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135-525: Camarasaurus ( / ˌ k æ m ər ə ˈ s ɔː r ə s / KAM -ər-ə- SOR -əs ) was a genus of quadrupedal , herbivorous dinosaurs and is the most common North American sauropod fossil. Its fossil remains have been found in the Morrison Formation , dating to the Late Jurassic epoch ( Kimmeridgian to Tithonian stages), between 155 and 145 million years ago. Camarasaurus presented

270-482: A Brontosaurus , the skull of the mount was notoriously based on material that was likely from a Camarasaurus from Como Bluff. The Carnegie Museum had an important Camarasaurus discovery in 1909 of a nearly complete skeleton of a juvenile, now under specimen number CM 11338. The specimen was notably found articulated in a death pose and is prominently displayed at the Carnegie Museum hall. Earl Douglass discovered

405-421: A Camarasaurus skull cast. Apatosaurus skeletons were mounted with speculative skull casts until 1970, when McIntosh showed that more robust skulls assigned to Diplodocus were more likely from Apatosaurus . Apatosaurus is a genus in the family Diplodocidae. It is one of the more basal genera, with only Amphicoelias and possibly a new, unnamed genus more primitive. Although the subfamily Apatosaurinae

540-476: A basal eusauropod. A simplified cladogram of basal Macronaria after Tan et al (2020) is shown below: Turiasauria Jobaria Diplodocoidea Camarasaurus Bellusaurus Europasaurus Tehuelchesaurus Galvesaurus Euhelopus Titanosauriformes Camarasaurus is considered to be a basal macronarian, more closely related to the common ancestor of all macronarians than to more derived forms like Brachiosaurus . Camarasaurus

675-430: A beak of some variety, though this is not known for certain. The neck of Camarasaurus was of only moderate length by sauropod standards. It was composed of 12 vertebrae. Most of the cervical neural spines were bifurcated, with more vertebrae developing bifurcated neural spines as the animal grew. As in other sauropods, the vertebrae of the neck and torso contained chambers that in life were filled by air sacs connected to

810-451: A description of a pathology observed on the humerus. They noted a juxtacortical lesion 25 by 18 cm wide made of bone that resembled woven fibers. Although woven bone forms in accessory dental bone, in other locations, it is a sign of injury or illness. The woven bone's "undulating fibrous bundles" were observed oriented in the direction of the m. brachialis . The lesion's fusion and lack of porosity at its near and far ends indicate

945-596: A distinctive cranial profile of a blunt snout and an arched skull that was remarkably square, typical of basal Macronarians . The name means "chambered lizard", referring to the hollow chambers, known as pleurocoels , in its cervical vertebrae ( Greek καμαρα ( kamara ) meaning "vaulted chamber", or anything with an arched cover, and σαυρος ( sauros ) meaning "lizard"). Camarasaurus contains four species that are commonly recognized as valid: Camarasaurus grandis , Camarasaurus lentus , Camarasaurus lewisi , and Camarasaurus supremus . C. supremus ,

1080-407: A genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including the idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of

1215-751: A larger, later-surviving population of animals. Previously, scientists have suggested that Camarasaurus and other sauropods may have swallowed gastroliths (stones) to help grind the food in the stomach, regurgitating or passing them when they became too smooth. More recent analysis, however, of the evidence for stomach stones suggests this was not the case. The strong, robust teeth of Camarasaurus were more developed than those of most sauropods and were replaced on average every 62 days (M. D'Emic et al.), indicating that Camarasaurus may have masticated food in its mouth to some degree before swallowing. Other findings indicate that Camarasaurus spp. preferred vegetation different from other sauropods, allowing them to share

1350-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

1485-419: A lesser degree the m. biceps brachii to the lesion's position on the humerus. The researchers inferred that the inflammation of the muscles and periosteum would have caused additional complications in the lower region of the fore limb, as well. The lesion would also have caused long-term fasciitis and myosistis . The cumulative effect of these pathological processes would have moderate to severe effects on

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1620-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

1755-453: A maximum estimated weight of 47  metric tons (51.8  tons ). In 2016, Gregory S. Paul estimated its weight at 23  metric tons (25.4  tons ), whereas in 2020, John Foster estimated its weight at 42.3  metric tons (46.6  tons ). The arched skull of Camarasaurus was remarkably square and the blunt snout had many fenestrae . The robust skull of Camarasaurus preserves much better than many other sauropods, unlike

1890-401: A maximum length of 11–30% greater than average and a mass of approximately 33 t (32 long tons; 36 short tons). The cervical vertebrae of Apatosaurus are less elongated and more heavily constructed than those of Diplodocus , a diplodocid like Apatosaurus , and the bones of the leg are much stockier despite being longer, implying that Apatosaurus was a more robust animal. The tail

2025-444: A new species of Amphicoelias by Cope which he named Amphicoelias latus in 1877. This species was tentatively synonymized with C. supremus in 1921. In 1998, Kenneth Carpenter argued that the stratigraphic position of the find suggested it was more likely to be synonymous with C. grandis , but in a 2005 study of the biostratigraphic distribution of Camarasaurus , Takehito Ikejiri retained it in synonymy with C. supremus . In 1878,

2160-471: A paleontologist based in Philadelphia, about the discovery until eventually collecting several fossils and sending them to both paleontologists. Marsh named Atlantosaurus montanus based on some of the fossils sent and hired Lakes to collect the rest of the material at Morrison and send it to Yale, while Cope attempted to hire Lakes as well but was rejected. One of the best specimens collected by Lakes in 1877

