List of forms of government
111-402: Carl Theodor Dreyer ( Danish: [ˈkʰɑˀl ˈtsʰe̝ːotɒ ˈtʁɑjˀɐ] ; 3 February 1889 – 20 March 1968), commonly known as Carl Th. Dreyer , was a Danish film director and screenwriter. Widely considered one of the greatest filmmakers in history, his movies are noted for emotional austerity and slow, stately pacing, frequent themes of social intolerance, the inseparability of fate and death, and
222-600: A Caliph should be selected or elected by Muslims or by their representatives. Followers of Shia Islam , however, believe a Caliph should be an Imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt (the "Family of the House", Muhammad 's direct descendants). In both cases, caliphs theoretically combine religious and secular powers. The Emperors of the Timurid and Mughal Dynasty were regarded as intermediaries of their subordinaries and God by virtue of
333-498: A vampire . Both films were box office failures, and Dreyer did not make another movie until World War II. By 1943, Denmark was under Nazi occupation , and Dreyer's film Day of Wrath had as its theme the paranoia surrounding witch hunts in the seventeenth century in a strongly theocratic culture. With this work, Dreyer established the style that would mark his sound films: careful compositions, stark monochrome cinematography, and very long takes . Dreyer made two documentaries in
444-586: A "theocratic republic" by various sources, including the CIA World Factbook . Its constitution has been described as a "hybrid" of "theocratic and democratic elements" by Francis Fukuyama . Like other Islamic states, it maintains religious laws and has religious courts to interpret all aspects of law. According to Iran's constitution, "all civil, penal, financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria." In addition, Iran has
555-511: A Dane could direct a film about one of France's most revered historical icons. Dreyer's final version of the film was cut down due to pressure from the Archbishop of Paris and government censors. For several decades, it was released and viewed in various re-edited versions that attempted to restore Dreyer's final cut. In 1981, a print of Dreyer's final cut was discovered in Dikemark Hospital ,
666-474: A church or analogous religious leadership, may be more accurately described as an ecclesiocracy. In an ecclesiocracy, the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation. A related phenomenon is a secular government co-existing with a state religion or delegating some aspects of civil law to religious communities. For example, in Israel, marriage
777-569: A compromise between a purely Islamic caliphate and secular nationalism and republicanism . In their conception of the Islamic republic, the penal code of the state is required to be compatible with some or all laws of Sharia , and the state does not necessarily have to be a monarchy, as many Middle Eastern states presently are. Afghanistan was an Islamic theocracy when the Taliban first ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001 and since their reinstatement of
888-518: A cut that was as true to Dreyer's original vision as possible. The original version was believed to be lost for decades after a fire at UFA in Berlin destroyed the master negative, and only variations of Dreyer's second version were available. In 1981, a janitor found three film cannisters in a closet he was cleaning out at the Dikemark Hospital mental institution in Asker . The canisters were sent to
999-511: A diffuse, feudal system after the ascension of the Fifth Dalai Lama . Power in Tibet was held by a number of traditional élites, including members of the nobility, the heads of the major Buddhist sects (including their various tulkus ), and various large and influential monastic communities. The Bogd Khanate period of Mongolia (1911–19) featured a Buddhist theocratic khanate . Similar to
1110-454: A director "must be careful never to force his own interpretation on an actor, because an actor cannot create truth and pure emotions on command. One cannot push feelings out. They have to arise from themselves, and it is the director's and actor's work in unison to bring them to that point." Later in post-production, Falconetti was the only cast member to watch the rushes and the film's editing. According to critic Roger Ebert : For Falconetti,
1221-415: A false letter in the prison to the illiterate Joan, supposedly from King Charles VII of France , telling her to trust in the bearer. When that too fails, Joan is taken to view the torture chamber, but the sight, though it causes her to faint, does not intimidate her. When she is threatened with burning at the stake , Joan finally breaks and allows a priest to guide her hand in signing a confession. However,
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#17328696695901332-458: A government which enforces a state religion. Sumerian cities were probably theocratic and were most likely headed by a priest-king ( ensi ), assisted by a council of elders including both men and women. Ancient Egyptian society regarded its pharaohs as divine and associated them with Horus , and after death, with Osiris . While not considered equal to other members of the Egyptian pantheon ,
1443-421: A majestic power which steamrollers its way through all its faults and excesses." On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a rating of 98% based on 59 reviews, with an average rating of 9.10/10. The website's consensus reads, " The Passion of Joan of Arc is must-see cinema for Renée Maria Falconetti's incredible performance alone -- and an all-time classic for innumerable other reasons." The Village Voice ranked it
1554-399: A mental institution just outside Oslo , Norway , and re-released. Despite the objections and cutting of the film by clerical and government authorities, it was a major critical success when first released and has consistently been considered one of the greatest films ever made . It has been praised and referenced by many film directors and musicians. In 1958, the film was voted number 4 on
1665-404: A new version of the original cut using alternate and initially unused takes. Over the next four decades, it became difficult to find copies of Dreyer's second version, and copies of the original were thought to be even scarcer. It was re-released in 1933 in a 61-minute cut which included a new narration by radio star David Ross, but no intertitles . In 1952, Joseph-Marie Lo Duca found a copy of
