108-472: Cape Verdean Creole is a Portuguese-based creole language spoken on the islands of Cape Verde . It is the native creole language of virtually all Cape Verdeans and is used as a second language by the Cape Verdean diaspora . The creole has particular importance for creolistics studies since it is the oldest living creole. It is the most widely spoken Portuguese-based creole language. The full, formal name
216-620: A semicreole in the concept defined by Holm: a semicreole is a language that has undergone “partial restructuring, producing varieties which were never fully pidginized and which preserve a substantial part of their lexifier’s structure (...) while showing a noticeable degree of restructuring”. Nevertheless, scholars like Anthony Julius Naro and Maria Marta Pereira Scherre demonstrated how every single phenomenon found in Brazilian Portuguese can also be found in regional modern European Portuguese and 1500s and 1600s European Portuguese, such as
324-570: A 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae ( Divine Institutes ): But all scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets —is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of
432-629: A Gentile, and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew, though most assert Jewish-Christian authorship. However, more recently the above understanding has been challenged by the publication of evidence showing only educated elites after the Jewish War would have been capable of producing the prose found in the Gospels. Authorship of the Gospels remains divided among both evangelical and critical scholars. The names of each Gospel stems from church tradition, and yet
540-463: A corpus of fourteen "Pauline" epistles. While many scholars uphold the traditional view, some question whether the first three, called the "Deutero-Pauline Epistles", are authentic letters of Paul. As for the latter three, the "Pastoral epistles", some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul; most regard them as pseudepigrapha . One might refer to
648-504: A creole, the Cupópia language from the Quilombo do Cafundó , at Salto de Pirapora , São Paulo, discovered in 1978 and spoken by less than 40 people as a secret language, is better classified as a Portuguese variety since it is structurally similar to Portuguese, in spite of having a large number of Bantu words in its lexicon. For languages with these characteristics, H. H. do Couto has forged
756-658: A different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles . Scholars hold that these books constituted two-halves of a single work, Luke–Acts . The same author appears to have written the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, and most refer to them as the Lucan texts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book; both were addressed to Theophilus , and
864-451: A lord over them, saith the LORD. But this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, saith the LORD, I will put My law in their inward parts, and in their heart will I write it; and I will be their God, and they shall be My people; and they shall teach no more every man his neighbour, and every man his brother, saying: 'Know the LORD'; for they shall all know Me, from
972-511: A scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached to them. Scholarly opinion is that names were fixed to the gospels by the mid second century AD. Many scholars believe that none of the gospels were written in the region of Palestine . Christian tradition identifies John the Apostle with John the Evangelist , the supposed author of
1080-416: A state of diglossia , and code switching occurs between the creole and standard Portuguese in informal speech. Due to this overall presence of Portuguese, a decreolization process occurs for all the different Cape Verdean Creole variants. Check in this fictional text: In this text, several cases of decreolization / Portuguese intromission can be noted: The same text "corrected": As a consequence there
1188-590: A total of sixteen vowels: The personal pronoun that represents the subject form of the first person singular has a variable pronunciation according to the islands. This pronoun comes from the object form of the first person singular in Portuguese mim , and it is phonetically reduced to the sound [m] . This pronunciation is nowadays found in the Barlavento variants. In the Sotavento variants that consonant [m]
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#17328843100281296-594: A uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law , Jesus, faith, and various other issues. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles. The author of the Epistle of James identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ". From the middle of the 3rd century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James
1404-419: Is Cape Verdean Creole ( kabuverdianu ), but in everyday usage the creole is simply called "Creole" ( kriolu/kriol ) by its speakers. The history of Cape Verdean Creole is hard to trace due to a lack of written documentation and to ostracism during the Portuguese administration of Cape Verde. There are presently three theories about the formation of Cape Verdean Creole. The monogenetic theory claims that
1512-638: Is a collection of Christian texts originally written in the Koine Greek language, at different times by various authors. While the Old Testament canon varies somewhat between different Christian denominations , the 27-book canon of the New Testament has been almost universally recognized within Christianity since at least Late Antiquity . Thus, in almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books: The earliest known complete list of
