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98-422: Fenethylline ( BAN , USAN ) or fenetylline ( INN ) is a codrug of amphetamine and theophylline and so a mutual prodrug of both. It is also spelled phenethylline ; other names for it are amphetamin ​oethyl ​theophylline and amfetyline . The drug was marketed for use as a psychostimulant under the brand names Captagon , Biocapton , and Fitton . It is now illegal in most countries and

196-633: A French-Tunisian who killed eighty-four civilians in Nice on Bastille Day 2016. In May 2017, French customs at Charles de Gaulle Airport seized 750,000 fenethylline pills being transported from Lebanon to Saudi Arabia. In 2017, two other consignments of pills were found at Charles de Gaulle Airport: in January, heading for the Czech Republic, and in February, hidden in steel moulds. Further investigation showed that

294-587: A cheap and simple process. In July 2019 in Lebanon, captagon was sold for $ 1.50 to $ 2.00 a pill. In 2021 in Syria, low-quality pills were sold locally for less than $ 1, while high-quality pills are increasingly smuggled abroad and may cost upwards of $ 14 each in Saudi Arabia. According to some leaks, militant groups export the drug in exchange for weapons and cash. According to Abdelelah Mohammed Al-Sharif, secretary general of

392-405: A combination of these two compounds, although it is not entirely clear how, and seems to involve a synergistic effect between amphetamine and theophylline produced following metabolism. The pharmacological actions of fenethylline before cleavage also remain poorly established, though it appears to act directly at several serotonin receptors. Abuse of fenethylline using the former brand name Captagon

490-686: A lesser extent, the Baathist Syrian government 's Syrian Arab Army . The SNA has a law enforcement equivalent, the Free Police , which is also backed by Turkey. The SNA currently controls the Afrin area, and nearby areas of Syria bordering Turkey, including the town of Jarabalus . They are currently estimated to have around 70,000 fighters, and have been involved in clashes with the group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham since 2022. Formed in 2011 and based in Damascus ,

588-560: A lot of it to prepare, says a former fighter associated with the Muslim Brotherhood . He described the effect: "They go blank. Their heart rate spikes. They lose all connection to their emotions and thoughts." Some commented on this effect as a "zombielike detachment". An illegal Syrian manufacturer told New York Magazine in 2015 of the effect the drug had on fighters: "[If] someone takes many pills, like 30 or so, they become violent and crazy, paranoid, unafraid of anything. They'll have

686-567: A lowercase "c"). Fenethylline is a popular drug in Western Asia , and American media outlet CNN reported in 2015 that it is allegedly used by militant groups in Syria . Later research demonstrated that it was the Syrian government of Bashar al-Assad that has been financing production and sponsoring networks of its drug dealers in coordination with the Syrian intelligence . It is manufactured locally by

784-579: A perdeuterated-bridge analogue. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) has been proven as an accurate tool to identify fenethylline in solid, urine, and hair samples. British Approved Name BANs are unique in that names are assigned for combination preparations as well as single-drug preparations. For example, the BAN Co-amoxiclav is assigned to preparations containing amoxicillin and clavulanic acid . Most other pharmacopoeias simply refer to combination products by both ingredients in

882-555: A powder. She concluded "I find it somewhat difficult to believe that, in a single raid, we find two new forms of Captagon." Videos compiled by the Israeli government of the Hamas attack — cobbled together from cell phones, GoPros, as well as car and surveillance cameras — supposedly show that at least some of the militants were under the influence of the drug. Some experts noted Israel had not made public direct evidence of Captagon use. Fenethylline

980-601: A private jet scheduled to depart for Riyadh , the Saudi capital. The following month, Agence France-Presse reported that Turkish authorities had seized two tonnes of fenethylline—about eleven million pills—during raids in the Hatay region on the Syrian border . The pills had been produced in Syria and were being shipped to countries in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf . In December 2015,

1078-474: A shipment that arrived from Lebanon. In February 2021, Lebanese customs seized at Beirut port a shipment of 5 million fenethylline pills hidden in a tile-making machine, intended for Greece and Saudi Arabia. In April 2021, Saudi authorities discovered 5.3 million fenethylline pills hidden in fruits imported from Lebanon. The drug has played a role in the Syrian civil war . The production and sale of fenethylline generates large revenues which are likely used to fund

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1176-490: A thirst for fighting and killing and will shoot at whatever they see. They lose any feeling or empathy for the people in front of them and can kill them without caring at all." According to some commentators, fighters taking the drug in Syria were better able to tolerate the pain of being shot A drug control officer in the central city of Homs told Reuters that protestors and fighters were able to resist painful interrogations better while on fenethylline. Former fighters have told

