and modern biological samples and species. These biological markers can be used to verify the biological origin of fossils and serve as paleo-ecological markers. For example,

294-545: A natural environment such as a body of water, a hydroecological CNPSi model can be used to calculate the spatial transport of biogenic substances, in both the horizontal and vertical dimensions. This model takes into account the water exchange and flow rate, and yields the values of biogenic substance rates for any area or layer of the water for any month. There are two main evaluation methods involved: measuring per unit water volume (mg/m year) and measuring substances per entire water volume of layer (t of element/year). The former

336-544: A new rock classification system in his paper 'Discussion of and Suggestions Regarding a New Classification of Rocks'. Within the primary subdivision of "Endogenetic rocks" – rocks formed through chemical processes – was a category termed "Biogenic rocks", which was used synonymously with "Organic rocks". Other secondary categories were "Igneous" and "Hydrogenic" rocks. In the 1930s German chemist Alfred E. Treibs first detected biogenic substances in petroleum as part of his studies of porphyrins . Based on this research, there

378-414: A process of scraping and crushing the target rock sample, then washing with 40% hydrofluoric acid , water, and benzene/methanol in the ratio 3:1. Following this, the rock pieces are ground and centrifuged to produce a residue. Chemical compounds are then derived through various chromatography and mass spectrometry separations. However, extraction should be accompanied by rigorous precautions to ensure there

420-608: A sizeable effect against the bacteria and microalgae that cause fouling are acetylene sesquiterpenoid esters produced by Caulerpa prolifera (from the Chlorophyceae class), which Smyrniotopoulos et al. (2003) observed inhibiting bacterial growth with up to 83% of the efficacy of TBT oxide. Current research also aims to produce these biogenic substances on a commercial level using metabolic engineering techniques . By pairing these techniques with biochemical engineering design, algae and their biogenic substances can be produced on

462-512: A student at the University of Pittsburgh , found the skull on a field trip to the area, but he mistook the teeth for a fern frond . It was later recognized as a skull by class lecturer Dr. Charles Jones, and was taken to the Carnegie Museum of Natural History for further study. The specific name of the type species honors Adam Striegel. The area where the holotype was discovered was part of

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504-432: A terrestrial lifestyle may have been a response to the warmer and drier global climate that existed during the late Carboniferous. During this time, glaciation caused the climate to rapidly fluctuate and sea levels to drop. This resulted in a loss of coal swamps that were once common at higher latitudes. Fedexia was an early example of adaptation to the changing climate. It is possible that terrestrial trematopids existed for

546-467: Is a product made by or of life forms. While the term originally was specific to metabolite compounds that had toxic effects on other organisms, it has developed to encompass any constituents, secretions, and metabolites of plants or animals . In context of molecular biology , biogenic substances are referred to as biomolecules . They are generally isolated and measured through the use of chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques. Additionally,

588-631: Is estimated to have been 2 feet (0.61 m) long, and likely resembled a salamander . Fedexia is known from a single skull found in Moon Township , Pennsylvania . It is named after the shipping service FedEx , which owned the land where the holotype specimen was first found. The holotype skull (CM 76867) was discovered on land owned by the FedEx Corporation near the Pittsburgh International Airport in 2004. Adam Striegel,

630-439: Is mostly used to observe biogenic substance dynamics and individual pathways for flux and transformations, and is useful when comparing individual regions of the strait or waterway. The second method is used for monthly substance fluxes and must take into account that there are monthly variations in the water volume in the layers. In the study of geochemistry , biogenic substances can be isolated from fossils and sediments through

672-681: Is no amino acid contaminants from fingerprints, or silicone contaminants from other analytical treatment methods. Metabolites produced by marine algae have been found to have many antimicrobial properties. This is because they are produced by the marine organisms as chemical deterrents and as such contain bioactive compounds . The principal classes of marine algae that produce these types of secondary metabolites are Cyanophyceae , Chlorophyceae and Rhodophyceae . Observed biogenic products include polyketides , amides , alkaloids , fatty acids , indoles and lipopeptides . For example, over 10% of compounds isolated from Lyngbya majuscula , which

714-488: Is one of the most abundant cyanobacteria, have antifungal and antimicrobial properties. Additionally, a study by Ren et al. (2002) tested halogenated furanones produced by Delisea pulchra from the Rhodophyceae class against the growth of Bacillus subtilis . When applied at a 40 μg/mL concentration, the furanone inhibited the formation of a biofilm by the bacteria and reduced the biofilm's thickness by 25% and

756-463: Is present at the top of the Birmingham Shale, and it is capped by limestone that is of freshwater lacustrine (lake) origin. The holotype skull likely came from the limestone that caps the Birmingham Shale or the underlying paleosol . Because it was not found in situ , the horizon in which the skull originated cannot be determined definitively. The gray limestone matrix that is found inside

