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48-464: The surrounding terrain resembles that of the moon, characterized by jagged rocks protruding from ground. As a result, navigating the area without sturdy footwear can be challenging. The location name Hudishibana is a word from the Arawak language and can be explained somewhat as follows: HU is spirit/almighty; DI is from; SHI is (?); BANA is big, so Great Spirit from (?). And if the alternative name Hurisibana

96-649: A French chemist left vinyl chloride in the sun and found white solid at the bottom of the flask which was polyvinyl chloride . In 1839, Eduard Simon discovered polystyrene by accident by distilling storax . In 1856, William Henry Perkin discovered the first synthetic dye, Mauveine . In 1888, Friedrich Reinitzer , an Austrian plant scientist observed cholesteryl benzoate had two different melting points. In 1909, Leo Hendrik Baekeland invented bakelite made from phenol and formaldehyde . In 1928, synthetic fuels were invented using Fischer-Tropsch process . In 1929, Walter Bock invented synthetic rubber Buna-S which

144-471: A complex culture. There is also evidence that they modified the soil using various techniques such as adding charcoal to transform it into black earth , which even today is famed for its agricultural productivity. Maize and sweet potatoes were their main crops, though they also grew cassava and yautia. The Arawaks fished using nets made of fibers, bones, hooks, and harpoons. According to Heckenberger, pottery and other cultural traits show these people belonged to

192-577: A diverse array of coral fish, creating a captivating underwater environment. It is important to note that the S.S. California is often mistaken for the S.S. Californian , a different ship that infamously declined to come to the rescue of the Titanic during its tragic maiden voyage in 1912. The sinking of the California occurred 21 years earlier in the Caribbean, where it remains as a submerged relic. In 1915,

240-1212: A few manufacturing locations around the world, for example in Jubail and Yanbu Industrial Cities in Saudi Arabia, Texas and Louisiana in the US, in Teesside in the Northeast of England in the United Kingdom , in Tarragona in Catalonia , in Rotterdam in the Netherlands, in Antwerp in Belgium , in Jamnagar , Dahej in Gujarat , India and in Singapore. Not all of the petrochemical or commodity chemical materials produced by

288-628: A group of Indigenous peoples of northern South America and of the Caribbean . The term "Arawak" has been applied at various times to different Indigenous groups, from the Lokono of South America to the Taíno (Island Arawaks), who lived in the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. All these groups spoke related Arawakan languages . Early Spanish explorers and administrators used

336-581: A harbor in Oranjestad to the westernmost point of the island. The first lighthouse keeper was a young man from Curaçao named Jacob Jacobs. Jacobs had learned the profession of a lighthouse keeper at another lighthouse on the small island of Klein Curaçao . Federico Fingal from Aruba was the last person, in 1962, to watch over the California Lighthouse. Nowadays, the lighthouse is a monument preserved by

384-607: A maximum depth of 14 metres (46 ft). This area is known for its strong currents. The wreck, a wooden British steamship of the West India and Pacific Steamship Company, sank just off the shores of the lighthouse on September 23, 1891, while sailing from Liverpool to the Americas. Typically, this steamship usually transported fruits from South America to Aruba, but on that fateful night, it was loaded with merchandise, including clothing, provisions, and furniture. Due to various circumstances,

432-412: Is connected to it. In 1913, Aruba was a part of the colony of Curaçao and dependencies , and any request to build a lighthouse needed to be submitted through Curaçao. The design for the California lighthouse was approved in the same year. The lighthouse was designed by a French architect named Leon Jean Marie Bourgeois. However, due to the difficulties caused by World War I , manufacturing and delivering

480-547: Is correct, the statement will, with RI is brave; SI(CI) is head. Something like saying, Great Spirit with brave Head. Adjacent to the lighthouse, there's a restaurant called La Trattoria el Faro Blanco [EN: The Trattoria the White Lighthouse Restaurant]. Additionally, in close proximity, to the Tierra del Sol Resort, Spa & Country Club . The S.S. California wreck, situated on the northeast coast of Aruba, lies at