2295-426: A paper on diplodocoid systematics, and proposed that genera could be diagnosed by thirteen differing characters, and species separated based on six. The minimum number for generic separation was chosen based on the fact that A.   ajax and A.   louisae differ in twelve characters, and Diplodocus carnegiei and D.   hallorum differ in eleven characters. Thus, thirteen characters were chosen to validate

2430-526: A premaxilla and maxilla from Lakes' original quarry in Morrison and referred the material to Apatosaurus ajax. Almost all modern paleontologists agreed with Riggs that the two dinosaurs should be classified together in a single genus. According to the rules of the ICZN (which governs the scientific names of animals), the name Apatosaurus , having been published first, has priority as the official name; Brontosaurus

2565-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

2700-530: A sauropod sacrum was discovered with several other jumbled sauropod postcranial elements, again at Como Bluff. The remains were also sent to Marsh and in 1878 the sacrum was assigned to a new genus and species, Morosaurus impar ("unpaired stupid lizard"). Morosaurus would receive several new species throughout the late 19th century, even becoming part of a new family in 1892, the Morosauridae . A majority of Morosaurus species are now considered dubious, including

2835-576: A separate genus again. The conclusion was based on a comparison of 477 morphological characteristics across 81 different dinosaur individuals. Among the many notable differences are the wider – and presumably stronger – neck of Apatosaurus species compared to B.   excelsus . Other species previously assigned to Apatosaurus , such as Elosaurus parvus and Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin were also reclassified as Brontosaurus . Some features proposed to separate Brontosaurus from Apatosaurus include: posterior dorsal vertebrae with

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2970-417: A single large claw on each forelimb, a feature shared by all sauropods more derived than Shunosaurus . The first three toes had claws on each hindlimb. The phalangeal formula is 2-1-1-1-1, meaning the innermost finger (phalanx) on the forelimb has two bones and the next has one. The single manual claw bone ( ungual ) is slightly curved and squarely truncated on the anterior end. The pelvic girdle includes

3105-437: A species of Camarasaurus in 1996. Some researchers have suggested that Cathetosaurus should be reinstated as a distinct genus, whereas others have suggested that C. lewisi may be synonymous with another Camarasaurus species. C. supremus , as its name suggests, is the largest known species of Camarasaurus and one of the most massive sauropods known from the late Jurassic Morrison Formation . Except for its huge size, it

3240-517: A study that analyzed the species and specimen relationships of Apatosaurus . They found that A.   louisae was the most basal species, followed by FMNH   P25112, and then a polytomy of A.   ajax , A.   parvus , and A.   excelsus . Their analysis was revised and expanded with many additional diplodocid specimens in 2015, which resolved the relationships of Apatosaurus slightly differently, and also supported separating Brontosaurus from Apatosaurus . The cladogram below

3375-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

3510-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

3645-416: A whip to create loud noises, or, as more recently suggested, as a sensory organ. The skull of Apatosaurus was confused with that of Camarasaurus and Brachiosaurus until 1909, when the holotype of A. louisae was found, and a complete skull just a few meters away from the front of the neck. Henry Fairfield Osborn disagreed with this association, and went on to mount a skeleton of Apatosaurus with

3780-456: Is a member of the family Diplodocidae , a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs . The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including Diplodocus , Supersaurus , and Barosaurus . Apatosaurus is sometimes classified in the subfamily Apatosaurinae , which may also include Suuwassea , Supersaurus , and Brontosaurus . Othniel Charles Marsh described Apatosaurus as allied to Atlantosaurus within

3915-562: Is a valid genus of sauropod distinct from Apatosaurus , but not all paleontologists agree with this division. As it existed in North America during the late Jurassic, Apatosaurus would have lived alongside dinosaurs such as Allosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Stegosaurus . Apatosaurus was a large, long-necked, quadrupedal animal with a long, whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs . Most size estimates are based on specimen CM   3018,

4050-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

4185-475: Is found in a wide area over the western United States, from as far north as Montana to as far south as New Mexico, in rocks of the Morrison Formation . Due to this abundance, Camarasaurus is a very well-known sauropod. A juvenile specimen of Camarasaurus , CM 11338, is the most complete sauropod skeleton ever discovered. Numerous skulls are known. Even though complete necks are rarely found in sauropods, five specimens of Camarasaurus preserve all or nearly all of

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4320-667: Is interpreted as semiarid with distinct wet and dry seasons . Dinosaur and trace fossils are found particularly in the Morrison Basin, which stretches from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. Eroded material from their east-facing drainage basins was carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains . The formation

4455-399: Is one of the best known, with nearly every element articulated and skin impressions from the skull and hindlimb. The specimen, SMA 002, has not yet gotten a full identification, but has been suggested to be a specimen of C. lewisi . In 1996, several fragmentary remains of Camarasaurus were described from western South Dakota and New Mexico , extending the northeastern and southern range of

4590-411: Is regarded as containing four valid species by most researchers: C. grandis , C. lentus , C. lewisi , and C. supremus . C. supremus , the species named by Cope in 1877, is the type species . C. grandis was named in 1877 and C. lentus in 1889. The fourth species, C. lewisi , is of uncertain affinities. It was originally described as a distinct genus, Cathetosaurus , in 1988, but reclassified as