1620-584: Is a continuum between basilectal and acrolectal varieties. In spite of Creole not being officialized, a 2005 government resolution put forth the necessary conditions for the officialization of Creole, which in turn has been superseded by a 2015 resolution. This officialization has not yet occurred, mostly because the language is not yet standardized , for several reasons: That is the reason why each speaker when speaking (or writing) uses their own dialect , their own sociolect , and their own idiolect . To overcome these problems, some Creole advocates propose
1728-470: Is common in Portuguese (e.g. "Nunca ninguém foi lá"), triple negation is a little bit uncommon. Only the animated nouns (human beings and animals) have gender inflection. Ex.: In some cases the distinction between sexes is made putting the adjectives mátchu "male" and fémia "female" after the nouns. Ex.: The nouns in Creole have number inflection (plural marks) only when they are well determined or known in
1836-500: Is foreign to the original Hebrew word brit (בְּרִית) describing it, which only means 'alliance, covenant, pact' and never 'inheritance instructions after death'. This use comes from the transcription of Latin testamentum 'will (left after death)', a literal translation of Greek diatheke (διαθήκη) 'will (left after death)', which is the word used to translate Hebrew brit in the Septuagint . The choice of this word diatheke , by
1944-586: Is no consensus regarding the position of Saramaccan , with some scholars classifying it as Portuguese creole with an English relexification. Saramaccan may be an English creole with Portuguese words, since structurally (morphology and syntax) it is related to the Surinamese creoles ( Sranan , Ndyuka and Jamaican Maroon ), despite the heavy percentage of Portuguese origin words. Other English creole languages of Suriname, such as Paramaccan or Kwinti , have also Portuguese influences. Although sometimes classified as
2052-452: Is often thought that John the Apostle is John the Evangelist , i.e. author of the Gospel of John ) or to another John designated " John of Patmos " after the island where the text says the revelation was received (1:9). Some ascribe the writership date as c. 81–96 AD, and others at around 68 AD. The work opens with letters to seven local congregations of Asia Minor and thereafter takes
2160-529: Is scholarly debate as to the reason why the translators of the Septuagint chose the term diatheke to translate Hebrew brit , instead of another Greek word generally used to refer to an alliance or covenant. The use of the phrase New Testament ( Koine Greek : Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη , Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē ) to describe a collection of first- and second-century Christian Greek scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian in his work Against Praxeas . Irenaeus uses
2268-419: Is the rule in most creoles, the lexicon of these languages can be traced to the parent languages, usually with predominance of Portuguese; while the grammar is mostly original and unique to each creole with little resemblance to the syntax of Portuguese or the substrate language. These creoles are (or were) spoken mostly by communities of descendants of Portuguese, natives, and sometimes other peoples from
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#17328843100282376-501: Is written as follows: "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and brother of James". The debate has continued over the author's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither. The Gospel of John, the three Johannine epistles , and the Book of Revelation , exhibit marked similarities, although more so between the gospel and the epistles (especially the gospel and 1 John) than between those and Revelation. Most scholars therefore treat
2484-614: The Epistle to the Laodiceans and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians as examples of works identified as pseudonymous. Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship. The epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit
2592-434: The Gospel of John . Traditionalists tend to support the idea that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of John 21 :24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness. This idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars. Most scholars hold to the two-source hypothesis , which posits that the Gospel of Mark was the first gospel to be written . On this view,
2700-453: The Jewish Bible 's Book of Jeremiah , Judaism traditionally disagrees: Behold, the days come, saith the LORD, that I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah; not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; forasmuch as they broke My covenant, although I was
2808-795: The New Testament in the Kabuverdianu-Sotaventu, and they have published Luke and Acts. The publication of Luke has won two awards in Cape Verde. Sérgio Frusoni translated Bartolomeo Rossetti 's version of the Romanesco Italian poem Er Vangelo Seconno Noantri , which is a poem based on the Four Gospels . Frusoni translated the poem in the São Vicente Creole, Vangêle contód d'nôs móda . The only writing system officially recognized by
2916-531: The affricate consonants /dʒ/ and /tʃ/ (written "j" (in the beginning of words) and "ch", in old Portuguese) which are not in use in today's Portuguese, and the pre-tonic vowels were not reduced as in today's European Portuguese . In terms of innovative features, the phoneme /ʎ/ (written "lh" in Portuguese) has evolved to /dʒ/ and the vowels have undergone several phonetic phenomena. There are eight oral vowels and their corresponding nasal counterparts, making