1274-673: A tomato paste shipment. The New York Times reported in December 2021 that the Syrian Army 's elite 4th Armoured Division , commanded by Maher al-Assad , the brother of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, oversees much of the production and distribution of fenethylline, among other drugs. The unit controls manufacturing facilities, packing plants, and smuggling networks all across Syria, and had started to deal in crystal meth . The division's security bureau, headed by Maj. Gen. Ghassan Bilal, provides protection for factories and along smuggling routes to

1372-499: A year, told CNN in 2014: "They gave us drugs, hallucinogenic pills that would make you go to battle not caring if you live or die." In February 2023, Israel's Ministry of Defense thwarted an attempt to smuggle thousands of fenethylline tablets into the Gaza Strip . Hamas claimed at the time that it seized 50,000 fenethylline pills on the border and claimed Israel was attempting to dope Gaza. Israel has publicly stated that fenethylline

1470-528: Is a Syrian who fought with al-Qaeda in Afghanistan during the 1990s and previously with the al-Nusra Front , but who left when the group broke official ties with al-Qaeda. Since 2020, Hurras al-Din has not been officially endorsed by al-Qaeda. The group is currently estimated to have around 2500 fighters, an estimated half of whom are foreign fighters, a much higher percentage than in HTS. The group called Dā'ash or

1568-654: Is common in the Middle East , and counterfeit versions of the drug continue to be available despite its illegality. Fenethylline is much less common outside of the Middle East, to the point that police may not recognize the drug. Fenethylline production and export has become a significant industry sponsored by the Syrian government , with revenue from its exports contributing more than 90% of its foreign currency. The Assad regime 's annual fenethylline revenues were estimated to have been worth US$ 57 billion in 2022, about three times

1666-468: Is its branch in Syria. The leader of al-Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-Julani , said that the group would not merge with the Islamic State of Iraq but would still maintain allegiance to Ayman al-Zawahiri , the leader of al-Qaeda . From 2012 to 2016, the estimated manpower of al-Nusra Front was approximately 6,000–10,000 people, including many foreign fighters. The relationship between the al-Nusra Front and

1764-533: Is produced primarily for illicit use. Syria is considered to be the world's largest producer of the drug, accounting for about 80% of the global supply. The global market for the drug is worth approximately $ 5.7 billion (USD). Fenethylline was first synthesized by the German pharmaceutical firm Degussa AG in 1961 and used for around 25 years as a milder alternative to amphetamine and related compounds. Although there are no FDA -approved indications for fenethylline, it

1862-737: The 2019 northwestern Syria offensive , and consolidated its presence when the National Front for Liberation joined the SNA on 4 October 2019. The official aims of the group are to assist the Republic of Turkey in creating a "safe zone" in Syria , and to establish a National Army. They are strong opponents of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), and have also fought the Islamic State (ISIL) and, to

1960-534: The Australian Approved Names are generally the same as BANs, but a few exceptions remain. Belligerents in the Syrian civil war A number of states and armed groups have involved themselves in the Syrian civil war (2011–present) as belligerents . The main groups are the Syrian Arab Republic and allies, the Syrian opposition and allies, Al-Qaeda and affiliates, Islamic State , and

2058-597: The Islamic State (abbrv. IS, ISIL or ISIS), began to make rapid military gains in Northern Syria starting in April 2013 and as of mid-2014 controlled large parts of that region, where the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights described it as "the strongest group". The group strives to establish a global caliphate , by waging war on the "disbelievers". It has imposed strict Sharia law over land that it controls. The group

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2156-824: The Kurdish National Alliance in Syria , the Law–Citizenship–Rights Movement , and since September 2016, the Syria's Tomorrow Movement . In March 2016 the Council declared the creation of an autonomous federation in Northeast Syria and in August that year they opened a public office in al-Hasakah . The Syrian Democratic Council was excluded from the international Geneva III peace talks on Syria in March 2016, as well as other talks since, because of opposition from

2254-460: The Lebanese Army announced that it had discovered two large-scale drug production workshops in the north of the country and seized large quantities of fenethylline pills. Two days earlier, three tons of fenethylline and hashish were seized at Beirut Airport , concealed in school desks being exported to Egypt. Traces of the drug were found on a mobile phone used by Mohamed Lahouaiej Bouhlel ,

2352-806: The Local Coordination Committees of Syria and the Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution oppose the NCC' calls to dialogue with the Baathist government. Some of the organisations have accused the NCC of being a " front organisation " for Bashar al-Assad 's government and some of its members of being ex-government insiders. In September 2012, the SNC reaffirmed that despite broadening its membership, it would not join with "currents close to [the] NCC". Despite