4725-700: Is similar in age to the Lourinha Formation in Portugal and the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation in Argentina, Camarasaurid fossils have been found at the 2 formations. In 1877, it became the center of the Bone Wars , a fossil-collecting rivalry between early paleontologists Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope , with Camarasaurus itself being discovered and named by the latter Paleontologist during

4860-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

4995-456: Is squared, with only Nigersaurus having a squarer skull. The braincase of Apatosaurus is well preserved in specimen BYU   17096, which also preserved much of the skeleton. A phylogenetic analysis found that the braincase had a morphology similar to those of other diplodocoids. Some skulls of Apatosaurus have been found still in articulation with their teeth. Those teeth that have the enamel surface exposed do not show any scratches on

5130-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

5265-407: Is the only taxon uncontroversially regarded as a valid genus of camarasaurid. It contains four species: C. grandis , C. lentus , C. lewisi , and C. supremus . C. lewisi may represent a distinct genus, Cathetosaurus . Lourinhasaurus , the type species of which was formerly assigned to Camarasaurus , is regarded as a camarasaurid by most studies, though it has also been considered to be

5400-648: Is the result of an analysis by Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson (2015). The authors analyzed most diplodocid type specimens separately to deduce which specimen belonged to which species and genus. YPM 1840 (" Atlantosaurus " immanis type) NSMT-PV 20375 AMNH 460 YPM 1860 ( Apatosaurus ajax type) CM 3018 ( Apatosaurus louisae type) YPM 1861 ( Apatosaurus laticollis type) YPM 1980 ( Brontosaurus excelsus type) YPM 1981 ( Brontosaurus amplus type) AMNH 5764 ( Amphicoelias altus type) FMNH P25112 Tate-001 ( Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin type) CM 566 ( Elosaurus parvus type) UM 15556 BYU 1252-18531 Apatosaurus

5535-576: The Grand River Valley near Fruita, Colorado , Field Museum of Natural History specimen P25112. Riggs thought that the deposits were similar in age to those of the Como Bluff in Wyoming from which Marsh had described Brontosaurus . Most of the skeleton was found, and after comparison with both Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus ajax , Riggs realized that the holotype of A.   ajax was immature, and thus

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5670-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

5805-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

5940-455: The Late Jurassic . Camarasaurids had shorter forelimbs than hindlimbs, large scapulocoracoids, and longer tails than necks. When Edward Cope described Camarasaurus in 1877, he believed it was a dinosaur closely related to Cetiosaurus , Bothriospondylus , Ornithopsis , Anchisaurus ( Megadactylus ), and Pneumatosteus , but didn’t name a group for these taxa until the description of Amphicoelias when he erected Camarasauridae. Camarasaurus

6075-623: The Morrison Formation , the location of the excavations of Marsh and Cope. After the end of the Bone Wars, many major institutions in the eastern United States were inspired by the depictions and finds by Marsh and Cope to assemble their own dinosaur fossil collections. The competition to mount the first sauropod skeleton specifically was the most intense, with the American Museum of Natural History , Carnegie Museum of Natural History , and Field Museum of Natural History all sending expeditions to

6210-416: The chevron bones, which are dissimilar to those of other dinosaurs; instead, the chevron bones of Apatosaurus showed similarities with those of mosasaurs , most likely that of the representative species Mosasaurus . By the end of excavations at Lakes' quarry in Morrison, several partial specimens of Apatosaurus had been collected, but only the type specimen of A. ajax can be confidently referred to

6345-434: The humerus of Apatosaurus resembles that of Camarasaurus , as well as Brontosaurus . However, the humeri of Brontosaurus and A.   ajax are more similar to each other than they are to A.   louisae . In 1936, Charles Gilmore noted that previous reconstructions of Apatosaurus forelimbs erroneously proposed that the radius and ulna could cross; in life they would have remained parallel. Apatosaurus had

6480-419: The nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

6615-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

6750-439: The respiratory system . The air sacs could take up more than half of the space inside the vertebrae, making them as highly pneumatic as the bones of birds. It is these chambers that give Camarasaurus its name, "chambered lizard". The tail of Camarasaurus was composed of 53 vertebrae. Camarasaurus is the type genus of the family Camarasauridae , members of which are medium-sized Macronarian sauropods that mostly date to

6885-783: The theropods Saurophaganax , Torvosaurus , Ceratosaurus , Marshosaurus , Stokesosaurus , Ornitholestes , and Allosaurus , which accounted for up to 75% of theropod specimens, and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web . Camarasaurus is commonly found at the same sites as Allosaurus , Apatosaurus , Stegosaurus , and Diplodocus . Other organisms in this region included bivalves , snails , ray-finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphs , and several species of pterosaurs such as Harpactognathus and Mesadactylus . Early mammals present were docodonts (such as Docodon ), multituberculates , symmetrodonts, and triconodonts . The flora of

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7020-415: The type species , is the largest and geologically youngest of the four. Camarasaurus is the type genus of Camarasauridae , which also includes its European close relative Lourinhasaurus . Camarasaurus was named in 1877 by Edward Drinker Cope , during the period of scientific rivalry between him and Othniel Charles Marsh known as the Bone Wars . Soon after, Marsh named a genus Morosaurus , but it

7155-651: The type specimen of A.   louisae , reaching 21–23 m (69–75 ft) in length and 16.4–22.4 t (16.1–22.0 long tons; 18.1–24.7 short tons) in body mass. A 2015 study that estimated the mass of volumetric models of Dreadnoughtus , Apatosaurus , and Giraffatitan estimates CM   3018 at 21.8–38.2 t (21.5–37.6 long tons; 24.0–42.1 short tons), similar in mass to Dreadnoughtus . Some specimens of A.   ajax (such as OMNH   1670) represent individuals 11–30% longer, suggesting masses twice that of CM   3018 or 32.7–72.6 t (32.2–71.5 long tons; 36.0–80.0 short tons), potentially rivaling