3024-406: The preposition na , meaning "in" and/or "on", which would come from the Portuguese contraction na , meaning "in the" ( feminine singular ). The Portuguese word for "creole" is crioulo , which derives from the verb criar ("to raise", "to bring up") and a suffix -oulo of debated origin. Originally the word was used to distinguish the members of any ethnic group who were born and raised in
3132-524: The 15th and 16th centuries led to the establishment of a Portuguese Empire with trading posts, forts and colonies in Africa, Asia and the Americas. Contact between the Portuguese language and native languages gave rise to many Portuguese-based pidgins , used as linguas francas throughout the Portuguese sphere of influence. In time, many of these pidgins were nativized , becoming new stable creole languages. As
3240-609: The 17th century, many creole-speaking slaves were taken to other places in Indonesia and South Africa , leading to several creoles that survived until recent times: Portuguese was present on the island of Flores , Indonesia since the 16th century, especially in Larantuka and Maumere ; it probably became extinct in the late 20th century, its traces in the local Malay-based creole language, if any, do not survive (see Larantuka Malay and Maumere Malay ). Portuguese creoles were spoken in
3348-527: The 27 books is found in a letter written by Athanasius , a 4th-century bishop of Alexandria , dated to 367 AD. The 27-book New Testament was first formally canonized during the councils of Hippo (393) and Carthage (397) in North Africa. Pope Innocent I ratified the same canon in 405, but it is probable that a Council in Rome in 382 under Pope Damasus I gave the same list first. These councils also provided
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3456-611: The 2nd century. The Pauline letters are the thirteen New Testament books that present Paul the Apostle as their author. Paul's authorship of six of the letters is disputed. Four are thought by most modern scholars to be pseudepigraphic , i.e., not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves. Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters (2 Thessalonians and Colossians). These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions, often to address issues faced by that particular community. Prominent themes include
3564-636: The Apostle ( Acts 16:10–17 ; arguing for an authorship date of c. AD 62 ), which is corroborated by Paul's Letter to the Colossians ( Col. 4:14 ), Letter to Philemon ( Philem. 23–24 ), and Second Letter to Timothy ( 2 Tim. 4:11 ), the gospel account of Luke "was received as having apostolic endorsement and authority from Paul and as a trustworthy record of the gospel that Paul preached" (e.g. Rom. 2:16 , according to Eusebius in Ecclesiastical History 3.4.8). The word testament in
3672-437: The Apostles is a narrative of the apostles' ministry and activity after Christ's death and resurrection, from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke . Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author, referred to as Luke–Acts . Luke–Acts does not name its author. Church tradition identified him as Luke
3780-537: The Bangkok neighborhoods of Kudi Chin and Conception , which were former Portuguese colonies settled by Luso-Asians, and in the Sagaing Region of Myanmar. Thai Portuguese Creole was spoken by Luso-Asians in the Bangkok neighborhoods of Kudi Chin and Conception , which were former Portuguese colonies settled by Luso-Asians. The Luso-Thai communities of Kudi Chin and Conception still exist, numbering around 2,000, but
3888-625: The Brazilian linguistic phenomena are the "nativização" , nativization /nativism of a most radically Romanic form. The phenomena in Brazilian Portuguese are Classical Latin and Old Portuguese heritage. This is not a creole form, but a radical Romanic form. Regardless of borrowings and minor changes, it must be kept in mind that Brazilian Portuguese is not a Portuguese creole, since both grammar and vocabulary remain "real" Portuguese and its origins can be traced directly from 16th century European Portuguese. Some authors, like Swedish Parkvall, classify it as
3996-631: The British takeover. Most of the creoles of the Coast of Malabar , namely those of Cananor , Tellicherry , Mahé , Cochin (modern Kerala ), and Quilon ) had become extinct by the 19th century. In Cananor and Tellicherry, some elderly people still spoke some creole in the 1980s. The only creole that is still spoken (by a few Christian families only) is Vypin Indo-Portuguese , in the Vypin Island , near Kerala;
4104-592: The Caribbean) is closely related to the Upper Guinea Creoles: Guinea-Bissau Creole and especially with Cape Verdean Creole. Papiamento has a Portuguese basis, but has undergone a large Spanish and considerable Dutch influence. Traces of a Portuguese-based pidgin have also been detected among the enslaved population in New Netherland . New Testament The New Testament ( NT ) is
4212-610: The Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the Apostle Paul , some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred. In antiquity, some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree. In the 4th century, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul's authorship . The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as
4320-437: The Evangelist , the companion of Paul, but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many differences between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters, though most scholars still believe the author, whether named Luke or not, met Paul . The most probable date of composition is around 80–90 AD, although some scholars date it significantly later, and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into