1776-401: A performance of Victor Margueritte 's La Garçonne , a comedic play in which she was appearing. He was initially unimpressed, but upon seeing her a second time the day after, Dreyer said he "felt there was something in her which could be brought out; something she could give, something, therefore, I could take. For behind the make-up, behind the pose and that ravishing modern appearance, there
1887-403: A religious ruler and many religious officials in powerful governmental positions. The head of state, or " Supreme Leader ", is a faqih (scholar of Islamic law) and has more power than the president of Iran . Iran's current Supreme Leader is Ali Khamenei , a role he has held since 1989. The Leader appoints the heads of many powerful governmental positions: the commanders of the armed forces ,
1998-679: A royal edict issued by the Byzantine Emperor John Tzimisces in 972, and reaffirmed by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1095. Greece wrestled control of the area from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War in 1912. However, it was formally recognized as part of Greece only after a diplomatic dispute with the Russian Empire was no longer an obstacle, after the latter's collapse during World War I . Mount Athos
2109-478: A scandalous abdication of responsibility." Before its French premiere, several cuts were made by order of the Archbishop of Paris and by government censors. Dreyer was angered by these cuts, as he had no control over them. Later that year on 6 December, a fire at UFA studios in Berlin destroyed the film's original negative; only a few copies of Dreyer's original cut of the film existed. Dreyer was able to patch together
2220-499: A sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its official religion. However, some critiques describe Saudi Arabia as an Islamic theocracy. Religious minorities do not have the right to practice their religion openly. Conversion from Islam to another religion is punishable by death as apostasy . Muhammad Al-Atawneh describes the current Saudi regime as a 'theo-monarchy, that draws power from long-standing religio-cultural norms.' The Central Tibetan Administration , colloquially known as
2331-601: A specific role reserved for a class of monk officials. On 14 March 2011, at the 14th Dalai Lama 's suggestion, the parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration began considering a proposal to remove the Dalai Lama's role as head of state in favor of an elected leader. The first directly elected Kalön Tripa was Samdhong Rinpoche , who was elected on 20 August 2001. Before 2011, the Kalön Tripa position
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#17328696695902442-771: A state governed by a theocracy. Following the Capture of Rome on 20 September 1870, the Papal States including Rome with the Vatican were annexed by the Kingdom of Italy . In 1929, through the Lateran Treaty signed with the Italian Government, the new state of Vatican City was formally created and recognised as an independent state from Fascist Italy . The head of state of the Vatican
2553-399: A state religion is not sufficient to mean that a state is a theocracy in the narrow sense of the term. Many countries have a state religion without the government directly deriving its powers from a divine authority or a religious authority which is directly exercising governmental powers. Since few theocracies exist in the modern world, the word "theocracy" is now used as a descriptive term for
2664-939: A strict interpretation of Islamic Sharia law , along with the religious edicts of Mullah Mohammed Omar , upon the entire country of Afghanistan. During the five-year history of the Islamic Emirate , the Taliban regime interpreted the Sharia in accordance with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence and the religious edicts of Mullah Omar . The Taliban forbade pork and alcohol, many types of consumer technology such as music , television , and film , as well as most forms of art such as paintings or photography , male and female participation in sport , including football and chess ; recreational activities such as kite-flying and keeping pigeons or other pets were also forbidden, and
2775-515: A theocracy, declaring the ruling family the sons of heaven and calling the chief sky god Shangdi after a word for their deceased ancestors. After their overthrow by the Zhou , the royal clan of Shang were not eliminated but instead moved to a ceremonial capital where they were charged to continue the performance of their rituals. The titles combined by Shi Huangdi to form his new title of emperor were originally applied to god-like beings who ordered
2886-443: Is a film I made with all my heart. The great, never finished project of Dreyer's career was a film about Jesus . Although a manuscript was written (published in 1968), the unstable economic conditions and Dreyer's own perfectionism left the project undeveloped at his death. The Passion of Joan of Arc The Passion of Joan of Arc (French: La Passion de Jeanne d'Arc ) is a 1928 French silent historical film based on
2997-487: Is a form of autocracy or oligarchy in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries who manage the government's daily affairs. The word theocracy originates from the Ancient Greek : θεοκρατία ( theocratia ) meaning "the rule of God". This, in turn, derives from θεός (theos), meaning "god", and κρατέω ( krateo ), meaning "to rule". Thus
3108-508: Is a mountain peninsula in Greece which is an Eastern Orthodox autonomous area consisting of 20 monasteries under the direct jurisdiction of the Primate of Constantinople . There have been almost 1,800 years of a continuous Christian presence on Mount Athos, and it has a long history of monasteries , which dates back to at least 800 AD. The origin of self-rule at Mount Athos can be traced back to
3219-623: Is appointed by the pope. The Vatican legal system is rooted in canon law . The Bishop of Rome, as the Supreme Pontiff , "has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers." Although the laws of Vatican City come from the secular laws of Italy, under article 3 of the Law of the Sources of the Law, a provision is made for the application of the "laws promulgated by the Kingdom of Italy". Mount Athos