7290-510: The 1970s when John Stanton McIntosh and David Berman redescribed the skulls of Diplodocus and Apatosaurus . They found that though he never published his opinion, Holland was almost certainly correct, that Apatosaurus had a Diplodocus -like skull. According to them, many skulls long thought to pertain to Diplodocus might instead be those of Apatosaurus . They reassigned multiple skulls to Apatosaurus based on associated and closely associated vertebrae. Even though they supported Holland, it

7425-546: The 20th and early 21st centuries. It was not until 1909 that an Apatosaurus skull was found during the first expedition, led by Earl Douglass , to what would become known as the Carnegie Quarry at Dinosaur National Monument . The skull was found a short distance from a skeleton (specimen CM   3018) identified as the new species Apatosaurus louisae , named after Louise Carnegie , wife of Andrew Carnegie , who funded field research to find complete dinosaur skeletons in

7560-751: The AMNH's Bone Cabin Quarry at Como Bluff. This skeleton was referred to Camarasaurus grandis and is one of the most complete specimens assigned to the species, it now resides at the Gunma Museum of Natural History in Tokyo under specimen number GMNH-PV 101. 1992 saw yet another Camarasaurus skeleton discovery further north at Howe Quarry , Wyoming by crews working for the Sauriermuseum Aathal in Switzerland. The skeleton

7695-610: The American West. The skull was designated CM   11162; it was very similar to the skull of Diplodocus . Another smaller skeleton of A.   louisae was found nearby CM   11162 and CM   3018. The skull was accepted as belonging to the Apatosaurus specimen by Douglass and Carnegie Museum director William H. Holland, although other scientists – most notably Osborn – rejected this identification. Holland defended his view in 1914 in an address to

7830-566: The Paleontological Society of America, yet he left the Carnegie Museum mount headless. While some thought Holland was attempting to avoid conflict with Osborn, others suspected Holland was waiting until an articulated skull and neck were found to confirm the association of the skull and skeleton. After Holland's death in 1934, museum staff placed a cast of a Camarasaurus skull on the mount. While most other museums were using cast or sculpted Camarasaurus skulls on Apatosaurus mounts,

7965-462: The Yale Peabody Museum decided to sculpt a skull based on the lower jaw of a Camarasaurus , with the cranium based on Marsh's 1891 illustration of the skull. The skull also included forward-pointing nasals – something unusual for any dinosaur – and fenestrae differing from both the drawing and other skulls. No Apatosaurus skull was mentioned in literature until

8100-404: The ability of the limb to move and "made everyday activities such as foraging for food and escaping predators harder to accomplish." To help determine the cause of the pathology, McWhinney and the other researchers performed a CT scan in 3-mm increments. The CT scan found that the mass had a consistent radiodensity and was separated from the cortex of the bone by a radiolucent line. No evidence

8235-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

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8370-459: The best preserved single individual of Camarasaurus at the time, and it was named as a new species of Apatosaurus in 1877. The specimen was not fully collected until 1879 and the specimen contains the majority of a juvenile's skeleton (holotype YPM 1901) Meanwhile, crews working for Edward Cope in Garden Park, collected a fragmentary specimen consisting of a femur and 2 caudal vertebrae was made

8505-424: The body. The large neck was filled with an extensive system of weight-saving air sacs. Apatosaurus , like its close relative Supersaurus , has tall neural spines, which make up more than half the height of the individual bones of its vertebrae. The shape of the tail is unusual for a diplodocid; it is comparatively slender because of the rapidly decreasing height of the vertebral spines with increasing distance from

8640-422: The centrum longer than wide; the scapula rear to the acromial edge and the distal blade being excavated; the acromial edge of the distal scapular blade bearing a rounded expansion; and the ratio of the proximodistal length to transverse breadth of the astragalus 0.55 or greater. Sauropod expert Michael D'Emic pointed out that the criteria chosen were to an extent arbitrary and that they would require abandoning

8775-431: The cervical vertebrae. Most identifiable specimens of Camarasaurus belong to one of two species, C. grandis and C. lentus ; C. lewisi and C. supremus are rarer. Camarasaurus is among the most common and frequently well-preserved sauropod dinosaurs uncovered and has been well described in numerous publications. Similar to other Macronarians, it had the typical large naris, long forelimbs, and short tail compared to

8910-466: The conflict. The Morrison Formation records an environment and time dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs such as Maraapunisaurus , Amphicoelias , Barosaurus , Diplodocus , Apatosaurus , Brontosaurus , and Brachiosaurus . Dinosaurs living alongside Camarasaurus included the herbivorous ornithischians Camptosaurus , Gargoyleosaurus , Dryosaurus , Stegosaurus , and Nanosaurus . Predators in this paleoenvironment included

9045-461: The contemporary Diplodocids. Camarasaurus was a medium-sized sauropod compared to contemporary species in the same formation, but in the Tithonian reached large sizes with C. supremus . The maximum size of the most common species, C. lentus , was about 15 m (49 ft) in length. The largest species, C. supremus , reached a maximum length of 18 meters (59 ft) - 23 m (75 ft) and,