4428-407: The Gospels were written forty to sixty years after the death of Jesus. They thus do not present eyewitness or contemporary accounts of Jesus's life and teaching." The ESV Study Bible claims the following (as one argument for gospel authenticity): Because Luke , as a second generation Christian, claims to have retrieved eyewitness testimony ( Luke 1:1–4 ), in addition to having traveled with Paul
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4536-565: The Jewish translators of the Septuagint in Alexandria in the 3rd and 2nd century BCE, has been understood in Christian theology to imply a reinterpreted view of the Old Testament covenant with Israel as possessing characteristics of a 'will left after death' (the death of Jesus ) and has generated considerable attention from biblical scholars and theologians: in contrast to the Jewish usage where brit
4644-661: The Just . Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship. Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries. The author of the First Epistle of Peter identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ", and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of Church Fathers : Irenaeus (140–203), Tertullian (150–222), Clement of Alexandria (155–215) and Origen of Alexandria (185–253). Unlike The Second Epistle of Peter ,
4752-517: The New Testament were all or nearly all written by Jewish Christians —that is, Jewish disciples of Christ, who lived in the Roman Empire , and under Roman occupation . The author of the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether he was a Gentile or a Hellenistic Jew . A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably
4860-521: The New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels. The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke. Many non-canonical gospels were also written, all later than the four canonical gospels, and like them advocating the particular theological views of their various authors. In modern scholarship, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources for reconstructing Christ's ministry. The Acts of
4968-593: The New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to
5076-658: The North Konkan . Those communities were centered on Baçaim , modern Vasai , which was then called the “Northern Court of Portuguese India ” (in opposition to the "Southern Court" at Goa ). The creole languages spoken in Baçaim , Salsete , Thana , Chevai , Mahim , Tecelaria , Dadar , Parel , Cavel , Bandora (modern Bandra ), Gorai , Morol , Andheri , Versova , Malvan , Manori , Mazagão , and Chaul are now extinct. The only surviving Norteiro creoles are: These surviving Norteiro creoles have suffered drastic changes in
5184-458: The Portuguese colonial empire. Until recently creoles were considered "degenerate" dialects of Portuguese unworthy of attention. As a consequence, there is little documentation on the details of their formation. Since the 20th century, increased study of creoles by linguists led to several theories being advanced. The monogenetic theory of pidgins assumes that some type of pidgin language — dubbed West African Pidgin Portuguese — based on Portuguese
5292-458: The Portuguese language tend to pronounce this pronoun as a nasal vowel úm [ũ] instead of m ' [m] . Before some forms of the verb sêr this pronoun takes back its full form mí [mi] , in whatever variant: mí ê [mi e] ('I am'), mí éra [mi ˈɛɾɐ] ('I was'). In this article, this pronoun is conventionally written m ' , no matter the variant. Even though over 90% of Cape Verdean Creole words are derived from Portuguese,
5400-456: The Portuguese one. Linguists like Chomsky and Bickerton argue that Cape Verdean Creole was formed spontaneously, not by enslaved people from continental Africa, but by the population born in the islands, using the grammar with which all human beings are born; this would explain how creoles located many miles apart have similar grammatical structures , even though they have a different lexical basis. According to A. Carreira, Cape Verdean Creole
5508-651: The authorities in Cape Verde is called the Alfabeto Unificado para a Escrita da Língua Cabo-verdiana (ALUPEC, lit. ' Unified Alphabet for the Writing of the Cape Verdean Language ' ), which was approved for official use on an experimental basis in 1998 by Decree-Law No. 67/98. In 2009, Decree-Law No. 8/2009 officially institutionalized the use of the ALUPEC. In spite of having been officially recognized by
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#17328843100285616-477: The authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke used as sources the Gospel of Mark and a hypothetical Q document to write their individual gospel accounts. These three gospels are called the Synoptic Gospels , because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes in exactly the same wording. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, by using
5724-490: The authors of the Gospels do not identify themselves in their respective texts. All four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are anonymous works . The Gospel of John claims to be based on eyewitness testimony from the Disciple whom Jesus loved , but never names this character. The author of Luke-Acts claimed to access an eyewitness to Paul ; this claim remains accepted by most scholars. Objections to this viewpoint mainly take
5832-492: The authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter's authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century. Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle, many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author. For an early date and (usually) for a defense of the Apostle Peter's authorship see Kruger, Zahn, Spitta, Bigg, and Green. The Epistle of Jude title