2450-529: The Syrian Arab Army (includes Republican Guard), Syrian Naval Forces, Syrian Air Forces and Syrian Air Defense Forces . Before the uprising and war broke out, the Syrian Armed Forces were estimated at 295,000 regular troops and 314,000 reservists. While the higher positions in the army were mostly occupied by Alawites , the ground troops were mostly made up of Sunnis, and once the uprisings began,

2548-625: The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood , Kurdish and Assyrian factions, representatives of Alawi communities and Local Coordination Committees. The National Council seeks the end of Bashar al-Assad 's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil, democratic state. SNC has links with the Free Syrian Army . The Kurdish parties eventually left the Council, after it resisted their demands for political decentralisation. On 11 November 2012 in Doha,

2646-716: The Syrian Salvation government , an alternative government of the Syrian Opposition which currently governs parts of the Idlib Governorate . It is seen as illegitimate by the opposition's main Syrian Interim Government . Initially, the Salvation government harshly enforced a strict interpretation of Islamic law, but in recent years the group has become more tolerant. The religious police has been disbanded and

2744-552: The Assad government had long been allies, and the fall of the regime would have meant the loss of an important Russian ally in the region. The Russian forces proved to be a deciding factor in the war, helping the Assad regime to stay in power. The Syrian war became an important testing ground and boost for Russian mercenary armies, such as the Wagner Group . In 2022, Russia withdrew most of their troops from Syria, to reinforce their army at

2842-610: The BP with the European Pharmacopoeia (EP) , as well as the adoption of International Nonproprietary Names through directives (2001/82/EC and 2001/83/EC, as amended, and 2003/63/EC ). Across the EU has meant that, with the notable exception of adrenaline/epinephrine , BANs are now the same as the INNs. For example, the old BAN methicillin was replaced with the current BAN meticillin , matching

2940-671: The Coalition's leadership council are to include women and representatives of religious and ethnic minorities, including Alawites. The military council will reportedly include the Free Syrian Army . The main aims of the National Coalition are replacing the Bashar al-Assad government and "its symbols and pillars of support", "dismantling the security services", unifying and supporting the Free Syrian Army, refusing dialogue and negotiation with

3038-586: The Defence Minister, announced the forming of the Syrian National Army after meeting with rebel commanders in the town of Azaz . The newly formed body claimed to have 22,000 fighters, many of them trained and equipped by Turkey. Though concentrated in Turkish-occupied areas , originally as a part of Operation Euphrates Shield , the SNA also established a presence in the Idlib Governorate during

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3136-620: The FSA became more dependent on Turkish help. For the FSA, Turkey was a sanctuary and a source of supplies. From late August 2016, the Turkish government assembled a new coalition of Syrian rebel groups, including many that were in the FSA. Often referred to as the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army (TFSA), this force would adopt the name Syrian National Army in 2017. By March 2017, the FSA together with Kurdish militias finished clearing

3234-498: The FSA by the West as a moderate opposition faction has allowed it, under the CIA -run programmes, to receive sophisticated weaponry and other military support from the U.S., Turkey and some Gulf countries . However, the aid which was coming in from other countries did not flow through a centralised command but in a fragmented way, based on personal contacts, which led to internal rivalries within

3332-529: The FSA. Abu Yusaf , a commander of the Islamic State (IS), claimed in August 2014 that many of the FSA members who had been trained by United States' and Turkish and Arab military officers ended up joining IS. However, by September 2014 the Free Syrian Army was joining an alliance and common front with Kurdish militias including the YPG to fight IS. In December 2015, according to the American Institute for

3430-530: The HTS leader is advocating against the US designation of the group as a terrorist organisation , calling it "unfair". Contrary to al-Qaeda, HTS does not strive to create a global caliphate but is more locally oriented, with its primary objective being the establishment of Islamic rule in Syria through “toppling the criminal [Assad] regime and expelling the Iranian militias." The group gains money through spoils captured from

3528-558: The INN. This has resulted in an interesting situation in other countries that use BANs. While the British Pharmacopoeia and BANs are the official pharmacopoeia/names defined by legislation in many of these countries, the former BANs often continue to be used, purportedly because of the difficulty of changeover. Despite the importance of the BP, there appears to be little or no movement in the direction of changing these names. In Australia,

3626-538: The Islamic State from the north of Syria. The FSA currently works in the 55 km area, alongside the border with Iraq and Jordan to prevent drug trafficking and IS activity in the region. On 30 December 2017, at least 30 factions operating under the banner of the Syrian Interim Government merged in a unified armed group after four months of preparations. Jawad Abu Hatab , the Prime Minister and

3724-499: The NCC recognising the Free Syrian Army on 23 September 2012, the FSA has dismissed the NCC as an extension of the government, stating that "this opposition is just the other face of the same coin". In June 2023, the NCC came to an agreement with the Syrian Democratic Council and the two groups published a "consensus document" in which they stated their shared goals and visions for the future of Syria. These goals include