9180-473: The eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains , is home to a fossil-rich stretch of Late Jurassic rock. A large number of dinosaur species can be found here, including relatives of Camarasaurus such as Diplodocus , Apatosaurus , and Brachiosaurus , but camarasaurs are the most abundant of the dinosaurs in the formation. Camarasaurus fossils have been found in almost every major locality and have one of

9315-540: The enamel covering the teeth of various Jurassic sauropods, including Camarasaurus . Temperatures of 32.4–36.9 °C (90.3–98.4 °F) were obtained, which is comparable to that of modern mammals. Camarasaurus grew in size quickly to limit the time it would be vulnerable to predation. This would imply it had a relatively high metabolic rate as a juvenile. A Camarasaurus pelvis recovered from Dinosaur National Monument in Utah shows gouging attributed to Allosaurus and on

9450-403: The end of collecting in Garden Park, at least four individuals and several hundred bones had been found from nearly every part of the skeleton. The next Camarasaurus discovery came later in 1877, when a fragmentary posterior skull and a partial postcranial skeleton was discovered and collected in Quarry 1, Como Bluff , Wyoming by crews working for Othniel Charles Marsh . This skeleton would be

9585-567: The features distinguishing the genera were not valid. Since Apatosaurus was the earlier name, Brontosaurus should be considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus . Because of this, Riggs recombined Brontosaurus excelsus as Apatosaurus excelsus . Based on comparisons with other species proposed to belong to Apatosaurus , Riggs also determined that the Field Columbian Museum specimen was likely most similar to A.   excelsus . Despite Riggs' publication, Henry Fairfield Osborn , who

9720-651: The first-known species, A. ajax , in 1877, and a second species, A. louisae , was discovered and named by William H. Holland in 1916. Apatosaurus lived about 152 to 151 million years ago (mya), during the late Kimmeridgian to early Tithonian age, and are now known from fossils in the Morrison Formation of modern-day Colorado , Oklahoma , New Mexico , Wyoming , and Utah in the United States. Apatosaurus had an average length of 21–23 m (69–75 ft), and an average mass of 16.4–22.4 t (16.1–22.0 long tons; 18.1–24.7 short tons). A few specimens indicate

9855-410: The five Morosaurus species named by Marsh, only three were valid. Morosaurus grandis , Morosaurus lentus , and Morosaurus agilis (now known as Smitanosaurus ) were accepted as valid, with Morosaurus impar synonymous with M. grandis . Possible synonymy between Morosaurus and Camarasaurus was also suggested by Riggs. In 1905, the first mounted skeleton of a sauropod was mounted at the AMNH of

9990-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

10125-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

10260-575: The genus, with the New Mexican remains from the Summerville Formation . The northernmost specimen of Camarasaurus was discovered in 2005 in the Snowy Mountains region of central Montana and consists of a nearly complete skull and several postcranial elements. Camarasaurus fossils are very common. Over 500 specimens are known, including many isolated bones and about 50 partial skeletons. It

10395-579: The gracile skulls that Diplodocids that are also found in the Morrison Formation. The 19-cm-long (7.5-in) teeth were shaped like chisels (spatulate) and arranged evenly along the jaw. The strength of the teeth indicates that Camarasaurus probably ate coarser plant material than the slender-toothed diplodocids . A specimen of Camarasaurus called SMA 0002 (which has also been assigned to Cathetosaurus ) from Wyoming's Howe-Stephens Quarry, referred to as "E.T.", shows evidence of soft tissue. Along

10530-476: The greatest known distributions of Morrison dinosaurs, with fossils found in localities from New Mexico to Montana and Utah to Oklahoma. According to radiometric dating , the Morrison sedimentary layers range between 156.3 million years ago (Mya) at the base, to 146.8 Mya at the top, which places it in the late Oxfordian , Kimmeridgian , and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. Its environment

10665-412: The ground than in diplodocines, and have vertebrae and ribs that are narrower towards the top of the neck, making the neck nearly triangular in cross-section. In Apatosaurus louisae , the atlas - axis complex of the first cervicals is nearly fused. The dorsal ribs are not fused or tightly attached to their vertebrae and are instead loosely articulated. Apatosaurus has ten dorsal ribs on either side of

10800-489: The hips. Apatosaurus also had very long ribs compared to most other diplodocids, giving it an unusually deep chest. As in other diplodocids, the tail transformed into a whip-like structure towards the end. The limb bones are also very robust. Within Apatosaurinae , the scapula of Apatosaurus louisae is intermediate in morphology between those of A.   ajax and Brontosaurus excelsus . The arm bones are stout, so

10935-496: The ilium of the C. lewisi holotype there are large Theropod bite marks. In 1992, a partial C. grandis skeleton was discovered at the Bryan Small Stegosaurus Quarry of the Morrison Formation near Canon City, Colorado . This specimen preserved a partial right humerus cataloged as DMNH 2908 and associated vertebrae from the back and tail. In 2001, Lorie McWhinney, Kenneth Carpenter, and Bruce Rothschild published

11070-551: The innermost digits; the digit formula is 3-4-5-3-2. The first metatarsal is the stoutest, a feature shared among diplodocids. The first Apatosaurus fossils were discovered by Arthur Lakes, a local miner, and his friend Henry C. Beckwith in the spring of 1877 in Morrison, a town in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Jefferson County, Colorado . Arthur Lakes wrote to Othniel Charles Marsh , Professor of Paleontology at Yale University , and Edward Drinker Cope ,