528-550: Is made up of styrene and butadiene and used to make car tires. In 1933, Otto Röhm polymerized the first acrylic glass methyl methacrylate . In 1935, Michael Perrin invented polyethylene . In 1937, Wallace Hume Carothers invented nylon . In 1938, Otto Bayer invented polyurethane . In 1941, Roy Plunkett invented Teflon . In 1946, he invented Polyester . Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles are made from ethylene and paraxylene . In 1949, Fritz Stastny turned polystyrene into foam. After World War II, polypropylene

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576-660: The Colombian Andes connected to the Arhuaco people , while the Amazonian model supports an origin in the Amazon basin, where the Arawakan languages developed. The Taíno were among the first American people to encounter Europeans. Christopher Columbus visited multiple islands and chiefdoms on his first voyage in 1492, which was followed by the establishment of La Navidad that same year on

624-669: The United States and Western Europe ; however, major growth in new production capacity is in the Middle East and Asia . There is substantial inter-regional petrochemical trade. Primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending on their chemical structure : In 2007, the amounts of ethylene and propylene produced in steam crackers were about 115 M t (megatonnes) and 70 Mt, respectively. The output ethylene capacity of large steam crackers ranged up to as much as 1.0 – 1.5 Mt per year. The adjacent diagram schematically depicts

672-723: The chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels , such as coal or natural gas , or renewable sources such as maize , palm fruit or sugar cane . The two most common petrochemical classes are olefins (including ethylene and propylene ) and aromatics (including benzene , toluene and xylene isomers ). Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions. Chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethane and propane . Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha . Olefins and aromatics are

720-469: The paper genocide . The paper genocide and the myth of extinction spread throughout colonial empires, Taíno people still continued to practice their culture and teachings passing it down from generation to generation. Much of this was done in secret or disguised through Catholicism in fear for their survival and of discrimination. With the modern invention of DNA testing, many Caribbean people have discovered they have Indigenous heritage. This has supported

768-552: The 16th century. In the early 17th century, they allied with the Spanish against the neighbouring Kalina (Caribs), who allied with the English and Dutch. The Lokono benefited from trade with European powers into the early 19th century, but suffered thereafter from economic and social changes in their region, including the end of the plantation economy. Their population declined until the 20th century, when it began to increase again. Most of

816-594: The Arawak of the Antilles died out or intermarried after the Spanish conquest. In South America, Arawakan-speaking groups are widespread, from southwest Brazil to the Guianas in the north, representing a wide range of cultures. They are found mostly in the tropical forest areas north of the Amazon. As with all Amazonian native peoples, contact with European settlement has led to culture change and depopulation among these groups. During

864-540: The Arawakan language family, a group that included the Tainos, the first Native Americans Columbus encountered. It was the largest language group that ever existed in the pre-Columbian Americas. At some point, the Arawakan-speaking Taíno culture emerged in the Caribbean. Two major models have been presented to account for the arrival of Taíno ancestors in the islands; the "Circum-Caribbean" model suggests an origin in

912-556: The Carib territory, killing a majority of the Yellow Caribs. After the eruption, 130 Yellow Caribs and 59 Black Caribs survived on St. Vincent . Unable to recover from the damage caused by the eruption, 120 of the Yellow Caribs, under Captain Baptiste, emigrated to Trinidad. In 1830, the Carib population numbered less than 100. The population made a remarkable recovery after that, although almost

960-459: The DNA confirmation in the scientific community, Taíno peoples within the Caribbean and its diasporas had started a movement around the late 1980s and early 1990s calling for the protection, revival or restoration of Taíno culture. By coming together and sharing individual knowledge passed down by either oral history or maintained practice, these groups were able to use that knowledge and cross-reference

1008-517: The Eiffel Tower, the California Lighthouse stands as a prominent landmark in its destination. It is the tallest structure in Aruba, towering at a height of 30 metres (98 ft) height. The reach the top, one must ascend 123 steps along a spiraling staircase. The lighthouse's significant height was necessary due to the absence of electricity and the presence of a clock that regulated the light. The light atop