3330-639: Is elected by the Assembly of Experts which is made up of mujtahids , who are Islamic scholars competent in interpreting Sharia . The Guardian Council , has the power to reject bills passed by the Parliament . It can also approve or reject candidates who want to run for the Presidency, Parliament, and the Assembly of Experts. The council supervises elections, and can allow or ban investigations into elections. Six of
3441-437: Is governed by officially recognized religious bodies who each provide marriage services for their respected adherents, yet no form of civil marriage (free of religion) exists, nor marriage by non-recognized minority religions. According to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, there are two meanings for the word theocracy : (1) government of a state by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided; and (2)
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3552-553: Is in line with the Sharia . We abide by the Amir's view even if he alone takes this view. There will not be a head of state. Instead, there will be an Amir al-Mu'minin. Mullah Omar will be the highest authority, and the government will not be able to implement any decision to which he does not agree. General elections are incompatible with Sharia and therefore we reject them. The Taliban were reluctant to share power, and since their ranks were overwhelmingly Pashtun they ruled as overlords over
3663-664: Is interrogated by the French clerical court. Her judges, who are on the side of the Burgundian-English coalition and against the King of France, try to make her say something that will discredit her claim or shake her belief that she has been given a mission by God to drive the English from France, but she remains steadfast. One or two of them, believing that she is indeed a saint, support her. The authorities then resort to deception. A priest reads
3774-547: Is specifically exempt from the free movement of people and goods required by Greece's membership of the European Union , and entrance is allowed only with express permission from the monks. The number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, with all visitors required to obtain an entrance permit. Only men are permitted to visit, and Eastern Orthodox Christians take precedence in the issuing of permits. Residents of Mount Athos must be men aged 18 and over who are members of
3885-481: Is the pope , elected by the College of Cardinals , an assembly of high-ranking clergy. The pope is elected for life, and either dies in office, or in extremely rare situations may resign. The cardinals are appointed by the popes, who thereby choose the electors of their successors. Voting is limited to cardinals under 80 years of age. A Secretary for Relations with States, directly responsible for international relations,
3996-549: Is the rejection of Loya Jirga decision about expulsion of Osama bin Laden . Mullah Omar visited the capital, Kabul, only twice while in power. Instead of an election, their leader's legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance (" Bay'ah "), in imitation of the Prophet and the first four Caliphs . On 4 April 1996, Mullah Omar had "the Cloak of Muhammad " taken from its shrine, Kirka Sharif , for
4107-536: Is why we give no salaries to officials or soldiers, just food, clothes, shoes, and weapons. We want to live a life like the Prophet lived 1400 years ago, and jihad is our right. We want to recreate the time of the Prophet, and we are only carrying out what the Afghan people have wanted for the past 14 years. They modeled their decision-making process on the Pashtun tribal council ( jirga ), together with what they believed to be
4218-644: The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified Roman emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority ( auctoritas ) of the Roman State . The official offer of cultus to a living emperor acknowledged his office and rule as divinely approved and constitutional: his Principate should therefore demonstrate pious respect for traditional republican deities and mores . Unified religious rule in Buddhist Tibet began in 1642, when
4329-601: The Fifth Dalai Lama allied with the military power of the Mongol Gushri Khan to consolidate political power and to center control around his office as head of the Gelug school. This form of government is known as the dual system of government . Prior to 1642, particular monasteries and monks had held considerable power throughout Tibet but had not achieved anything approaching complete control, and their power continued in
4440-632: The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan in 2021, Afghanistan is an Islamic theocracy again. Spreading from Kandahar , the Taliban eventually captured Kabul in 1996. By the end of 2000, the Taliban controlled 90% of the country, aside from the opposition ( Northern Alliance ) strongholds which were primarily found in the northeast corner of Badakhshan Province . Areas under the Taliban's direct control were mainly Afghanistan's major cities and highways. Tribal khans and warlords had de facto direct control over various small towns, villages, and rural areas. The Taliban sought to establish law and order and to impose
4551-491: The Norwegian Film Institute , where they were stored for three years before finally being examined. It was then discovered that they were Dreyer's original cut prior to government or church censorship. The print had been shipped from Copenhagen (where the film had premiered) to Asker. It was still in its 1928 packaging, which was addressed to Harald Arnesen, the director of the hospital. Since Dreyer's death and
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4662-594: The Second World War in 1945: on 1 January 1946 Emperor Hirohito , at the request of Douglas MacArthur , declared that he was not a living god in order for Japan to reorganize into a democratic nation. In biblical times, Early Israel was a kritarchy , ruled by Judges before the institution of a monarchy under Saul . The Israelites regarded the Judges as representatives of God to dispense His judgement, and were often themselves prophets. From c. 27 BCE