11205-432: The jaw line, ossified remains of what appear to have been the animal's gums have been recovered, indicating that it had deep-set teeth covered by gums, with only the tips of the crowns protruding. The teeth were, upon death, pushed further out from their sockets as the gums retracted, dried, and tightened through decay. The examinations of the specimen also indicate that the teeth were covered by tough outer scales and possibly

11340-458: The largest titanosaurs . However, the upper size estimate of OMNH   1670 is likely an exaggeration, with the size estimates revised in 2020 at 30 m (98 ft) in length and 33 t (36 short tons) in body mass based on volumetric analysis. The skull is small in relation to the size of the animal. The jaws are lined with spatulate (chisel-like) teeth suited to an herbivorous diet. The snout of Apatosaurus and similar diplodocoids

11475-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

11610-503: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Apatosaurus Apatosaurus ( / ə ˌ p æ t ə ˈ s ɔːr ə s / ; meaning "deceptive lizard") is a genus of herbivorous sauropod dinosaur that lived in North America during the Late Jurassic period . Othniel Charles Marsh described and named

11745-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

11880-443: The museum thought the skull of this massive creature might look like was made. This was not a delicate skull like that of Diplodocus  – which was later found to be more accurate – but was based on "the biggest, thickest, strongest skull bones, lower jaws and tooth crowns from three different quarries". These skulls were likely those of Camarasaurus , the only other sauropod for which good skull material

12015-538: The name Brontosaurus again if newer analyzes obtained different results. Mammal paleontologist Donald Prothero criticized the mass media reaction to this study as superficial and premature, concluding that he would keep "Brontosaurus" in quotes and not treat the name as a valid genus. Many species of Apatosaurus have been designated from scant material. Marsh named as many species as he could, which resulted in many being based upon fragmentary and indistinguishable remains. In 2005, Paul Upchurch and colleagues published

12150-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

12285-409: The new Morosaurus material led to new reconstructions of sauropod manus and pes structure. The AMNH made an important discovery in 1899 at their Bone Cabin Quarry in Wyoming with the discovery of the first complete Camarasaurus skull and mandible with associated cervical vertebrae. Major reassessment of Morosaurus and Camarasaurus came in 1901, a reassessment by Elmer Riggs concluded that of

12420-533: The now-defunct group Atlantosauridae . In 1878, Marsh raised his family to the rank of suborder, including Apatosaurus , Atlantosaurus , Morosaurus (= Camarasaurus ) and Diplodocus . He classified this group within Sauropoda, a group he erected in the same study. In 1903, Elmer S. Riggs said the name Sauropoda would be a junior synonym of earlier names; he grouped Apatosaurus within Opisthocoelia . Sauropoda

12555-407: The original bones, Cope employed collectors who gathered more of the material which was described in 1921 by Henry Osborn and Charles Mook. The amount of material was great, it composed of several jumbled partial skeletons. It was not all prepared at once, but a considerable amount of it was cleaned up by Jacob Geismar under Cope's direction throughout the 1870s to 1890s. In 1877 a reconstruction of

12690-554: The period has been revealed by fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns , and ferns ( gallery forests ), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria -like conifer Brachyphyllum . [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Genus The composition of

12825-451: The periostitis was inactive or healed. McWhinney and the other researchers argued that this injury would have been a continuous source of hardship for the animal. It would have exerted pressure on the muscles. This pressure would have compressed the muscles' blood vessels and nerves, reducing the range of motion of both the limb's flexor and extensor muscles . This effect would have hindered the M. brachialis , m. brachoradialis , and to

12960-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

13095-423: The robust ilia , and the fused (co-ossified) pubes and ischia . The femora of Apatosaurus are very stout and represent some of the most robust femora of any member of Sauropoda. The tibia and fibula bones are different from the slender bones of Diplodocus but are nearly indistinguishable from those of Camarasaurus . The fibula is longer and slenderer than the tibia. The foot of Apatosaurus has three claws on

13230-480: The same environment without competing. Long-bone histology enables researchers to estimate the age that a specific individual reached. A study by Griebeler et al. (2013) examined long-bone histological data and concluded that the Camarasaurus sp. CM 36664 weighed 14,247 kilograms (15.7 short tons), reached sexual maturity at 20 years and died at age 26. Eagle et al. performed clumped isotope thermometry on

13365-466: The same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or

13500-408: The scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of a species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in

13635-567: The separation of genera. The six differing features for specific separation were chosen by counting the number of differing features in separate specimens generally agreed to represent one species, with only one differing character in D.   carnegiei and A.   louisae , but five differing features in B.   excelsus . Therefore, Tschopp et   al. argued that Apatosaurus excelsus , originally classified as Brontosaurus excelsus , had enough morphological differences from other species of Apatosaurus that it warranted being reclassified as

13770-404: The site. Later in 1884, Othniel Marsh named Diplodocus lacustris based on a chimeric partial dentary, snout, and several teeth collected by Lakes in 1877 at Morrison. In 2013, it was suggested that the dentary of D. lacustris and its teeth were actually from Apatosaurus ajax based on its proximity to the type braincase of A. ajax . All specimens currently considered Apatosaurus were from

13905-617: The skeleton of Camarasaurus was painted by Dr. John Ryder on several canvasses, under the direction of Professor Cope who would use them in lectures to impress his audience. This reconstruction would be the first ever made of a sauropod dinosaur, was natural size and represented the remains of a number of individuals. The reconstruction was over fifty feet in length. Cope's collectors sent in more material from 1877 to 1878, and as Cope would get more material, he would name taxa based on these newly sent remains. Most of these additional taxa are now considered dubious or synonymous with Camarasaurus . By