5940-518: The canon of the Old Testament, which included the deuterocanonical books. There is no scholarly consensus on the date of composition of the latest New Testament texts. John A. T. Robinson , Dan Wallace , and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Many other scholars, such as Bart D. Ehrman and Stephen L. Harris , date some New Testament texts much later than this; Richard Pervo dated Luke–Acts to c. 115 AD , and David Trobisch places Acts in
6048-597: The colonies from those who were born in their homeland. In Africa it was often applied to locally born people of (wholly or partly) Portuguese descent, as opposed to those born in Portugal; whereas in Brazil it was also used to distinguish locally born black people of African descent from those who had been brought from Africa as slaves. In time, however, this generic sense was lost, and the word crioulo or its derivatives (like "Creole" and its equivalents in other languages) became
6156-486: The context. Ex.: When the noun refers to something in general that noun does not have number inflection. Ex.: If in a sentence there are several grammatical categories, only the first bears the plural marker. Ex.: According to their function, the pronouns can be subject pronouns or object pronouns. Furthermore, in each of these functions, according to the position within the sentence the pronouns can be unstressed or stressed. The unstressed subject pronouns generally bear
6264-461: The creole was formed by the Portuguese by simplifying the Portuguese language in order to make it accessible to enslaved African people. That is the point of view of authors like Prudent, Waldman, Chaudenson and Lopes da Silva. Authors like Adam and Quint argue that Cape Verdean Creole was formed by enslaved African people using the grammar of Western African languages and replacing the African lexicon with
6372-541: The designation of anticreole , which would be the inverse of a creole language, as they are seen by the non-European input theories (i.e.: creoles = African languages grammar + European languages lexicon; anticreoles = European languages grammar + African languages lexicon). There is a Portuguese dialect in Helvécia, South of Bahia that is theorized as presenting signs of an earlier decreolization. Ancient Portuguese creoles originating from Africa are still preserved in
6480-593: The development of two standards: a North (Barlavento) standard, centered on the São Vicente variant, and a South (Sotavento) standard, centered on that of Santiago. If so, Creole would become a pluricentric language . There exists no complete translation of the Bible. However, the "Asosiason Kabuverdianu pa Traduson di Bíblia" was established with the goal of translating the entire Bible in Kabuverdianu-Sotaventu and Kabuverdianu-Barlaventu. They have translated approximately 40% of
6588-506: The drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator , as belonging to this rival God, and as alien from the law and the prophets . By the 4th century , the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius ,
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#17328843100286696-645: The epic poetry of Luís de Camões , as well as other Romance languages such as Aranese Occitan , French , Italian and Romanian , classifying these phenomena as a natural Romance drift. Vernacular Brazilian Portuguese is continuous with European Portuguese and its phonetics is more conservative in several aspects, characterizing the nativization of a koiné formed by several regional European Portuguese variations brought to Brazil and its natural drift. One Portuguese-based creole language spoken in North America is: Papiamento (spoken on Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao in
6804-459: The epistle to the Hebrews, based on its distinctive style and theology, which are considered to set it apart from Paul's writings. The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation , also known as the Apocalypse of John. In the New Testament canon, it is considered prophetical or apocalyptic literature . Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle (in which case it
6912-447: The expression cabéça ("head") after the possessive determiner. Ex.: There are no reciprocal pronouns. To indicate reciprocity, Creole uses the expression cumpanhêru ("companion"). Ex.: The verbs have only minimal inflection (two forms). They have the same form for all the persons, and the notions of tense, mood and aspect are expressed through the presence (or absence) of certain morphemes (called "verbal actualizers" by Veiga), as in
7020-634: The expression "New Testament" refers to a Christian new covenant that Christians believe completes or fulfils the Mosaic covenant (the Jewish covenant) that Yahweh (the God of Israel) made with the people of Israel on Mount Sinai through Moses , described in the books of the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. While Christianity traditionally even claims this Christian new covenant as being prophesied in
7128-432: The figures oscillate between 90 and 95% of words from Portuguese. The remaining comes from several languages from Western Africa ( Mandingo , Wolof , Fulani , Temne , Balanta , Mandjak , etc.), and the vocabulary from other languages (English, French, Latin ) is negligible. Cape Verdean Creole's phonological system comes mainly from 15th-through-17th-century Portuguese. In terms of conservative features, Creole has kept
7236-444: The five as a single corpus of Johannine literature , albeit not from the same author. The gospel went through two or three "editions" before reaching its current form around AD 90–110. It speaks of an unnamed "disciple whom Jesus loved" as the source of its traditions, but does not say specifically that he is its author; Christian tradition identifies this disciple as the apostle John , but while this idea still has supporters, for