3822-849: The National Committee for Narcotics Control and assistant director of Anti-Drug and Preventative Affairs, forty percent of users between the ages of twelve and twenty-two in Saudi Arabia are addicted to fenethylline. In 2017, fenethylline was the most popular recreational drug in the Arabian Peninsula . In October 2015, a member of the Saudi royal family , Prince Abdel Mohsen Bin Walid Bin Abdulaziz, and four others were detained in Beirut on charges of drug trafficking after airport security discovered two tons of fenethylline pills and some cocaine on

3920-475: The National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change is an opposition bloc consisting of 13 left-wing and Arab nationalist political parties and "independent political and youth activists". It has been defined by Reuters as the internal opposition's main umbrella group. In 2011, the group organised its first conference, opposing militarisation, internationalisation and sectarianisation of

4018-633: The National Council and other opposition groups united as the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces . The Syrian National Council has 22 out of 60 seats of the Syrian National Coalition. The following day, it was recognised as the legitimate government of Syria by numerous Arab Gulf states, and later by the US, France, Turkey, Spain and the UK as well. Delegates to

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4116-433: The Qatar-based Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies , "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the government". Despite the group's image as an Alawite militia, some Shabiha operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis. Hezbollah is an Iran-backed Shia armed group and political force based in Lebanon . On 25 May 2013, its leader Hassan Nasrallah confirmed that Hezbollah troops were fighting with

4214-599: The Shabiha for the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers, as well as looting and destruction. The Shabiha phenomenon started in the 1980s, not as one specific group but as a number of criminal and semi-criminal groups affiliated with the Assad clan. Bassel al-Assad attempted to curtail their activities in the 1990s but did not fully succeed. The Shabiha have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad's government"; "gunmen loyal to Assad", and, according to

4312-420: The Study of War , groups identifying as FSA were still present around Aleppo and Hama and in southern Syria , and the FSA was still "the biggest and most secular of the rebel groups." However, the group continued to suffer losses from fighters who joined the Syrian Democratic Forces or IS. After the Turkish military intervention in Syria in 2016, and as other countries began to scale back their involvement,

4410-401: The Syrian Arab Republic with financial, technical, and military support, including the training and sending of combat troops. Iran and Syria are close strategic allies , as Iran sees the survival of the Assad government as being crucial to its regional interests. Iran's supreme leader , Ali Khamenei , was reported to be vocally in favor of the Baathist government. By December 2013, Iran

4508-481: The Syrian Arab Republic. The number of Afghans fighting in Syria has been estimated at "between 10,000 and 18,000" at its height, but is currently estimated between 500-1500. The main force composed of Afghan fighters is the liwa' fatimiyun ( Fatemiyoun Brigade ), which was found in late 2012. The number of Pakistani fighters is much lower, between 800 and 2500, and concentrated in the liwa' zaynabiyun ( Zaynabiyun Brigade ) formed in November 2015. Many or most of

4606-422: The Syrian National Army in the north of Syria since 2022. In the beginning of 2024, protests broke out across Idlib province against HTS, their mismanagement of the local economy, and the detention and torture of political prisoners. Tanzim Hurras al-Din is a Salafi Jihadist group that was formed as a merger between several al-Qaeda aligned factions in February 2018. The head of the group, Abu Humam al-Shami ,

4704-417: The Syrian National Coalition formed the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), in order to rule the territories which had been liberated from the regime. The SIG was created to give the opposition movement more legitimacy 'on the ground', by offering humanitarian assistance and governance. The minister of defence was to be chosen by the Free Syrian Army. The interim government's headquarters in Syria are located in

4802-503: The Syrian army against Islamic extremists and pledged that "his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon". In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the takfiris , the people of our region will go into a dark period." He also called on Shiites and Hezbollah to protect the shrine of Sayida Zeinab . President Bashar al-Assad had denied earlier that May that there were foreign fighters, Arab or otherwise, fighting for

4900-417: The Syrian government's side to defend their ancient towns, villages and farmsteads from ISIL (see also Christian Militias in Syria ). The Shabiha ( Levantine Arabic : شَبِّيحَة Šabbīḥa , pronounced [ʃabˈbiːħa] ; also romanized Shabeeha or Shabbiha ; lit.   ' ghosts ' ) are unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Syria's Alawite minority group. Since

4998-454: The Syrian regime hesitated to employ these troops against the Sunni rebels. Therefore, the army relied on loyal elite units and Alawite militias such as the Shabiha . Due to defections following the uprisings, by the end of 2013 the number of regular troops had decreased to around 110,000. As of 2024, the Syrian Army was estimated at 169,000 active troops. Most of the divisions in the army are under-strength, but Russia has been assisting in