14040-430: The skeleton was mounted in a death pose in the fossil hall. The USNM's Camarasaurus was also referred to C. lentus . In 1919, W. J. Holland would name Uintasaurus douglassi based another sauropod specimen from DNM that was discovered by the Carnegie Museum in 1909. The type specimen was incomplete, consisting of 5 anterior cervical vertebrae, and is a synonym of Camarasaurus lentus . Additional Camarasaurus material

14175-607: The species. During excavation and transportation, the bones of the holotype skeleton were mixed with those of another Apatosaurine individual originally described as Atlantosaurus immanis ; as a consequence, some elements cannot be ascribed to either specimen with confidence. Marsh distinguished the new genus Apatosaurus from Atlantosaurus on the basis of the number of sacral vertebrae, with Apatosaurus possessing three and Atlantosaurus four. Recent research shows that traits usually used to distinguish taxa at this time were actually widespread across several taxa, causing many of

14310-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

14445-422: The specimen and it was collected from 1909 to 1910 by Carnegie Museum crew working at Dinosaur National Monument . This skeleton was not described until 1925 by Charles W. Gilmore This specimen was referred to Camarasaurus lentus . The skeleton is one of the best sauropod specimens known, with almost every element preserved in articulation including the fragile cervical vertebrae. Another Camarasaurus skeleton

14580-408: The spinal anatomy of the two species. At a later stage, C. grandis disappeared from the rock record, leaving only C. lentus . Then C. lentus , too, disappeared; at the same time, C. supremus appeared in the uppermost layers. This immediate succession of species, as well as the very close similarity between the two, suggests that C. supremus may have evolved directly from C. lentus , representing

14715-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

14850-725: The surface; instead, they display a sugary texture and little wear. Like those of other sauropods, the neck vertebrae are deeply bifurcated; they carried neural spines with a large trough in the middle, resulting in a wide, deep neck. The vertebral formula for the holotype of A.   louisae is 15   cervicals, 10   dorsals , 5   sacrals , and 82   caudals . The caudal vertebra number may vary, even within species. The cervical vertebrae of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus are stouter and more robust than those of other diplodocids and were found to be most similar to Camarasaurus by Charles Whitney Gilmore . In addition, they support cervical ribs that extend farther towards

14985-514: The taxa named to be invalid, like Atlantosaurus . Two years later, Marsh announced the discovery of a larger and more complete specimen (YPM VP 1980) from Como Bluff , Wyoming , he gave this specimen the name Brontosaurus excelsus . Also at Como Bluff, the Hubbell brothers working for Edward Drinker Cope collected a tibia, fibula, scapula, and several caudal vertebrae along with other fragments belonging to Apatosaurus in 1877–78 at Cope's Quarry 5 at

15120-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

15255-420: The taxon's namesake, three dorsal vertebrae, and four caudal vertebrae. This specimen is now thought to have been composed of several individuals. From these initial fragmentary remains, Cope made his original description of Camarasaurus supremus (“supreme chambered lizard”) and founded the genus; these remains are now in the American Museum of Natural History under the catalogue number AMNH 560. After receiving

15390-538: The three species, and it describes an evolutionary progression within the Morrison Formation. C. grandis is the oldest species and occurred in the lowest rock layers of the Morrison. C. lewisi only briefly coexisted with C. grandis in the lowest strata of the upper Morrison until going extinct, but it is possible this is because of a lack of specimens from C. lewisi . C. lentus appeared later, co-existing with C. grandis for several million years, possibly due to different ecological niches as suggested by differences in

15525-610: The type species, or reclassified. In 1889, a new species of Morosaurus was named based on a partial skull and skeleton from Como Bluff. Morosaurus lentus was the name given to the skeleton (holotype YPM 1910) and the skeleton was mounted in the Yale Peabody Museum fossil hall in 1930. In the late 1890s, the American Museum of Natural History and the Field Museum found additional Morosaurus material at Como Bluff and Fruita respectively. Mostly consisting of limb material,

15660-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

15795-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

15930-401: The west to find the most complete sauropod specimen, bring it back to the home institution, and mount it in their fossil halls. The American Museum of Natural History was the first to launch an expedition, finding a well preserved skeleton (AMNH 460), which is occasionally assigned to Apatosaurus , is considered nearly complete; only the head, feet, and sections of the tail are missing, and it

16065-425: Was a strong opponent of Marsh and his taxa, labeled the Apatosaurus mount of the American Museum of Natural History Brontosaurus . Because of this decision the name Brontosaurus was commonly used outside of scientific literature for what Riggs considered Apatosaurus , and the museum's popularity meant that Brontosaurus became one of the best known dinosaurs, even though it was invalid throughout nearly all of

16200-547: Was a well preserved partial postcranial skeleton, including many vertebrae, and a partial braincase ( YPM VP 1860), which was sent to Marsh and named Apatosaurus ajax in November 1877. The composite term Apatosaurus comes from the Greek words apatē ( ἀπάτη )/ apatēlos ( ἀπατηλός ) meaning "deception"/"deceptive", and sauros ( σαῦρος ) meaning "lizard"; thus, "deceptive lizard". Marsh gave it this name based on

16335-515: Was actually its own genus based on a specimen found at Howe Quarry in 1992 that they referred to the species. Further research by Tschopp concluded that the Howe Quarry specimen was most likely to represent Camarasaurus after all. As of 2019, most researchers considered C. lewisi to be a species of Camarasaurus . In 1992, another substantial and articulated skeleton of Camarasaurus was collected, this skeleton by Jeffrie Parker and colleagues near