4773-465: The actual record of the trial of Joan of Arc . The film was directed by Carl Theodor Dreyer and stars Renée Jeanne Falconetti as Joan. It is widely regarded as a landmark of cinema, especially for its production, Dreyer's direction and Falconetti's performance, which is often listed as one of the finest in cinema history. The film summarizes the time that Joan of Arc was a captive of England, depicting her trial and execution. Danish director Dreyer
4884-694: The 15th Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile unanimously voted to change the title of Kalön Tripa to Sikyong in Article 19 of the Charter of the Tibetans in exile and relevant articles. The Dalai Lama had previously referred to the Kalön Tripa as Sikyong, and this usage was cited as the primary justification for the name change. According to Tibetan Review , "Sikyong" translates to "political leader", as distinct from "spiritual leader". Foreign affairs Kalön Dicki Chhoyang stated that
4995-555: The 60% of Afghans from other ethnic groups. In local government, such as the Kabul city council or Herat, Taliban loyalists, not locals, dominated, even when the Pashto -speaking Taliban could not communicate with roughly half of the population who spoke Dari or other non-Pashtun tongues. Critics complained that this "lack of local representation in urban administration made the Taliban appear as an occupying force." Iran has been described as
5106-590: The Director's List in 2012 and was listed by such filmmakers as Manoel de Oliveira , Atom Egoyan , Tsai Ming-Liang , Walter Salles , Béla Tarr , Michael Mann , who called it "Human experience conveyed purely from the visualisation of the human face: no one else has composed and realised human beings quite like Dreyer in The Passion of Joan of Arc ", and Kutlug Ataman , who said the film "taught me film could be just poetry and timeless". In 2010, The Guardian ranked
5217-713: The Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers. Athos is governed jointly by a community consisting of members of the 20 monasteries and a Civil Administrator , appointed by the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The monastic community is led by the Protos . An Islamic republic is the name given to several states that are officially ruled by Islamic laws , including the Islamic Republics of Iran , Pakistan , and Mauritania . Pakistan first adopted
5328-638: The House in Denmark, Dreyer was invited to make a film in France by the Société Gėnėrale des Films, and proposed a film about Marie Antoinette , Catherine de Medici or Joan of Arc . He claimed that the final decision on the film's subject was determined by drawing matches. Joan of Arc was in the news after World War I , having been canonized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church in 1920 and named one of
5439-480: The Maid of Orleans that rises above everything in this artistic achievement." However Variety gave the film a negative review on its initial release, calling it "a deadly tiresome picture". In 1929, The National Board of Review named the film one of the best foreign films of the year. The film and Falconetti's performance have continued to be praised by critics. Pauline Kael wrote that Falconetti's portrayal "may be
5550-544: The Pouget/Alix score was recorded. In 1929, selections were released in 78 format in a performance by "l'orchestre symphonique du Lutetia Wagram" (the Lutetia Wagram being a large Parisian cinema of the time, since demolished). Like most directors of that era, Dreyer had no control over the music. He stated he did not fully approve of any score he had heard, and disliked the soundtrack of Joseph-Marie Lo Duca's version for
5661-678: The Roman Emperor, the Chinese sovereign was historically held to be the Son of Heaven . However, from the first historical Emperor on, this was largely ceremonial and tradition quickly established it as a posthumous dignity, like the Roman institution. The situation before Qin Shi Huang Di ( r. 221–210 BCE) is less clear. The Shang dynasty ( c. 1600 BCE to c. 1045 BCE) essentially functioned as
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#17328696695905772-626: The Taliban succeeded in nearly eradicating opium production (99%) by 2001. Under the Taliban governance of Afghanistan, both drug users and dealers were severely prosecuted. Cabinet ministers and deputies were mullahs with a " madrasah education." Several of them, such as the Minister of Health and Governor of the State bank, were primarily military commanders who were ready to leave their administrative posts to fight when needed. Military reverses that trapped them behind lines or led to their deaths increased
5883-487: The Taliban's liking, and to wear turbans outside their households. Communists were systematically executed. Prayer was made compulsory and those who did not respect the religious obligation after the azaan were arrested. Gambling was banned. Thieves were punished by amputating their hands or feet . In 2000, the Taliban leader Mullah Omar officially banned opium cultivation and drug trafficking in Afghanistan;
5994-561: The Tibetan government in exile, is a Tibetan exile organization with a state-like internal structure. According to its charter, the position of head of state of the Central Tibetan Administration belongs ex officio to the Dalai Lama , a religious hierarch. In this respect, it continues the traditions of the former government of Tibet , which was ruled by the Dalai Lamas and their ministers, with
6105-718: The birds were killed according to the Taliban's ruling. Movie theaters were closed and repurposed as mosques . Celebration of the Western and Iranian New Year was forbidden. Taking photographs and displaying pictures or portraits was forbidden, as it was considered by the Taliban as a form of idolatry . Women were banned from working , girls were forbidden to attend schools or universities , were requested to observe purdah and to be accompanied outside their households by male relatives; those who violated these restrictions were punished. Men were forbidden to shave their beards and required to let them grow and keep them long according to