7344-471: The form of an apocalypse , a "revealing" of divine prophecy and mysteries, a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity. The order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions. In the Latin West, prior to the Vulgate (an early 5th-century Latin version of the Bible), the four Gospels were arranged in the following order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark. The Syriac Peshitta places
7452-432: The form of the following two interpretations, but also include the claim that Luke-Acts contains differences in theology and historical narrative which are irreconcilable with the authentic letters of Paul the Apostle . According to Bart D. Ehrman of the University of North Carolina , none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses of Jesus's life. Ehrman has argued for
7560-424: The former Portuguese feitorias in the Gulf of Guinea , but also in the Congo region. Portuguese pidgins still exist in Angola and Mozambique . The numerous Portuguese outposts in India and Sri Lanka gave rise to many Portuguese creole languages, of which only a few have survived to the present. The largest group were the Norteiro languages , spoken by the Norteiro people , the Christian Indo-Portuguese in
7668-407: The fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation . The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity. As early as the 3rd century, Origen wrote of the letter, "Men of old have handed it down as Paul's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows." Contemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for
7776-429: The function of the subject and come before the verb. Ex.: The stressed subject pronouns bear the function of some kind of vocative and usually are separated from the verb ( disjunctive pronouns ). Ex.: The object pronouns, as the name shows, bear the function of the object (direct or indirect). The unstressed object pronouns are used with the present-tense forms of verbs. Ex.: The stressed object pronouns are used with
7884-559: The government, the ALUPEC is neither required nor mandatorily used. In spite of being the only system officially recognized, the same law allows the use of alternative writing models, "as long as they are presented in a systematic and scientific way". As not all users are familiarized with ALUPEC or the IPA , in this article a slightly different system will be used to make it easier for the reader: The vocabulary of Cape Verdean Creole comes mainly from Portuguese. Although several sources do not agree,
7992-429: The grammar is very different, which makes it extremely difficult for an untrained Portuguese native speaker even to understand a basic conversation. On the other hand, the grammar shows a lot of similarities with other creoles, Portuguese-based or not (see syntactic similarities of creoles ). The basic sentence structure in Creole is Subject – Verb – Object. Ex.: When there are two objects,
8100-414: The house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord." ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses
8208-507: The indirect object comes first while the direct object comes after, and the sentence structure becomes Subject – Verb – Indirect Object – Direct Object. Ex.: A feature that makes Cape Verdean Creole closer to other creoles is the possibility of double negation (ex.: Náda m' câ atchâ. liter. "Nothing I didn't find."), or sometimes even triple negation (ex.: Núnca ninguêm câ tâ bába lâ. liter. "Never nobody didn't go there."). Although double negation
8316-525: The language has not been recorded for centuries. In Myanmar, Burmese Portuguese Creole was spoken by the Bayingyi people , a Luso-Asian group descended from Portuguese mercenaries and adventurers to Burma in the 16th and 17th centuries who were enlisted into the Burmese army and settled there. The Bayingyi community still exists, but the language has not been recorded or spoken for centuries. The Portuguese language
8424-437: The last decades. Standard Portuguese re-influenced the creole of Daman in the mid-20th century. The creoles of the Coast of Coromandel , such as of Meliapor , Madras , Tuticorin , Cuddalore , Karikal , Pondicherry , Tranquebar , Manapar , and Negapatam , were already extinct by the 19th century. Their speakers (mostly the people of mixed Portuguese-Indian ancestry, known locally as Topasses ) switched to English after
8532-635: The last native speaker of the language, William Rozario, died in 2010, but the language is still spoken and understood to some degree by the Luso-Asian community of Kochi . Christians, even in Calcutta , used Portuguese until 1811. A Portuguese creole was still spoken in the early 20th century. Portuguese creoles were spoken in Bengal , such as at Balasore , Pipli , Chandannagore , Chittagong , Midnapore and Hooghly . Significant Portuguese creoles flourished among
8640-444: The late second century, the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as "The Gospel of ..." or "The Gospel according to ..." followed by the name of the supposed author. The first author to explicitly name the canonical gospels is Irenaeus of Lyon , who promoted the four canonical gospels in his book Against Heresies , written around 180. These four gospels that were eventually included in
8748-414: The least of them unto the greatest of them, saith the LORD; for I will forgive their iniquity, and their sin will I remember no more. The word covenant means 'agreement' (from Latin con-venio 'to agree' lit. 'to come together'): the use of the word testament , which describes the different idea of written instructions for inheritance after death, to refer to the covenant with Israel in the Old Testament,