16470-399: Was considered a junior synonym and was therefore long discarded from formal use. Despite this, at least one paleontologist – Robert T. Bakker  – argued in the 1990s that A.   ajax and A.   excelsus were in fact sufficiently distinct for the latter to merit a separate genus. In 2015, Emanuel Tschopp, Octávio Mateus , and Roger Benson released

16605-581: Was deposited at Brigham Young University under specimen number BYU 9740. The skeleton wasn't full prepared until years later, and was described in 1988 as a new genus and species of Camarasaurid , Cathetosaurus lewisi . C. lewisi ' s original description was brief, but later in 1996 the skeleton was given a full osteology and placed as a species of Camarasaurus by John McIntosh and colleagues. In their paper, they determined that C. supremus, C. grandis, C. lentus, and C. lewisi were valid. In 2013, Octavio Mateus and Emanuel Tschopp argued that C. lewisi

16740-436: Was found at near Black Mesa in western Oklahoma during the 1940s and has been referred to Camarasaurus supremus , the material consists of many large vertebrae and some skull elements. No major discoveries would come for Camarasaurus until in 1967, James Jensen collected a well preserved and articulated partial postcranial skeleton, including majority of the vertebral column, at Uncompahgre Hill in western Colorado and

16875-631: Was found in 1918, again at Dinosaur National Monument by Carnegie crews, this specimen can be viewed at the National Museum of Natural History . The specimen, known as USNM V 13786, was traded to the USNM in 1935 and prep work started on the specimen in 1936 at the Texas Centennial Exposition in Dallas where it could be viewed by visitors of the event. Preparation work would continue until 1947 when

17010-435: Was found of stress fracture or infectious processes like osteomyelitis or infectious periostitis. They also ruled out osteochondroma because the axis of the spur is 25° relative to the vertical axis of the humerus, whereas an osteochondroma would have formed at 90° to the axis of the humerus. Other candidates identified by the scientists for the origin of the spur-bearing lesion included: The Morrison Formation, situated along

17145-514: Was found to differ in both skull and neck features from A.   louisae , but shared many features of the cervical vertebrae with A.   ajax . Another well-preserved skull is Brigham Young University specimen 17096, a well-preserved skull and skeleton, with a preserved braincase. The specimen was found in Cactus Park Quarry in western Colorado . In 2013, Matthew Mossbrucker and several other authors published an abstract that described

17280-491: Was held above the ground during normal locomotion. Apatosaurus had a single claw on each forelimb and three on each hindlimb. The Apatosaurus skull, long thought to be similar to Camarasaurus , is much more similar to that of Diplodocus . Apatosaurus was a generalized browser that likely held its head elevated. To lighten its vertebrae, Apatosaurus had air sacs that made the bones internally full of holes. Like that of other diplodocids, its tail may have been used as

17415-402: Was known at the time. The mount construction was overseen by Adam Hermann, who failed to find Apatosaurus skulls. Hermann was forced to sculpt a stand-in skull by hand. Osborn said in a publication that the skull was "largely conjectural and based on that of Morosaurus " (now Camarasaurus ). In 1903, Elmer Riggs published a study that described a well-preserved skeleton of a diplodocid from

17550-399: Was named in 1929, the group was not used validly until an extensive 2015 study. Only Brontosaurus is also in the subfamily, with the other genera being considered synonyms or reclassified as diplodocines . Brontosaurus has long been considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus ; its type species was reclassified as A.   excelsus in 1903. A 2015 study concluded that Brontosaurus

17685-427: Was nearly indistinguishable from C. lentus . C. supremus was not typical of the genus as a whole, and is known only from the latest, uppermost parts of the formation and is extremely uncommon. Both C. grandis, C. lentus, and C. lewisi were smaller, as well as occurring in the earlier stages of the Morrison. Stratigraphic evidence suggests that chronological sequence aligned with the physical differences between

17820-451: Was noted that Apatosaurus might have possessed a Camarasaurus -like skull, based on a disarticulated Camarasaurus -like tooth found at the precise site where an Apatosaurus specimen was found years before. On October   20, 1979, after the publications by McIntosh and Berman, the first true skull of Apatosaurus was mounted on a skeleton in a museum, that of the Carnegie. In 1998, it

17955-461: Was subsequently shown to be synonymous with Camarasaurus . The first record of Camarasaurus comes from the spring of 1877 when Mr. Oramel William Lucas of Cañon City , Colorado discovered some large vertebrae at Garden Park , which he sent to Edward Drinker Cope who was based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . The original material sent consisted of a partial cervical vertebra, which would become

18090-471: Was suggested that the Felch Quarry skull that Marsh had included in his 1896 skeletal restoration instead belonged to Brachiosaurus . This was supported in 2020 with a redescription of the brachiosaurid material found at the Felch Quarry. In 2011, the first specimen of Apatosaurus where a skull was found articulated with its cervical vertebrae was described. This specimen, CMC   VP   7180,

18225-419: Was the first sauropod skeleton mounted. The specimen was found north of Medicine Bow, Wyoming , in 1898 by Walter Granger , and took the entire summer to extract. To complete the mount, sauropod feet that were discovered at the same quarry and a tail fashioned to appear as Marsh believed it should – but which had too few vertebrae – were added. In addition, a sculpted model of what

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