798-752: Is that the postorbital length, from the eyes to the back of the skull, is greater than the preorbital length, from the eyes to the tip of the snout. The orbits , or eye sockets, are vertically elongated, extending dorsally to the skull table . There is also a small notch on the premaxilla that separates the premaxillary teeth from the maxillary teeth. Below is a cladogram showing the phylogenetic relations of Fedexia , from Berman et al. , 2010: Dendrerpeton Amphibamus Doleserpeton Eoscopus Micropholis Tersomius Fedexia Anconastes Tambachia Phonerpeton Acheloma Ecolsonia Dissorophus Broiliellus Aspidosaurus Like all trematopids, Fedexia

840-550: Is the potential that these organic compounds are abiogenic in nature, especially in Precambrian sediments. While Studier et al.'s (1968) simulations of the synthesis of isoprenoids in abiogenic conditions did not produce the long-chain isoprenoids used as biomarkers in fossils and sediments, traces of C 9 -C 14 isoprenoids were detected. It is also possible for polyisoprenoid chains to be stereoselectively synthesised using catalysts such as Al(C 2 H 5 ) 3 – VCl 3 . However,

882-652: The Appalachian Basin . The earliest portions of the Casselman Formation, consisting of sandstones and siltstones , are overbank levee deposits that were formed at the shoreline of the retreating Ames Sea. Overlying these deposits is the Grafton Sandstone, a cross-bedded channel-phase sandstone deposited by a meandering river. Above the sandstone lies the Birmingham Shale, which includes fine-grained siltstone and shale overbank deposits. A thick paleosol

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924-589: The Casselman Formation of the Conemaugh Group . In North American Carboniferous stratigraphy, these strata are early Virgilian in age. According to ICS standards, they are Gzhelian in age. The skull itself was found lying near the base of a road cut that exposes the lower part of the Casselman Formation. The Casselman Formation overlies the Ames Limestone, which represents the last marine submergence of

966-515: The Precambrian . These biogenic substances are capable of withstanding the diagenesis process in sediment, but may also be transformed into other materials. This makes them useful as biomarkers for geologists to verify the age, origin and degradation processes of different rocks. Biogenic substances have been studied as part of marine biochemistry since the 1960s, which has involved investigating their production, transport, and transformation in

1008-574: The isoprenoids in sediments are also derived from chlorophyll. Similarly, linear saturated fatty acids discovered in the Messel oil shale of the Messel Pit in Germany arise from organic material of vascular plants . Additionally, alkanes and isoprenoids are found in soluble extracts of Precambrian rock, indicating the probable existence of biological material more than three billion years ago. However, there

1050-416: The base of the skull. Fedexia possesses several characteristics that identify it as a trematopid. One of the most noticeable is a greatly elongated and subdivided external naris . The posterior portion of the naris may have held a salt gland . Another characteristic is the presence of large palatal tusks. Based on small bony elements present in the related trematopid Anconastes , Fedexia likely had

1092-635: The conservation of different biochemical processes. Another application of biogenic substances is in the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles . The current chemical and physical production methods for nanoparticles used are costly and produce toxic waste and pollutants in the environment. Additionally, the nanoparticles that are produced can be unstable and unfit for use in the body. Using plant-derived biogenic substances aims to create an environmentally-friendly and cost-effective production method. The biogenic phytochemicals used for these reduction reactions can be derived from plants in numerous ways, including

1134-845: The exudate of germinating seeds. When seeds are soaked, they passively release phytochemicals into the surrounding water, which after reaching equilibrium can be mixed with metal ions to synthesise metallic nanoparticles. M. sativa exudate in particular has had success in effectively producing Ag metallic particles, while L. culinaris is an effective reactant for manufacturing Au nanoparticles. This process can also be further adjusted by manipulating factors such as pH, temperature, exudate dilution and plant origin to produce different shapes of nanoparticles, including triangles, spheres, rods, and spirals. These biogenic metallic nanoparticles then have applications as catalysts, glass window coatings to insulate heat, in biomedicine , and in biosensor devices. An abiogenic substance or process does not result from

1176-468: The fossils that have been recovered from the formation. Loyalsburg Formation This article about a specific stratigraphic formation in Maryland is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Fedexia Fedexia is an extinct genus of carnivorous temnospondyl within the family Trematopidae . It lived 300 million years ago during the late Carboniferous period. It

1218-474: The marine environment and have lower annual output as well. Organic geochemists also have an interest in studying the diagenesis of biogenic substances in petroleum and how they are transformed in sediment and fossils. While 90% of this organic material is insoluble in common organic solvents – called kerogen – 10% is in a form that is soluble and can be extracted, from where biogenic compounds can then be isolated. Saturated linear fatty acids and pigments have