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5096-463: The United States , Australia , Bahrain , Canada , France , Jordan , the Netherlands , Saudi Arabia , Turkey , the United Arab Emirates , and the United Kingdom . Some members are involved in the conflict beyond combating ISIL; Turkey has been accused of fighting against Kurdish forces in Syria and Iraq, including intelligence collaborations with ISIL in some cases. As of December 2017, Russia declared ISIL to be totally defeated within Syria. At

5194-418: The actual incidence of fenethylline abuse was quite low. The fenethylline molecule results when theophylline is covalently linked with amphetamine by an alkyl chain . Fenethylline is metabolized by the body to form two drugs, amphetamine (24.5% of oral dose) and theophylline (13.7% of oral dose), both of which are active stimulants. The physiological effects of fenethylline therefore seem to result from

5292-427: The al-Assad government, and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying [Syria], and displacing [Syrians]." The NC was criticised for their weak political and organisational dynamics, caused by internal power conflicts. The NC's main function was to coordinate the humanitarian assistance, instead of forming a real political leadership. In 2013, after pressure from France, Turkey and Qatar,

5390-469: The al-Nusra Front was often considered to be the most aggressive and violent part of the opposition. Being responsible for over 50 suicide bombings, including several deadly explosions in Damascus in 2011 and 2012, it was recognized as a terrorist organization by the Syrian Arab Republic and was designated as such by United States in December 2012. In April 2013, the leader of the Islamic State of Iraq released an audio statement announcing that al-Nusra Front

5488-415: The areas of Afrin , Jazira , Euphrates , Raqqa , Tabqa , Manbij , and Deir Ez-Zor . The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing Rojava conflict and the wider Syrian civil war , in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part. The Syrian Democratic Council is the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces and serves as

5586-430: The beginning of 2014, approximately 500 Hezbollah fighters had died in the Syrian conflict. In 2014, Nasrallah claimed the Hezbollah fighters had helped Assad take back control over the country, and that the Syrian regime was no longer in danger of being toppled. The current number of Hezbollah troops in Syria is estimated to be around 7000-8000. Since the civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war , Iran has provided

5684-451: The border from Syria in Iraq, IS has carried out a genocide of the Yazidi people , killing hundreds of men, enslaving thousands of women and children and expelling the Yazidis from their homeland. By summer 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria. It established itself as the dominant force of Syrian opposition, defeating Jabhat al-Nusra in Deir Ezzor Governorate and claiming control over most of Syria's oil and gas production. Mostly,

5782-433: The city of Azaz in Aleppo Governorate . As of June 2019 its prime minister is Abdurrahman Mustafa and as of July 2021 its president is Salem al-Meslet . The formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) was announced on 29 July 2011 by a group of defecting Syrian Army officers, encouraging others to defect to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state and effect government change. By December 2011, estimates of

5880-399: The drafting of a new constitution, the rejection of separatist and divisive groups and the establishment of one united national democratic front. Al-Qaeda is a jihadist militant group that was found in 1988 in Pakistan by Osama Bin Laden . Several groups aligned with Al-Qaeda have become armed actors in the Syrian Civil War. Prior to the expansion of ISIL, al-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate,

5978-414: The effects of the drug, which allows for one's senses to stay at more operational levels. It also helps to subdue feelings of fear and hunger, which is beneficial to conducting long term operations. Psychiatrist Dr. Robert Keisling says that the drug "gives you a sense of well-being and euphoria", along with the thought that "you're invincible and that nothing can harm you." Those who go on jihad missions take

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6076-495: The end of 2018, the US declared it defeated, although its UK and German allies disagreed. On 23 March 2019 the US-backed Syrian Democratic Forces declared ISIS Defeated, after seizing their last enclave of territory. In October 2019, the US assassinated IS leader al-Baghdadi. ISIL named Abu Ibrahim al Hashimi al-Qurayshi as Baghdadi's successor. As of 2024, ISIL continues to be active militarily in Northeast Syria, although it has lost almost all of its territory. Instead, most of

6174-416: The fighters are trained in Iran, and they receive their salaries and military equipment from the Syrian government. As of 2024, the NDF numbers around 50,000 troops. The forces have a 500-strong women's wing called " Lionesses of National Defense " which operates checkpoints. The NDF are mostly made up of Alawites, but many of the Syrian Christian militias (such as Sootoro in Al-Hasakah ) also fight on

6272-447: The fighters were refugees living in Iran, and survivors and defectors of the Fatemiyoun reported being coerced or bribed into joining the militia, and being sent to the most dangerous front lines with little to no training. On 30 September 2015, Russia launched a military intervention in Syria to support the government of Bashar al-Assad in its fight against the Syrian opposition and Islamic State (IS). The Russian government and