6216-701: The blessings of the Hazrat Ishaans , who were the spiritual guides of the Timurid and Mughal Emperors. The Emperors believed in the Hazrat Ishaans to be the rightful spiritual successors of Muhammad and by this virtue to be the ultimate intermediaries between God and mankind in every time ( Qutb ). They thus used the title Zwillu-Nabi'llah (ظِلُّ النبی ٱلله) or "Sayeh Nabi-e- Khuda" in Persian which means "Shadow of God´s Prophet" in English to denote their representation of God on Earth. Emperor Aurangzeb in particular took over
6327-404: The burning took place and a cathedral. The entire set was painted pink so that it would appear grey in the black and white film and contrast against the white sky above it. Regardless of the detail put into the set, only segments of it are ever visible in the film, which later angered the film's producers since so much money was spent on the set. Dreyer later expressed, however, that the scope of
6438-517: The chaos in the national administration. At the national level, "all senior Tajik , Uzbek and Hazara bureaucrats" were replaced "with Pashtuns, whether qualified or not." Consequently, the ministries "by and large ceased to function." Journalist Ahmed Rashid described the Taliban government as "a secret society run by Kandaharis ... mysterious, secretive, and dictatorial." They did not hold elections, as their spokesman explained: The Sharia does not allow politics or political parties. That
6549-416: The director of the national radio and television network , the heads of powerful major religious and economic foundations , the chief justice of Iran , the attorney general (indirectly through the chief justice), special tribunals, and members of the supreme national security council who are dealing with defense and foreign affairs. He also co-appoints the 12 jurists of the Guardian Council . The Leader
6660-402: The early Islamic model. Discussion was followed by a building of a consensus by the "believers". Before capturing Kabul, there was talk of stepping aside once a government of "good Muslims" took power, and law and order were restored. As the Taliban's power grew, decisions were made by Mullah Omar without consulting the jirga and without consulting other parts of the country. One such instance
6771-807: The effort to do this, several holes were dug on the set for the camera to film from the appropriate angle, causing the crew to nickname him "Carl Gruyére". Dreyer also shot the film "from the first to the last scene...in the right order." The film had one of the most expensive sets ever built for a European film up to that time. Upon being given a budget of seven million francs , Dreyer constructed an enormous octagonal concrete set to depict Rouen Castle . Production designers Hermann Warm and Jean Hugo were inspired by medieval miniatures for their designs, adding unnatural angles and perspectives to add to Joan's emotional state of mind. They also relied on medieval manuscripts with accurate architectural drawings, such as John Mandeville 's Livre de Merveilles . The huge set
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#17328696695906882-623: The eighth greatest film of the 20th century in a 2000 poll of critics. In January 2002, the film was ranked 69th on the list of the Top 100 Essential Films of All Time by the National Society of Film Critics . The film was ranked 64th on the list of "100 Greatest Films" by the prominent French magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 2008. The Passion of Joan of Arc has appeared on Sight & Sound magazine's top ten films poll five times: as number seven in 1952 and 1972, as number ten (Critic's List) and six (Director's List) in 1992 and as number nine in 2012 (Critic's List). It ranked thirty-seventh on
6993-422: The executioner tie her bonds. The crowds gather and the fire is lit. As the flames rise, the women weep and a man cries out, " vous avez brûlé une sainte " ("you have burned a saint"). The troops prepare for a riot. As the flames consume Joan, the troops and crowd clash and people are killed. A subtitle states that the flames protect her soul as it rises to Heaven. After the success of Master of
7104-438: The fact that Dreyer was neither Catholic nor French, and to the then-rumored casting of Lillian Gish as Joan. As early as January 1927, Jean-Jose Frappa said that "whatever the talent of the director (and he has it)...he cannot give us a Joan of Arc in the true French tradition. And the American 'star'...cannot be our Joan, wholesome, lively, shining with purity, faith, courage and patriotism. To let this be made in France would be
7215-407: The feelings of the characters in my films...The important thing...is not only to catch hold of the words they say, but also the thoughts behind the words. What I seek in my films, what I want to obtain, is a penetration to my actors' profound thoughts by means of their most subtle expressions...that lie in the depths of his soul. This what interests me above all, not the technique of the cinema. Gertrud
7326-416: The film 22nd in its list of 25 greatest arthouse films . In 2010, the Toronto International Film Festival released its "Essential 100" list of films, which merged one list of the 100 greatest films of all time as determined by an expert panel of TIFF curators with another list determined by TIFF stakeholders. The Passion of Joan of Arc was ranked as the most influential film of all time. Her performance
7437-404: The film appear in Jean-Luc Godard 's Vivre sa Vie (1962), in which the protagonist Nana sees the film at a cinema and identifies with Joan. In Henry & June , Henry Miller is shown watching the last scenes of the film and in voice-over narrates a letter to Anaïs Nin comparing her to Joan and himself to the "mad monk" character played by Antonin Artaud . Theocracy Theocracy
7548-423: The film in close-up, stating "There were questions, there were answers- very short, very crisp...Each question, each answer, quite naturally called for a close-up...In addition, the result of the close-ups was that the spectator was as shocked as Joan was, receiving the questions, tortured by them." Dreyer also did not allow his actors to wear makeup, the better to tell the story through their expressions—this choice