8856-464: The linguistic comparisons, it is possible to form some conjectures. The spreading of Cape Verdean Creole within the islands was done in three phases: In spite of Creole being the first language of nearly all the population in Cape Verde, Portuguese is still the official language . As Portuguese is used in everyday life (at school, in administration, in official acts, in relations with foreign countries, etc.), Portuguese and Cape Verdean Creole live in
8964-581: The major Catholic epistles (James, 1 Peter, and 1 John) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles. The order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters: longest to shortest, though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together. The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the Corpus Paulinum in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon. Hebrews
9072-575: The majority of creoles. The verbs are generally reduced to two base forms, one for the present, another for the past. The form for the present is the same as the form for the infinitive (exception: sêr "to be"), that in turn comes, in the majority of the verbs, from the infinitive in Portuguese but without the final r . Ex.: cantâ /kɐ̃ˈtɐ/ (from Portuguese cantar ), mexê /meˈʃe/ (from Portuguese mexer ), partí /pɐɾˈti/ (from Portuguese partir ), compô /kõˈpo/ (from Portuguese compor ), *lumbú /lũˈbu/ (from Portuguese lombo ). The form for
9180-557: The mid-to-late second century, contemporaneous with the publication of the first New Testament canon. Whether the Gospels were composed before or after 70 AD, according to Bas van Os, the lifetime of various eyewitnesses that includes Jesus's own family through the end of the First Century is very likely statistically. Markus Bockmuehl finds this structure of lifetime memory in various early Christian traditions. The New Oxford Annotated Bible claims, "Scholars generally agree that
9288-455: The name of several specific Upper Guinean communities and their languages: the Guinean people and their Kriol language , Cape Verdean people and their Kriolu language , all of which still today have very vigorous use, suppressing the importance of official standard Portuguese. The oldest Portuguese creole are the so-called crioulos of Upper Guinea, born around the Portuguese settlements along
9396-680: The northwest coast of Africa. Portuguese creoles are the mother tongues of most people in Cape Verde and the ABC Islands . In Guinea-Bissau , the creole is used as lingua franca among people speaking different languages, and is becoming the mother tongue of a growing population. They consist of two languages: Another group of creoles is spoken in the Gulf of Guinea, in São Tomé and Príncipe and Equatorial Guinea . Many other Portuguese creoles probably existed in
9504-502: The past is formed from the infinitive to which is joined the particle for the past ~ba . Ex.: cantába /kɐ̃ˈtabɐ/ , mexêba /meˈʃebɐ/ , partíba /pɐɾˈtibɐ/ , compôba /kõˈpobɐ/ , *lumbúba /lũˈbubɐ/ (in the Barlavento variants, the particle for the past ~va (or ~ba ) is joined to the imperfective actualizer, and not to the verb). It is noteworthy that the Upper Guinea creoles (Cape Verdean Creole and Guinea-Bissau Creole ) put
9612-464: The past tense marker after the verbs, and not before like the majority of creoles (check syntactic similarities of creoles ). Portuguese-based creole languages Portuguese creoles ( Portuguese : crioulo ) are creole languages which have Portuguese as their substantial lexifier . The most widely-spoken creoles influenced by Portuguese are Cape Verdean Creole , Guinea-Bissau Creole and Papiamento . Portuguese overseas exploration in
9720-461: The past-tense forms of verbs, when they are the second pronoun in a series of two pronouns, and after prepositions ( prepositional pronouns ). Ex.: When there are two object pronouns, the indirect pronoun comes first while the direct pronoun comes after, and the sentence structure becomes Subject – Verb – Indirect Pronoun – Direct Pronoun. There are no reflexive pronouns. To indicate reflexivity, Creole uses
9828-475: The phrase New Testament several times, but does not use it in reference to any written text. In Against Marcion , written c. 208 AD, Tertullian writes of: the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel . And Tertullian continues later in the book, writing: it is certain that the whole aim at which he [ Marcion ] has strenuously laboured, even in
9936-496: The post-resurrection appearances, but the emptiness of the tomb implies a resurrection). The word "gospel" derives from the Old English gōd-spell (rarely godspel ), meaning "good news" or "glad tidings". Its Hebrew equivalent being "besorah" (בְּשׂוֹרָה). The gospel was considered the "good news" of the coming Kingdom of Messiah , and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, the central Christian message. Starting in
10044-613: The preceding epistles. These letters are believed by many to be pseudepigraphic. Some scholars (e.g., Bill Mounce, Ben Witherington, R.C. Sproul) will argue that the letters are genuinely Pauline, or at least written under Paul's supervision. The Epistle to the Hebrews addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the Anointed One (Hebrew: מָשִׁיחַ—transliterated in English as "Moshiach", or "Messiah"; Greek: Χριστός—transliterated in English as "Christos", for " Christ ") who
10152-462: The preface to the Acts of the Apostles references "my former book" about the ministry of Jesus. Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author. The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus . Seven letters are generally classified as "undisputed", expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are