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1056-463: The Europeans. Others survived in isolated communities with escaped and free Black people, called Maroons. Many of the explorers and early colonists also raped Indigenous women they came across, resulting in children who were considered mestizo . Some of these mestizo groups retained Indigenous culture and customs over many generations, especially among rural communities such as the jíbaro . In time,

1104-854: The Lokono population is growing. The Spaniards who arrived in the Bahamas , Cuba, Hispaniola (today Haiti and the Dominican Republic), and the Virgin Islands in 1492, and later in Puerto Rico in 1493, first met the Indigenous peoples now known as the Taíno , and then the Kalinago and other groups. Some of these groups—most notably the Kalinago—were able to survive despite warfare, disease and slavery brought by

1152-720: The Orinoco and Amazonian rivers and their tributaries. The group that self-identified as the Arawak, also known as the Lokono , settled the coastal areas of what is now Guyana , Suriname , Grenada , Bahamas , Jamaica and parts of the islands of Trinidad and Tobago . Michael Heckenberger , an anthropologist at the University of Florida who helped found the Central Amazon Project, and his team found elaborate pottery, ringed villages, raised fields, large mounds, and evidence for regional trade networks that are all indicators of

1200-966: The River Mersey in North West England, on the Humber on the East coast of Yorkshire, in Grangemouth near the Firth of Forth in Scotland, and in Teesside as part of the Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster (NEPIC). To demonstrate the clustering and integration, some 50% of the United Kingdom's petrochemical and commodity chemicals are produced by the NEPIC industry cluster companies in Teesside. In 1835, Henri Victor Regnault ,

1248-422: The Spanish colonists over the now-subjugated Taíno. Over the next decade, the Spanish colonists presided over a genocide of the remaining Taíno on Hispaniola, who suffered enslavement, massacres, or exposure to diseases. The population of Hispaniola at the point of first European contact is estimated at between several hundred thousand to over a million people, but by 1514, it had dropped to a mere 35,000. By 1509,

1296-448: The Spanish had successfully conquered Puerto Rico and subjugated the approximately 30,000 Taíno inhabitants. By 1530, there were 1,148 Taíno left alive in Puerto Rico. Taíno influence has survived even until today, though, as can be seen in the religions, languages, and music of Caribbean cultures. The Lokono and other South American groups resisted colonization for a longer period, and the Spanish remained unable to subdue them throughout

1344-977: The beginning of the eighteenth century, the Island Carib population in St. Vincent was greater than that in Dominica. Both the Island Caribs (Yellow Caribs) and the Black Caribs ( Garifuna ) fought against the British during the Second Carib War . After the end of the war, the British deported the Garifuna (a population of 4,338) to Roatan Island , while the Island Caribs (whose population consisted of 80 people) were allowed to stay on St. Vincent. The 1812 eruption of La Soufrière destroyed

1392-445: The building-blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvents , detergents , and adhesives . Olefins are the basis for polymers and oligomers used in plastics , resins , fibers , elastomers , lubricants , and gels . Global ethylene production was 190 million tonnes and propylene was 120 million tonnes in 2019. Aromatics production is approximately 70 million tonnes. The largest petrochemical industries are located in

1440-468: The chemical industry are made in one single location but groups of related materials are often made in adjacent manufacturing plants to induce industrial symbiosis as well as material and utility efficiency and other economies of scale . This is known in chemical engineering terminology as integrated manufacturing. Specialty and fine chemical companies are sometimes found in similar manufacturing locations as petrochemicals but, in most cases, they do not need

1488-746: The claims of individuals and communities with Taíno heritage living today, particularly in rural areas such as "campos" (meaning small villages/towns in the country side). Though many communities and individuals across the Caribbean have some amount of Indigenous DNA, not all of them identify as Indigenous or Taíno. Those who do identify as Indigenous Caribbean may also use other terms to describe themselves as well as or in addition to Taíno . There has been increasing scholarly attention paid to Taíno practices and culture, including communities with full or partial Taíno identities. Because of this, Taíno people started to become more open about sharing their identities, passed down Indigenous culture, and beliefs. Even before