7659-459: The film industry as a writer of title cards for silent films and subsequently of screenplays. He was initially hired by Nordisk Film in 1913. His first attempts at film direction had limited success, and he left Denmark to work in the French film industry. While living in France he met Jean Cocteau , Jean Hugo , and other members of the French artistic scene. In 1928 he made his first classic film, The Passion of Joan of Arc . Working from
7770-402: The film so as to avoid offending Catholic viewers and sued them for breach of contract. The lawsuit went on until the fall of 1931, during which time Dreyer was unable to make another film. It was banned in Britain for its portrayal of crude English soldiers who mock and torment Joan in scenes that mirror biblical accounts of Christ's mocking at the hands of Roman soldiers. The Archbishop of Paris
7881-401: The film which came out in the 1950s, which featured Bach , Albinoni and Vivaldi . The Passion of Joan of Arc debuted on 21 April 1928 at the Palads Teatret cinema in Copenhagen. After a few private screenings, it finally premiered in Paris on 25 October 1928 at the Cinema Marivaux. The film's release was delayed due to the persistent efforts of many French nationalists – who objected to
7992-421: The finest performance ever recorded on film." Roger Ebert praised the film and said that "You cannot know the history of silent film unless you know the face of Renée Maria Falconetti." Jean Sémolué called it "a film of confrontation" and Paul Schrader has praised "the architecture of Joan's world, which literally conspires against her; like the faces of her inquisitors, the halls, doorways, furniture are on
8103-520: The first time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the relic, he appeared on the roof of a building in the center of Kandahar while hundreds of Pashtun mullahs below shouted " Amir al-Mu'minin !" (Commander of the Faithful), in a pledge of support. Taliban spokesman Mullah Wakil explained: Decisions are based on the advice of the Amir-ul Momineen. For us, consultation is not necessary. We believe that this
8214-578: The government of the Jews was unique. Josephus offered the term theocracy to describe this polity in which a god was sovereign and the god's word was law. Josephus' definition was widely accepted until the Enlightenment era, when the term took on negative connotations and was barely salvaged by Hegel 's commentary. The first recorded English use was in 1622, with the meaning " sacerdotal government under divine inspiration" (as in ancient Israel and Judah );
8325-474: The head of a thearchy (a kingdom of gods), but the more specific "theocrat" carries associations of a strong priesthood that would be generally inaccurate in describing imperial China. Others reserve the use of the word "thearch" to describe the legendary figures of Chinese prehistory while continuing to use "emperor" to describe historical rulers. The Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (1851 to 1864) in Qing China
8436-433: The heavens and earth and to culture heroes credited with the invention of agriculture , clothing , music , astrology , etc. Even after the fall of Qin in 206 BCE, an emperor's words were considered sacred edicts ( 聖旨 ) and his written proclamations "directives from above" ( 上諭 ). As a result, some Sinologists translate the title huangdi (usually rendered "emperor" ) as thearch . The term properly refers to
8547-400: The judge then condemns her to life imprisonment. After the jailer shaves her head, she realises that she has been unfaithful to God. She demands that the judges return and she recants her confession. As more and more around her begin to recognise her true faith and calling, she is permitted a final communion mass. She is then dressed in sackcloth and taken to the place of execution. She helps
8658-460: The meaning "priestly or religious body wielding political and civil power" was first recorded in 1825. The term theocracy derives from the Koine Greek θεοκρατία , "rule of God", a term used by Josephus for the kingdoms of Israel and Judah , reflecting the view that "God himself is recognized as the head" of the state. The common, generic use of the term, as defined above in terms of rule by
8769-518: The meaning of the word in Greek was "rule by god(s)" or human incarnation (s) of god(s). The term was initially coined by Flavius Josephus in the first century AD to describe the characteristic government of the Jews . Josephus argued that while mankind had developed many forms of rule, most could be subsumed under the following three types: monarchy , oligarchy , and democracy . However, according to Josephus,
8880-423: The monk Massieu. Artaud later stated that the film was meant to "reveal Joan as the victim of one of the most terrible of all perversions: the perversion of a divine principle in its passage through the minds of men, whether they be Church, Government or what you will." The camerawork of The Passion of Joan of Arc was highly unconventional in its radical emphasis on the actors' facial features. Dreyer shot much of
8991-651: The more than a decade before his next full-length feature film, in 1955, Ordet ( The Word ), based on the play of the same name by Kaj Munk . The film combines a love story with a conflict of faith. Dreyer's last film was 1964's Gertrud . Although seen by some as a lesser film than its predecessors, it is a fitting close to Dreyer's career as it deals with a woman who, through the tribulations of her life, never expresses regret for her choices. David Thomson says it "awaits rediscovery as Dreyer's finest film and vindication of his method." Thomson quotes Dreyer: What interests me—and this comes before technique—is reproducing
9102-469: The most remarkable productions ever realized in the history and development of cinema, but it was not a full exposition of real filmic properties ". Tom Milne stated that "somehow the style Dreyer found for the film seems irremediably false. Instead of flowing naturally from his chosen materials...it seems imposed upon them...Throughout the film there is a constant stylistic uncertainty, an impurity, which jars heavily today", but added that " Jeanne d'Arc has
9213-639: The negative of Dreyer's second version in the Gaumont Studios vaults. Lo Duca then made several significant changes, including the addition of a Baroque score and the replacing of many intertitles with subtitles. For many years, Lo Duca's version was the only one available. Dreyer himself objected to this cut, however. The next version of the film was produced by Arnie Krogh of the Danish Film Institute. Krogh cut together scenes and sequences from several different available prints to attempt to create
