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55-512: Carroll Cave is a privately owned cave located in Camden County in the U.S. state of Missouri . The cave is not open to the public. It is registered as a National Natural Landmark . Carroll Cave was discovered in 1954. Serious exploration began in 1956, during a period when the cave was open to serious cave explorers ( speleologists ). The explorers eventually mapped approximately 20 miles of passageways leading to speleothem chambers and

110-450: A ghost town or capital depreciation due to strike action ). Simultaneously, technological developments which serve as means of production would not exist without what Marx refers to as "general intellect," the human innovation and industry which motivates industrial development. Capital itself, being one of the factors of production , comes to be viewed in capitalist society as a productive force in its own right, independent from labour,

165-457: A human activity, the concept of productive forces includes the concept that technology mediates the human-nature relationship. Productive forces do not include the subject of labor (the raw materials or materials from nature being worked on). Productive forces are not the same thing as the means of production . Marx identified three components of production: human labor, subject of labor, and means of labor (1967, p 174). Productive forces are

220-489: A title or a certificate of ownership. The rights to a property may be transferred from one "owner" to another. A transfer tax is a tax on the passing of title to property from one person (or entity) to another. An owner may request that, after death, private property be transferred to family members, through inheritance . In certain cases, ownership may be lost to the public interest. Private real estate may be confiscated or used for public purposes, for example, to build

275-408: A bundle is composed of a set of rights that allows the owner of the asset to control it and decide on its use, claim the value generated by it, exclude others from using it, and the right to transfer the ownership (set of rights over the asset) of it to another holder. In Marxian economics and socialist politics, a distinction is made between "private property" and " personal property ". The former

330-406: A class is called forth, which has to bear all the burdens of society without enjoying its advantages, which, ousted from society, is forced into the most decided antagonism to all other classes; a class which forms the majority of all members of society, and from which emanates the consciousness of the necessity of a fundamental revolution, the communist consciousness, which may, of course, arise among

385-517: A component of the development of a post-capitalist economic system . In response to the socialist critique, the Austrian School economist Ludwig Von Mises argued that private property rights are a requisite for what he called "rational" economic calculation and that the prices of goods and services cannot be determined accurately enough to make efficient economic calculation without having clearly defined private-property rights. Mises argued that

440-401: A double relationship: on the one hand as a natural, on the other as a social relationship. By social we understand the co-operation of several individuals, no matter under what conditions, in what manner and to what end. It follows from this that a certain mode of production, or industrial stage, is always combined with a certain mode of co-operation, or social stage, and this mode of co-operation

495-448: A given period. Marx's conception of private property has proven influential for many subsequent economic theories and for communist , socialist , and anarchist political movements, and led to the widespread association of private property—particularly private property in the means of production —with capitalism . Private property is a legal concept defined and enforced by a country's political system . The area of law that deals with

550-457: A large underground waterfall. After about three decades of exploration, the cave was completely closed to all visitors. The U.S. National Park Service describes the Carroll Cave system as “a dendritic system of subsurface karst streams and tributaries.” A cave explorer has described wandering through and exploring the complex system of braided passageways implied by this description. The cave

605-520: A legal definition in the 17th century. Private property defined as property owned by commercial entities emerged with the great European trading companies of the 17th century. The issue of the enclosure of agricultural land in England, especially as debated in the 17th and 18th centuries, accompanied efforts in philosophy and political thought—by Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), James Harrington (1611–1677) and John Locke (1632–1704), for example—to address

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660-484: A productive force. Together with the social and technical relations of production , the productive forces constitute a historically specific mode of production . Karl Marx emphasized that with few exceptions means of labour are not a productive force unless they are actually operated, maintained and conserved by living human labour. Without applying living human labour, their physical condition and value would deteriorate, depreciate, or be destroyed (an example would be

715-528: A relatively very extensive commerce, is proved by the Phoenicians, whose inventions were for the most part lost for a long time to come through the ousting of this nation from commerce, its conquest by Alexander and its consequent decline. Likewise, for instance, glass-painting in the Middle Ages. Only when commerce has become world commerce, and has as its basis large-scale industry, when all nations are drawn into

770-496: A road. The legal framework of a country or society defines some of the practical implications of private property. There are no expectations that these rules will define a rational and consistent model of economics or social system. Although contemporary neoclassical economics —currently the dominant school of economics—rejects some of the assumptions of the early philosophers underpinning classical economics, it has been argued that neoclassical economics continues to be influenced by