1260-591: The marine environment during the early 1960s. By 1975, different research areas had developed in the study of marine biochemistry . These were "marine toxins, marine bioproducts and marine chemical ecology". Following this in 1994, Teuscher and Lindequist defined biogenic substances as "chemical compounds which are synthesised by living organisms and which, if they exceed certain concentrations, cause temporary or permanent damage or even death of other organisms by chemical or physicochemical effects" in their book, Biogene Gifte. This emphasis in research and classification on

1302-602: The most stable chemical structures and are therefore suited to withstanding degradation from the diagenesis process and being detected in their original forms. However, macromolecules have also been found in protected geological regions. Typical sedimentation conditions involve enzymatic, microbial and physicochemical processes as well as increased temperature and pressure, which lead to transformations of biogenic substances. For example, pigments that arise from dehydrogenation of chlorophyll or hemin can be found in many sediments as nickel or vanadyl complexes. A large proportion of

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1344-431: The number of live cells by 63%. These characteristics then have the potential to be utilised in man-made materials, such as making anti-fouling paints without the environment-damaging chemicals. Environmentally safe alternatives are needed to TBT (tin-based antifouling agent) which releases toxic compounds into water and the environment and has been banned in several countries. A class of biogenic compounds that has had

1386-496: The original describers of Fedexia , the carbonate nodules of the Clarksburg Member were an unlikely source because of biogenic disturbances and an abundance of siliciclastic material. The holotype skull is 11.5 centimetres (4.5 in) long and is uncrushed and well preserved. Remarkably, the stapes , or middle ear bone, remains intact. Also preserved are both mandibles and the atlas - axis complex, which connects to

1428-418: The presence of pristane indicates that the petroleum or sediment is of marine origin, while biogenic material of non-marine origin tends to be in the form of polycyclic compounds or phytane . The biological markers also provide valuable information about the degradation reactions of biological material in geological environments. Comparing the organic material between geologically old and recent rocks shows

1470-590: The probability of these compounds being available in the natural environment is unlikely. The different biomolecules that make up a plant's biogenic substances – particularly those in seed exudates - can be identified by using different varieties of chromatography in a lab environment. For metabolite profiling, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry is used to find flavonoids such as quercetin . Compounds can then be further differentiated using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry . When it comes to measuring biogenic substances in

1512-434: The skull has been examined by geochemical X-ray reflectance analyses . However, these analyses were not able to determine the stratigraphic origin of the skull. Carbonate nodules at the base of the Clarksburg Member and the limestone capping the Birmingham Shale were the most likely sources of the skull based on these analyses, although chemical dissimilarities with the skull matrix existed in both these strata. According to

1554-513: The toxicity of biogenic substances was partly due to the cytotoxicity-directed screening assays that were used to detect the biologically active compounds. The diversity of biogenic products has since been expanded from cytotoxic substances through the use of alternative pharmaceutical and industrial assays. Through studying the transport of biogenic substances in the Tatar Strait in the Sea of Japan,

1596-426: The transformation and exchange of biogenic substances can by modelled in the environment, particularly their transport in waterways. The observation and measurement of biogenic substances is notably important in the fields of geology and biochemistry . A large proportion of isoprenoids and fatty acids in geological sediments are derived from plants and chlorophyll , and can be found in samples extending back to

1638-503: The upper layer of the water. Additionally, in different regions of the strait the biogenic substances with the highest annual transfer were constant. These were O 2 , DOC, and DISi, which are normally found in large concentrations in natural water. The biogenic substances that tend to have lower input through the external boundaries of the strait and therefore least transfer were mineral and detrital components of N and P. These same substances take active part in biotransformation processes in

1680-563: The water, and how they may be used in industrial applications. A large fraction of biogenic compounds in the marine environment are produced by micro and macro algae, including cyanobacteria . Due to their antimicrobial properties they are currently the subject of research in both industrial projects, such as for anti-fouling paints , or in medicine. During a meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences ' Section of Geology and Mineralogy in 1903, geologist Amadeus William Grabau proposed

1722-440: Was a later increase in the 1970s in the investigation of biogenic substances in sedimentary rocks as part of the study of geology. This was facilitated by the development of more advanced analytical methods, and led to greater collaboration between geologists and organic chemists in order to research the biogenic compounds in sediments . Researchers additionally began to investigate the production of compounds by microorganisms in

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1764-532: Was well adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle. Trematopids are the earliest examples of vertebrate life in North America that lived mostly on land, although they likely returned to the water to mate and lay eggs. Fedexia is one of the oldest known vertebrates to have been primarily terrestrial rather than aquatic. Even older are the trematopids Actiobates and Anconastes , which are Missourian ( Kasimovian ) and early Virgilian in age, respectively. The shift toward

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