9324-443: The offensive, striking, swooping at her with oblique angles, attacking her with hard-edged chunks of black and white". Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote that "Dreyer's radical approach to constructing space and the slow intensity of his mobile style make[s] this “difficult” in the sense that, like all the greatest films, it reinvents the world from the ground up." Some critics have found faults in the film, and Paul Rotha called it "one of
9435-529: The patron saints of France. Dreyer spent over a year and a half researching her; the script was based on the original transcripts of her trial, condensing 29 interrogations over the course of 18 months into one day. In an essay for the Danish Film Institute , Dreyer stated what he had sought to achieve: "I wanted to interpret a hymn to the triumph of the soul over life." The rights to Joseph Delteil 's 1925 anti-conformist book on Joan were bought for
9546-466: The performance was an ordeal. Legends from the set tell of Dreyer forcing her to kneel painfully on stone and then wipe all expression from her face—so that the viewer would read suppressed or inner pain. He filmed the same shots again and again, hoping that in the editing room he could find exactly the right nuance in her facial expression. Among the other cast members was French playwright Antonin Artaud as
9657-553: The pharaoh had the responsibility of mediating between the gods and the people. The Japanese people have historically venerated their emperor as the descendant of the Shinto sun-goddess Amaterasu . Through this line of descent, the emperor was seen as a living god who was the supreme leader of the Japanese people. This status only changed with the Occupation of Japan following the end of
9768-544: The power of evil in earthly life. His 1928 movie The Passion of Joan of Arc is considered to be one of the great movies of all time , renowned for its cinematography and use of close-ups. It frequently appears on Sight & Sound ' s lists of the great films ever made, and in 2012's poll , it was voted the ninth-best film by film critics and 37th by film directors. His other well-known films include Michael (1924), Vampyr (1932), Day of Wrath (1943), Ordet ( The Word ) (1955), and Gertrud (1964). Dreyer
9879-543: The prestigious Brussels 12 list at the 1958 World Expo . As a work published in 1928, the film entered the public domain in the United States in 2024. After having led the French in numerous battles against the English during the Hundred Years' War , Joan of Arc is captured near Compiegne and eventually brought to Rouen to stand trial for heresy by French clergymen loyal to the English. On 30 May 1431, Joan
9990-410: The production. Nothing from Delteil's book was used in the film, but he was credited as a source. Joan of Arc was Renée Jeanne Falconetti's second and last film role. Although she always preferred the theater to cinema and said she never understood the positive reaction to her acting, Falconetti's performance achieved iconic status almost immediately. Dreyer had gone to see Falconetti backstage at
10101-471: The rediscovery of the original print, numerous composers have provided music for the film. On its initial release, the film was a critical success and immediately called a masterpiece. However, it was a financial flop and caused the Société Générale to cancel its contract with Dreyer after the failure of this film and of Abel Gance 's Napoléon . Dreyer angrily accused the Société Générale of mutilating
10212-635: The set heightened the abilities of the actors and actresses to give convincing performances. Hermann Warm's original models for the film's set are currently stored at the Danish Film Institute Archives. Different scores were used for the two premieres of the Passion of Joan of Arc in Copenhagen and Paris. The music of the Paris version, for orchestra and singers, has survived and has been revived. It
10323-482: The term "Sikyong" has had a precedent dating back to the 7th Dalai Lama , and that the name change "ensures historical continuity and legitimacy of the traditional leadership from the Fifth Dalai Lama". The online Dharma Dictionary translates sikyong ( srid skyong ) as "secular ruler; regime, regent". The title sikyong had previously been used by regents who ruled Tibet during the Dalai Lama's minority. Having
10434-553: The title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian Revolution that overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty . The term "Islamic republic" has come to mean several different things, at times contradictory. To some Muslim religious leaders in the Middle East and Africa who advocate it, an Islamic republic is a state under a particular Islamic form of government . They see it as
10545-461: The transcripts of Joan of Arc's trial, he created a masterpiece of emotion that drew equally on realism and expressionism. Because the Danish film industry was in financial ruin, Dreyer depended on private financing from Baron Nicolas de Gunzburg to make his next film, Vampyr (1932), a surreal meditation on fear. Logic gave way to mood and atmosphere in this story of a man protecting two sisters from
10656-506: The twelve council members are faqih and have the power to approve or reject all bills passed by the Parliament , whether the faqih believes that the bill is in accordance with Islamic laws and customs ( Sharia ) or not. The other six members are lawyers appointed by the chief justice, who is a cleric and appointed by the Leader. In the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia , Saudi Arabia defines itself as
10767-515: Was a heterodox Christian theocracy led by Hong Xiuquan , who portrayed himself as the younger brother of Jesus Christ . His theocratic state fought one of the most destructive wars in history, the Taiping Rebellion , against the Qing dynasty for fifteen years before being crushed following the 1864 fall of the rebel capital Nanjing . The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state,