825-427: A science. So different views, hypotheses and approaches were widely discussed, tested and refined with time. Other interpretations, sometimes influenced by postmodernism and the concept of commodity fetishism have by contrast emphasized the reification of the powers of technology, said to occur by the separation of technique from the producers, and by falsely imputing human powers to technology as autonomous force,

880-498: A social relationship in which the property owner takes possession of anything that another person or group produces with that property and capitalism depends on private property. The socialist critique of private ownership is heavily influenced by the Marxist analysis of capitalist property forms as part of its broader critique of alienation and exploitation in capitalism. Although there is considerable disagreement among socialists about

935-424: A socialist system, which by definition would lack private property in the factors of production, would be unable to determine appropriate price valuations for the factors of production. According to Mises, this problem would make rational socialist calculation impossible. In capitalism , ownership can be viewed as a "bundle of rights" over an asset that entitles its holder to a strong form of authority over it. Such

990-532: A subject with "a life of its own". Indeed, Marx sees the essence of what he calls "the capital relation" as being summarised by the circumstance that "capital buys labour", i.e. the power of property ownership to command human energy and labour-time, and thus of inanimate "things" to exert an autonomous power over people. What disappears from view is that the power of capital depends in the last instance on human cooperation. "The production of life, both of one's own in labour and of fresh life in procreation... appears as

1045-412: Is another name for monopoly and can hamper allocative efficiency. Through the use of taxation and modified Vickrey auctions , they argue that partial common property ownership is a more efficient and just way to organize the economy. The justifications for private property rights have also been critiqued as tools of empire that enable land appropriation. According to academic commentator Brenna Bhandar,

1100-589: Is applied. The most important components of the means of labor are the instruments of labor (for example, tools, devices, and machines). (From Productive forces. — The Great Soviet Encyclopedia: in 30 volumes. — Moscow: «Soviet Encyclopedia», 1969–1978. ; English web-version of the article [2] ; original version in Russian [3] ) According to this, productive forces have such structure: Marxism in USSR served as core philosophical paradigm or platform, and had been developing as

1155-470: Is defined as the means of production about private ownership over an economic enterprise based on socialized production and wage labor whereas the latter is defined as consumer goods or goods produced by an individual. Prior to the 18th century, private property usually referred to land ownership . Private property in the means of production is the central element of capitalism criticized by socialists. In Marxist literature, private property refers to

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1210-581: Is distinguished from private property ownership and Western understandings of land law . Productive forces NML: Productive forces , productive powers , or forces of production ( German : Produktivkräfte ) is a central idea in Marxism and historical materialism . In Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ' own critique of political economy , it refers to the combination of the means of labor (tools, machinery, land, infrastructure, and so on) with human labour power . Marx and Engels probably derived

1265-416: Is itself a “productive force.” The productive power of cooperation comes to be viewed as the productive power of capital, because it is capital which forcibly organises people, rather than people organising capital. Marx regarded this as a supreme reification . Unlike British classical economics, Marxian economics classifies financial capital as being an element of the relations of production, rather than

1320-440: Is practical free trade; the protective duty is only a palliative, a measure of defence within free trade), established means of communication and the modern world market, subordinated trade to itself, transformed all capital into industrial capital, and thus produced the rapid circulation (development of the financial system) and the centralisation of capital. By universal competition it forced all individuals to strain their energy to

1375-401: Is said to be a spontaneous result of the operation of a universal market and the process of commercialization . Marx's concept of productive forces also has some relevance for discussions in economics about the meaning and measurement of productivity . Modern economics theorises productivity in terms of the marginal product of the factors of production . Marx theorises productivity within

1430-538: The Industrial Revolution , the moral philosopher and economist Adam Smith (1723–1790), in contrast to Locke, distinguished between the "right to property" as an acquired right, and natural rights . Smith confined natural rights to "liberty and life". Smith also drew attention to the relationship between employee and employer and identified that property and civil government were dependent upon each other, recognizing that "the state of property must always vary with

1485-579: The capitalist mode of production in terms of the social and technical relations of production , with the concept of the organic composition of capital and the value product . He suggests there is no completely neutral view of productivity possible; how productivity is defined depends on the values and interests people have. Thus, different social classes have different notions of productivity reflecting their own station in life, and giving rise to different notions of productive and unproductive labour . In 1984 Deng Xiaoping declared "the fundamental task for