10260-585: The relationship both to broader " pagan " society, to Judaism, and to other Christians. [Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).] The last four Pauline letters in the New Testament are addressed to individual persons. They include the following: [Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).] All of the above except for Philemon are known as the pastoral epistles . They are addressed to individuals charged with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership. They often address different concerns to those of
10368-578: The ritual songs of the Afro-Brazilian animist religions ( Candomblé ) . It has been conjectured that the vernacular of Brazil (not the official and standard Brazilian Portuguese ) resulted from decreolization of a creole based on Portuguese and native languages; but this is not a widely accepted view. Vernacular Brazilian Portuguese is continuous and mutually intelligible with European Portuguese, and in fact quite conservative in some aspects. Academic specialists compiled by linguist Volker Noll affirm that
10476-510: The second division of the Christian biblical canon . It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus , as well as events relating to first-century Christianity . The New Testament's background, the first division of the Christian Bible, is called the Old Testament , which is based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible ; together they are regarded as Sacred Scripture by Christians. The New Testament
10584-713: The so-called Burgher and Kaffir communities of Sri Lanka: Bengali Portuguese Creole was spoken by Luso-Asians and Roman Catholics in Bangladesh until its extinction in the late 19th to early 20th century. Bangladeshi Luso-Asians who spoke Bengali Portuguese Creole were concentrated in Chittagong , in the old Portuguese settlement of Firingi Bazar , formerly the capital of the Portuguese Empire in Bengal. A smaller but still significant population of Bengali Portuguese Creole speakers
10692-412: The work of Paul: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus. The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is, despite unlikely Pauline authorship, often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form
10800-482: Was formed from a Portuguese pidgin , on the island of Santiago, starting from the 15th century. That pidgin was then transported to the west coast of Africa by the lançados . From there, that pidgin diverged into two proto-creoles, one that was the base of Cape Verdean Creole, and another that was the base of the Guinea-Bissau Creole . Cross-referencing information regarding the settlement of each island with
10908-648: Was located in the smaller Firingi Bazar of Dhaka; the word Firingi is derived from the Persian word farang meaning foreigner. In the past, Portuguese creoles were also spoken in Myanmar and Bangladesh . The earliest Portuguese creole in the region probably arose in the 16th century in Malacca , Malaysia , as well as in the Moluccas . After the takeover of those places by the Dutch in
11016-468: Was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete. Eusebius describes the collection of Christian writings as "covenanted" (ἐνδιαθήκη) books in Hist. Eccl. 3.3.1–7; 3.25.3; 5.8.1; 6.25.1. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth (the gospel of Mark in the original text ends with the empty tomb and has no account of
11124-604: Was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Scriptures. The author discusses the superiority of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus, to the Mosaic Law Covenant and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle. The book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative, despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was. Regarding authorship, although
11232-547: Was present in Portugal's colony Macau since the mid-16th century. A Portuguese creole, Patua, developed there. Macanese is primarily derived from Cantonese and Portuguese, with influence and vocabulary from Malay and Sinhala . It is nearly extinct in Macau, being spoken by an estimated 50 people in 2007, but more Macanese speakers likely exist among the diaspora. A few Portuguese creoles are found in South America: There
11340-486: Was reduced to a simple nasality [n̩] . For example: m' andâ [n̩ ɐ̃ˈdɐ] ('I have walked'), m' stâ tâ sintí [n̩ stɐ tɐ sĩˈti] ('I am feeling'), m' labába [n̩ lɐˈbabɐ] ('I had washed'). Before plosive or affricate consonants this nasality becomes homorganic nasal of the following consonant. For ex.: m' bêm [m bẽ] ('I came'), m' têm [n tẽ] ('I have'), m' tchigâ [ɲ tʃiˈɡɐ] ('I arrived'), m' crê [ŋ kɾe] ('I want'). Speakers who are strongly influenced by
11448-485: Was spoken from the 15th to 18th centuries in the forts established by the Portuguese on the West African coast. According to this theory, this variety may have been the starting point of all the pidgin and creole languages. This may explain to some extent why Portuguese lexical items can be found in many creoles, but more importantly, it would account for the numerous grammatical similarities shared by such languages, such as
11556-453: Was the usual Hebrew word used to refer to pacts, alliances and covenants in general, like a common pact between two individuals, and to the one between God and Israel in particular, in the Greek world diatheke was virtually never used to refer to an alliance or covenant (one exception is noted in a passage from Aristophanes ) and referred instead to a will left after the death of a person. There
11664-471: Was variously incorporated into the Corpus Paulinum either after 2 Thessalonians, after Philemon (i.e. at the very end), or after Romans. Luther's canon , found in the 16th-century Luther Bible , continues to place Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apocalypse (Revelation) last. This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther on the canonicity of these books. It is considered the books of
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