10878-492: Was a highly intelligent school student, who left home and formal education at the age of 16. He dissociated himself from his adoptive family, but their teachings influenced the themes of many of his films. Dreyer was ideologically conservative. David Bordwell stated "As a youth he belonged to the Social Liberal party, a conservative group radical only in their opposition to military expenditures." Dreyer recalled "Even when I
10989-439: Was also critical, demanding changes be made. The New York Times ' s film reviewer Mordaunt Hall raved: as a film work of art this takes precedence over anything that has so far been produced. It makes worthy pictures of the past look like tinsel shams. It fills one with such intense admiration that other pictures appear but trivial in comparison. Of the star, he wrote "it is the gifted performance of Maria Falconetti as
11100-502: Was and remains the abstraction of the whole epic of Joan of Arc." She was famously treated harshly by Dreyer, who had a reputation for being a tyrannical director. Dreyer would always clear the set whenever Falconetti needed to act in a particularly emotional or important scene, allowing her to focus without any distractions. Dreyer often had difficulties explaining himself to Falconetti and was known to turn bright red and begin stammering when passionately directing her. Dreyer had stated that
11211-483: Was born illegitimate in Copenhagen, Denmark. His birth mother was an unmarried, Scanian maid named Josefine Bernhardine Nilsson, and he was put up for adoption by his birth father, Jens Christian Torp, a married Danish farmer living in Sweden who was his mother's employer. He spent the first two years of his life in orphanages until his adoption by a typographer named Carl Theodor Dreyer and his wife Inger Marie (née Olsen). He
11322-403: Was built as one complete, interconnecting structure instead of in separate locations. The castle had towers in all four corners with concrete walls running along the sides. Each wall was 10 centimeters thick so that they could support the weight of actors, technicians and equipment. A functional drawbridge was also built into one of the walls. Inside the walls were small houses, the courtyard where
11433-417: Was composed by Leo Pouget and Victor Alix, who as well as being film composers, both wrote operettas; Pouget was coming to the end of his career, whereas Alix was regarded by Le Ménestrel as becoming an established composer. Their score for the Passion of Joan of Arc has been seen in recent years as having some limitations. In the 1920s, film music was normally played live in the theatre. However, some of
11544-456: Was invited to make a film in France by the Société Générale des Films and chose to make a film about Joan of Arc due to her renewed popularity in France. Dreyer spent over a year researching Joan of Arc and the transcripts of her trial before writing the script. Dreyer cast stage actress Falconetti as Joan in her only major film role. Falconetti's performance and devotion to the role during filming have become legendary among film scholars. The film
11655-545: Was made possible through use of the recently developed panchromatic film, which recorded skin tones in a naturalistic manner. Dreyer often shot the priests and Joan's other interrogators in high contrast lighting, but then shot Joan in soft, even lighting. Rudolph Maté 's high-contrast cinematography also allowed unappealing details in people's faces, such as warts and lumps, to be fully visible. In addition, Dreyer employed many low-angle shots of Joan's persecutors so that they would appear more monstrous and intimidating; in
11766-466: Was named after his adoptive father, but in accordance with Danish practice, there is no Senior or Junior added to their names to distinguish them from each other. His adoptive parents were emotionally distant, and his childhood was largely unhappy. He later recalled that his parents "constantly let me know that I should be grateful for the food I was given and that I strictly had no claim on anything since my mother got out of paying by lying down to die." He
11877-522: Was ranked 26th in Premiere Magazine ' s 100 Greatest Performances of All Time , the highest of any silent performance on the list. In 2018 the film ranked 23rd on the BBC 's list of the 100 greatest foreign-language films, as voted on by 209 film critics from 43 countries. The film was included by the Vatican in a list of important films compiled in 1995, under the category of "Religion". Scenes from
11988-449: Was shot on one huge concrete set modeled on medieval architecture in order to realistically portray the Rouen prison. The film is known for its cinematography and use of close-ups. Dreyer did not allow the actors to wear make-up and used lighting designs that made the actors look more grotesque. Prior to its release, the film was controversial due to French nationalists ' skepticism about whether
12099-515: Was something. There was a soul behind that facade." Dreyer asked her to do some screen tests the next day, but without any make-up. During the tests, he "found in her face exactly what I wanted for Joan: a country girl, very sincere, but also a woman of suffering." Dreyer then told Falconetti about the film and her role in great detail. She agreed to star in the film, secretly hoping that she would not have to cut her hair or forgo make-up. Jean Renoir praised her performance and said "That shaven head
12210-459: Was subordinate to the 14th Dalai Lama who presided over the government in exile from its founding. In August of that year, Lobsang Sangay received 55 percent of 49,189 votes, defeating his nearest rival Tethong Tenzin Namgyal by 8,646 votes, becoming the second popularly elected Kalön Tripa. The Dalai Lama announced that his political authority would be transferred to Sangay. On 20 September 2012,
12321-425: Was with Ekstrabladet , I was conservative...I don't believe in revolutions. They have, as a rule, the tedious quality of pulling development back. I believe more in evolution, in the small advances." Dreyer died of pneumonia in Copenhagen at age 79. The documentary Carl Th. Dreyer: My Metier contains reminiscences from people who knew him. As a young man, Dreyer worked as a journalist, and he eventually joined
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