1540-413: The working population by their claim to ownership in the form of stock or private equity. This exploitative arrangement is perpetuated due to the structure of capitalist society. Capitalism is regarded as a class system akin to historical class systems like slavery and feudalism . Private ownership has also been criticized on non-Marxist ethical grounds by advocates of market socialism . According to

1595-608: The Babylonians in 1800 BC, as evidenced by the archeological discovery of Plimpton 322 , a clay tablet used for calculating property boundaries. However, written discussions of private property were not seen until the Persian Empire, and emerged in the Western tradition at least as far back as Plato . Before the 18th century, English speakers generally used the word "property" about land ownership . In England , "property" came to have

1650-517: The class overthrowing it, can only in a revolution succeed in ridding itself of all the muck of ages, and become fitted to found society anew. (From The German Ideology ) The Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., textbook (1957, p xiv) says that "[t]he productive forces reflect the relationship of people to the objects and forces of nature used for the production of material wealth." (italics added) While productive forces are

1705-466: The competitive struggle, is the permanence of the acquired productive forces assured. (...) Competition soon compelled every country that wished to retain its historical role to protect its manufactures [ sic ] by renewed customs regulations (the old duties were no longer any good against big industry) and soon after to introduce big industry under protective duties. Big industry universalised competition in spite of these protective measures (it

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1760-792: The concept from Adam Smith 's reference to the "productive powers of labour" (see e.g. chapter 8 of The Wealth of Nations (1776)), although the German political economist Friedrich List also mentions the concept of "productive powers" in The National System of Political Economy (1841). All those forces which are applied by people in the production process (body and brain, tools and techniques, materials, resources, quality of workers' cooperation, and equipment) are encompassed by this concept, including those management and engineering functions technically indispensable for production (as contrasted with social control functions). Human knowledge can also be

1815-434: The division of labour the last semblance of its natural character. It destroyed natural growth in general, as far as this is possible while labour exists, and resolved all natural relationships into money relationships. In the place of naturally grown towns it created the modern, large industrial cities which have sprung up overnight. Wherever it penetrated, it destroyed the crafts and all earlier stages of industry. It completed

1870-466: The economist James Yunker, the ethical case for market socialism is that because passive property income requires no mental or physical exertion on the part of the recipient, and its appropriation by a small group of private owners is the source of the vast inequalities in contemporary capitalism, social ownership in a market economy would resolve the major cause of social inequality and its accompanying social ills. Weyl and Posner argue that private property

1925-516: The effect being a perspective of inevitable and unstoppable technological progress operating beyond any human control, and impervious to human choices. In turn, this is said to have the effect of naturalising and legitimating social arrangements produced by people, by asserting that they are technically inevitable. The error here seems to be that social relations between people are confused and conflated with technical relations between people and things, and object relations between things; but this error

1980-533: The extent to which an owner will be able to exercise rights over the same. The rights to private property often come with limitations. For example, local government may enforce rules about what kind of building may be built on private land ( building code ), or whether a historical building may be demolished or not. Theft is common in many societies, and the extent to which central administration will pursue property crime varies enormously. Some forms of private property are uniquely identifiable and may be described in

2035-617: The factors or forces of production ("not a thing, but a social relation between persons, established by the instrumentality of things"). Marx and Engels did not believe that human history featured a continuous growth of the productive forces. Rather, the development of the productive forces was characterised by social conflicts. Some productive forces destroyed other productive forces, sometimes productive techniques were lost or destroyed, and sometimes productive forces could be turned into destructive forces: "How little highly developed productive forces are safe from complete destruction, given even

2090-411: The form of government". Smith further argued that civil government could not exist without property, as the government's main function was to define and safeguard property ownership. In the 19th century, the economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883) provided an influential analysis of the development and history of property formations and their relationship to the technical productive forces of

2145-413: The government requests that owners pay for the privilege of ownership. A property tax is an ad valorem tax on the value of a property, usually levied on real estate . The tax is levied by the governing authority of the jurisdiction in which the property is located. It may be imposed annually or at the time of a real estate transaction , such as in real estate transfer tax . Under a property-tax system,

2200-429: The government requires or performs an appraisal of the monetary value of each property, and tax is assessed in proportion to that value. The four broad types of property taxes are land , improvements to land (immovable human-made objects, such as buildings), personal property (movable human-made objects), and intangible property . The social and political context in which private property is administered will determine

2255-517: The land will be put to productive use and its value protected by the landowner . If the owners must pay property taxes , this forces the owners to maintain a productive output from the land to keep taxes current. Private property also attaches a monetary value to land, which can be used to trade or as collateral . Private property thus is an important part of capitalization within the economy . Socialist economists are critical of private property as socialism aims to substitute private property in