6370-496: The first step, theophylline ( 1 ) is alkylated in a substitution reaction using 1-bromo-2-chloroethane ( 2 ) to give 7-(β-chloroethyl)theophylline (Benaphyllin, Eupnophile; 3 ). In the second step, the primary amine in amphetamine ( 4 ) displaces the terminal halide in 3 to give fenethylline ( 5 ). The synthesis can also be performed with analogous reagents and solvents. Use of tetradeutero- vic ‑dichloroethane instead of vic ‑chlorobromoethane yields reasonably

6468-413: The front in Ukraine . As of 2024, the estimated number of Russian troops in Syria is 4000. In a March 2023 interview with Russian media, Assad stated that he would welcome more Russian troops and military bases in Syrian territory. Formed on 23 August 2011, the National Council is a coalition of anti-government groups, based in Turkey. The group includes signatories of the 2005 Damascus Declaration ,

6566-510: The global centre of fenethylline production, with increased industrialization, adaptation, and technical sophistication. In June 2021, Saudi authorities at Jeddah port seized 14 million fenethylline tablets hidden inside a shipment of iron plates coming from Lebanon. In the same month, Saudi authorities seized a shipment of 4.5 million fenethylline pills, smuggled inside several orange cartons, at Jeddah port. In July 2021, Saudi customs discovered 2.1 million fenethylline pills at Al-Haditha hidden in

6664-448: The government in Syria. Hezbollah's decision to aid the Syrian government is most likely due to the fact that they enjoy the protection of the government when it comes to the group's arms procurement and storage in Syria. Syria forms an important access corridor between Hezbollah in Lebanon and their supporter, Iran, and the survival of a regime that was friendly to Hezbollah was in the group's best interest. In 2012 and 2013, Hezbollah

6762-640: The group merged together with other groups into Hayat Tahrir al-Sham . In January 2017, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) was formed when al-Nusra joined with other Salafi factions Ansar al-Din Front , Jaysh al-Sunna , the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement and Liwa al-Haqq . (The Ansar al-Din Front and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement have since split off). The newly-formed HTS went on to gain more followers from defectors from Ahrar al-Sham . HTS fighters went after IS militants who fled to Idlib after their defeat and cracked down on Hurras al-Din , another militant group with ties to al-Qaeda. In November 2017, HTS created

6860-509: The group was engaging in offensives against the Syrian Armed Forces and the Free Syrian Army, but they also targeted the Syrian Democratic Forces. ISIL have planted bombs in the ancient city area of Palmyra , which is counted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as it is home to some of the most extensive and best-preserved ancient Roman ruins in the world. Having lost nearly half of their territory in Iraq between 2014 and 2016, some Islamic State leaders in Iraq moved into Syria, further destabilising

6958-452: The group's activity nowadays is carried out by affiliate branches in Afghanistan, Pakistan and various countries in Africa. Some international forces have remained in Syria to carry out missions against IS members and to prevent a resurgence of the movement. The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria , also known as Rojava, is a de facto autonomous region in northeastern Syria . It consists of self-governing sub-regions in

7056-551: The indigenous Syrian opposition was tense, even though al-Nusra has fought alongside the FSA in several battles and some FSA fighters defected to the al-Nusra Front. The Mujahideen's strict religious views and willingness to impose sharia law disturbed many Syrians. Some rebel commanders have accused foreign jihadists of "stealing the revolution", robbing Syrian factories and displaying religious intolerance. The al-Nusra Front renamed itself Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS) in June 2016. In 2017,

7154-581: The legislative government of the AANES. The Syrian Democratic Council was established on 10 December 2015 in al-Malikiyah . It was co-founded by prominent human rights activist Haytham Manna and was intended as the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces. The council includes more than a dozen blocs and coalitions that support federalism in Syria, including the Movement for a Democratic Society ,

7252-439: The media that the pills helped them overcome their fear. Doctors report that the drug has dangerous side effects, including psychosis and brain damage. According to former fighters, hundreds became addicted to the pills they were given by brigade leaders without knowing what they were taking. Fenethylline use was associated with the rise of ISIS . One 19-year-old fighter named Kareem, who said he fought alongside ISIS for more than

7350-670: The number of defectors to the FSA ranged from 1,000 to over 25,000. The group received weaponry, provisions and money from regional states such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey, and from the US. The FSA, initially "headquartered" in Turkey, moved its headquarters to northern Syria in September 2012, and currently functions more as an umbrella organisation than a traditional military chain of command. The group started out with guerilla-style raids and ambushes, but as they gathered more members more complex assault tactics were used. The designation of