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2310-586: The language implemented in property legislation dictates colonized peoples as unable to effectively own and utilize their land. It is suggested that personal rights are interchangeable with property rights, therefore communities that utilize communal methods of land ownership are not equally validated by private property ideals. It is also argued by critical race theorist Cheryl Harris that race and property rights have been conflated over time, with only those qualities unique to white settlement recognized legally. Indigenous use of land, focusing on common ownership,

2365-430: The legacy of natural moral theory and the concept of natural rights , which has led to the presentation of private market exchange and private property rights as "natural rights" inherent in nature. Economic liberals (defined as those who support a private sector -driven market economy) consider private property to be essential for the construction of a prosperous society. They believe private ownership of land ensures

2420-529: The majority destructive forces; moreover, a great multitude of such forces could find no application at all within this system. (...) from the conception of history we have sketched we obtain these further conclusions: (1) In the development of productive forces there comes a stage when productive forces and means of intercourse are brought into being, which, under the existing relationships, only cause mischief, and are no longer forces of production but forces of destruction (machinery and money); and connected with this

2475-447: The means of production for social ownership or public property . Socialists generally argue that private property relations limit the potential of the productive forces in the economy when the productive activity becomes a collective activity, where the role of the capitalist becomes redundant (as a passive owner). Socialists generally favor social ownership either to eliminate the class distinctions between owners and workers and as

2530-455: The other classes too through the contemplation of the situation of this class. (...) Both for the production on a mass scale of this communist consciousness, and for the success of the cause itself, the changing of men on a mass scale is, necessary, a change which can only take place in a practical movement, a revolution; this revolution is necessary, therefore, not only because the ruling class cannot be overthrown in any other way, but also because

2585-410: The phenomenon of property ownership . In arguing against supporters of absolute monarchy , John Locke conceptualized property as a "natural right" that God had not bestowed exclusively on the monarchy: the labor theory of property . This stated that property is a natural result of labor improving upon nature; and thus by labor expenditure, the laborer becomes entitled to its produce. Influenced by

2640-415: The purposeful expenditure of labor power in labor activity, human beings “objectify” or embody themselves in the material world. The material elements of the productive forces (the means of production and the means of consumption) are the product of human reason and labor. The means of production include the means of labor, which transmit human influence to nature, and the objects of labor, to which human labor

2695-405: The rise of mercantilism , Locke argued that private property was antecedent to and thus independent of government. Locke distinguished between "common property", by which he meant common land , and property in consumer goods and producer-goods. His chief argument for property in land ownership was that it led to improved land management and cultivation over common land. In the 18th century, during

2750-465: The subject is called property law . The enforcement of property law concerning private property is a matter of public expense. Defence of property is a common method of justification used by defendants who argue that they should not be held liable for any loss and injury that they have caused because they were acting to protect their property . Courts have generally ruled that the use of force may be acceptable. In many political systems,

2805-554: The union of human labor and the means of labor; means of production are the union of the subject of labor and the means of labor. (Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., 1957, p xiii). On the other hand, The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978) states: Society's principal productive forces are people—the participants in social production, or the workers and the toiling masses in general (K. Marx and F. Engels, vol. 46, part 1, p. 403; V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 38, p. 359). <…> Through

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2860-461: The utmost. It destroyed as far as possible ideology, religion, morality, etc. and where it could not do this, made them into a palpable lie. It produced world history for the first time, insofar as it made all civilised nations and every individual member of them dependent for the satisfaction of their wants on the whole world, thus destroying the former natural exclusiveness of separate nations. It made natural science subservient to capital and took from

2915-446: The validity of certain aspects of Marxist analysis, the majority of socialists are sympathetic to Marx's views on exploitation and alienation. Socialists critique the private appropriation of property income because such income does not correspond to a return on any productive activity and is generated by the working class , it represents exploitation. The property-owning (capitalist) class lives off passive property income produced by

2970-425: The victory of the commercial town over the countryside. [Its first premise] was the automatic system. [Its development] produced a mass of productive forces, for which private [property] became just as much a fetter as the guild had been for manufacture and the small, rural workshop for the developing craft. These productive forces received under the system of private property a one-sided development only, and became for

3025-404: Was designated as a National Natural Landmark in 1977. Private property Private property is foundational to capitalism , an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit . As a legal concept, private property is defined and enforced by a country's political system . The first evidence of private property may date back to

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