7448-563: The originally mostly Kurdish Syrian Democratic Forces . A number of sources have emphasized that as of at least late-2015/early-2016 the Syrian Arab Republic was dependent on a mix of volunteers and militias, rather than the Syrian Armed Forces . Between 2016 and 2020, with the help of Russia and Iran, the Syrian Arab Armed Forces were rebuilt and united most of the armed militias. The Syrian Armed Forces are made up of

7546-512: The port city Latakia and to border crossings with Jordan and Lebanon. Jihad Yazigi, editor of The Syria Report , reported that fenethylline "has probably become Syria's most important source of foreign currency." Fenethylline is a major stimulant used amongst some jihadist fighters. It is sometimes dubbed the "Jihad drug" because of this. It quickly produces a euphoric intensity in users, allowing users to stay awake for very long periods of time. Along with this, one remains more calm and focused under

7644-819: The preparation, in this example "amoxicillin with clavulanic acid". The prefix of "co-" is used for many combination drugs, including opioid with paracetamol or aspirin analgesics (e.g., Co-codamol , Co-codaprin , Co-dydramol , Co-proxamol ). The other commonly encountered opioid combination is the anti-diarrhoeal , non-analgesic mixture of diphenoxylate and atropine , Co-phenotrope (a.k.a. Lomotil ). Also antibiotics (e.g., Co-fluampicil and Co-trimoxazole ), drugs to lower blood pressure (e.g., Co-tenidone ), diuretics (e.g., Co-amilofruse and Co-amilozide ), gastrointestinal drugs (e.g., Co-danthrusate ), and anti- Parkinsonism agents such as Co-careldopa , Co-beneldopa , and others (e.g., Co-cyprindiol ). European Union legislation from 2001 required harmonisation of

7742-576: The price of Lebanese lettuce to plummet. On 1 July 2020, an anti-drug operation coordinated in Italy by the Italian Guardia di Finanza and Customs and Monopolies Agency seized fourteen tonnes of amphetamines, labeled as Captagon, smuggled from Syria and initially thought by the Italian authorities to have been produced by ISIS , which were found in three shipping containers filled with around 84 million pills, in

7840-420: The purchase of weapons, and fenethylline is used as a stimulant by combatants. Poverty and international sanctions that limit legal exports are contributing factors. In May 2021, The Guardian described the effects of fenethylline production in Syria on the economy as "a dirty business that is creating a near- narco-state ". Drug money flowing into Syria is destabilizing legitimate businesses, positioning it as

7938-403: The reconstruction and re-equipment of some divisions. The Syrian NDF ( Arabic : قوات الدفاع الوطني Quwāt ad-Difāʿ al-Watanī) was formed out of pro-government militias in 2013. The forces act in an infantry role, directly fighting against rebels on the ground and running counter-insurgency operations in coordination with the army, who provides them with logistical and artillery support. Many of

8036-536: The regime and opposition factions, prisoner exchange deals, the plunder of historical sites and the selling of artifacts, the claiming of private property from Christians and government supporters, and through taxes. The current leader of HTS is Abu Mohammad al-Julani . The group had an estimated 10,000 members in 2024. HTS has denied being part of al-Qaeda and said in a statement that it is "an independent entity and not an extension of previous organisations or factions". The group has been involved in fierce clashes with

8134-615: The region. Starting in 2014, an international coalition of states intervened against ISIL . A number of countries, including some individual NATO members, participated in air operations in Syria that came to be overseen by the Combined Joint Task Force , set up by the US Central Command to coordinate military efforts against ISIL pursuant to their collectively undertaken commitments, including those of 3 December 2014 . Those who have conducted airstrikes in Syria include

8232-490: The seized products mainly contained a mixture of amphetamine and theophylline. In January 2018, Saudi Arabia seized 1.3 million fenethylline pills at the Al-Haditha crossing near the border with Jordan. In December 2018, Greece intercepted a Syrian ship sailing for Libya, carrying six tonnes of processed cannabis and three million fenethylline pills. In July 2019, a shipment of 33 million fenethylline pills, weighing 5.25 tonnes,

8330-545: The southern port of Salerno . In November 2020, Egypt seized two shipments of fenethylline pills at Damietta port coming from Syria. The first had over 3.2 million tablets, while the second contained 11 million. In December 2020, Italian authorities seized about 14 tonnes of fenethylline arriving from Latakia , Syria, and heading towards Libya, consisting of about 85 million pills, worth around $ 1 billion. In January 2021, Egyptian authorities seized eight tons of fenethylline and another eight tons of hashish at Port Said , from

8428-488: The summer of 2013, Iran and Hezbollah provided important battlefield support for Syrian forces, allowing them to make advances on the opposition. In 2014, coinciding with the peace talks at Geneva II , Iran has stepped up support for Syrian President Assad. The Syrian Minister of Finance and Economy stated more than 15 billion dollars had come from the Iranian government. Prior to his assassination , Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps 's Quds Force commander Qasem Soleimani

8526-494: The total trade of all Mexican drug barons. Many of these counterfeit "Captagon" tablets contain other amphetamine derivatives that are easier to produce, but are pressed and stamped to look like Captagon pills. Some counterfeit Captagon pills analysed do contain fenethylline, indicating that illicit production of the drug continues to take place. These illicit pills often contain "a mix of amphetamines, caffeine and various fillers", which are sometimes referred to as "captagon" (with

8624-463: The uprising, the Baathist Syrian government has been accused of using Shabiha to break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods. As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the term Shabiha to describe civilians they suspected of supporting Bashar al-Assad and the Syrian government and clashing with pro-opposition demonstrators. The opposition blames

8722-673: The uprising. Initially, the NCC had several Kurdish political parties as members, but all except for the Democratic Union Party left in October 2011 to join the Kurdish National Council . Relations with other Syrian political opposition groups are generally poor. In 2011, the on-the-ground protest movement rejected the NCC in favour of the Syrian National Council (SNC). The Syrian Revolution General Commission ,

8820-527: Was active in gaining control of territory in the Homs Governorate in Syria. By May 2013 the group was publicly collaborating with the Syrian Army and helping them to gain control of 60 percent of Al-Qusayr by May 14. In Lebanon, an increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters was reported, as well as the shelling of Hezbollah-controlled areas by Syrian rebels. According to independent analysts, by

8918-622: Was considered to have fewer side effects and less potential for abuse than amphetamine. However, because its chemical composition is similar to amphetamines, fenethylline was listed in 1981 as a schedule I controlled substance in the United States , and it became illegal in most countries in 1986 after being listed by the World Health Organization for international scheduling under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances , even though

9016-556: Was found by the Iraqi fighter Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi , and had an estimated 7,000 fighters in Syria, including many non-Syrians, by the end of 2013. IS was originally affiliated with al-Qaeda , until al-Qaeda officially severed ties with the group in early 2014. The group gathered international attention for its gruesome abuses of human rights and for not tolerating non-Islamist militia groups, foreign journalists or aid workers, whose members it has expelled, imprisoned, or executed. Just across

9114-477: Was in charge of Syrian President Assad's security portfolio and oversaw the arming and training of thousands of pro-government Shi'ite fighters. By 2015, 328 IRGC troops, including several commanders, had reportedly been killed in the Syrian civil war since it began. As of 2024, the estimated number of Iranian troops in Syria is 1500. Besides training and sending troops, Iran has also recruited Shia fighters from Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan to fight on behalf of

9212-538: Was reportedly used by the ISIS attackers in the Crocus City Hall attack in 2024. According to reviewers Pergolizzi Jr., et al., writing in 2024, the clandestine chemical synthesis of fenethylline is "straightforward and inexpensive". Small-scale synthesis in academic laboratories is equally straightforward: The overall transformation is accomplished in two laboratory steps, each requiring extraction and purification. In

9310-736: Was seized in Greece coming from Syria. In July 2019, 800,000 fenethylline pills were found on a boat in the United Arab Emirates. In August 2019, Saudi customs at Al-Haditha seized over 2.5 million fenethylline pills found inside a truck and a private vehicle. In February 2020, the UAE found 35 million fenethylline pills in a shipment of electric cables from Syria to Jebel Ali . In April 2020, Saudi Arabia seized 44.7 million fenethylline pills smuggled from Syria, and citing drug smuggling concerns, imposed an import ban on fruits and vegetables from Lebanon, causing

9408-469: Was thought to have approximately 10,000 operatives in Syria. But according to Jubin Goodarzi, assistant professor and researcher at Webster University , Iran aided Baathist Syria with a limited number of deployed units and personnel, "at most in the hundreds ... and not in the thousands as opposition sources claimed". Lebanese Hezbollah fighters backed by Tehran have taken direct combat roles since 2012. In

9506-461: Was used during the October 7 attacks, but this has been doubted by some experts. Israeli forces said they had found fenethylline-containing tablets, powder, and liquid on the bodies of the attackers. But Caroline Rose of Newline Institute said that she had never seen fenethylline made in liquid form. While precursor chemicals for fenethylline tend to be in powdered form, fenethylline itself is not commonly

9604-406: Was used in the treatment of " hyperkinetic children", in what would now be called attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , and, less commonly, for narcolepsy and depression. One of the main advantages of fenethylline was that it does not increase blood pressure to the same extent as an equivalent dose of amphetamine and so could be used in patients with cardiovascular conditions . Fenethylline

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