California Lighthouse - Misplaced Pages Continue

1536-405: The clean, elegant, and tapered cylindrical lines of the California Lighthouse. The design of the lighthouse exhibits symmetry and fenestration , standing on a octagonal stone base with a lantern and double gallery. The metal top of the lighthouse has a diameter of 25 feet (7.6 m). Additionally, the California Lighthouse drew inspiration from Cordouan , France's oldest lighthouse. Similar to

1584-539: The entire tribe died out during the 1902 eruption of La Soufrière . As of 2008, a small population of around 3,400 Kalinago survived in the Kalinago Territory in northeast Dominica. The Kalinago of Dominica maintained their independence for many years by taking advantage of the island's rugged terrain. The island's east coast includes a 3,700-acre (15 km ) territory formerly known as the Carib Territory that

1632-464: The establishment of a second settlement, La Isabella, and the discovery of gold deposits on the island, the Spanish settler population on Hispaniola started to grow substantially, while disease and conflict with the Spanish began to kill tens of thousands of Taíno every year. By 1504, the Spanish had overthrown the last of the Taíno cacique chiefdoms on Hispaniola, and firmly established the supreme authority of

1680-406: The government of the Netherlands and Aruba. The lighthouse keepers had weekly rotating shifts and took turns residing in the double service house. The area must have been serene and isolated as there were no other houses nearby during that time. According to some Arubans, there were rumors that it used to be haunted at night. Presently, the service house has been integrated into the restaurant that

1728-573: The island and mainland groups. In the 20th century, scholars such as Irving Rouse resumed using " Taíno " for the Caribbean group to emphasize their distinct culture and language. The Arawakan languages may have emerged in the Orinoco River valley in present-day Venezuela. They subsequently spread widely, becoming by far the most extensive language family in South America at the time of European contact , with speakers located in various areas along

1776-648: The journals of Spaniards to fill in parts of Taíno culture and religion long thought to be lost due to colonization. This movement led to some Yukayekes (Taíno Tribes) being reformed. Today there are Yukayekes in Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico, such as "Higuayagua" and "Yukayeke Taíno Borikén". There have also been attempts to revive the Taíno language, using words that have survived into local Spanish dialects and extrapolation from other Arawakan languages in South America to fill in lost words. Petrochemical Petrochemicals (sometimes abbreviated as petchems ) are

1824-483: The lighthouse would illuminate from six in the evening until six in the morning. The regulation was facilitated by a weighted pendulum that descended 24 metres (79 ft) to the bottom, completing its cycle every twelve hours. Over the course of twelve hours, the light would cycle 4,320 times using a gallon of farol kerosene. The power source would change from kerosene to acetylene gas in 1965, and finally to electricity in 1970. Arawak The Arawak are

1872-536: The lighthouse's light from Barbier, Benard, et Turenne in France to Aruba posed challenges. The light was particularly significant as Aruba lacked electrical infrastructure and relied on a petrochemical called farol , which was a type of kerosene , to power the light. Construction work began between 1914 and 1916. During this period, the influence of France's most famous attraction, the Eiffel Tower , can be observed in

1920-453: The major hydrocarbon sources and processes used in producing petrochemicals. Like commodity chemicals , petrochemicals are made on a very large scale. Petrochemical manufacturing units differ from commodity chemical plants in that they often produce a number of related products. Compare this with specialty chemical and fine chemical manufacture where products are made in discrete batch processes. Petrochemicals are predominantly made in

1968-460: The merchandise was tossed overboard and ended washing ashore. The local collected the merchandise with the intention of selling it at the market. Two police officers were called in from Curaçao to prevent the locals from collecting the merchandise. As they made their way to Noord, the officers were met with laughter from the locals, who found their search for a "place" amusing. Unbeknownst to the officers, they were unaware that "California" referred to

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2016-405: The name of a ship and not a specific location. That's how the lighthouse came to be known as "California". Years later, many schoolchildren still wore so-called "drowned goods". As time passed, the wreck has disintegrated, resulting in scattered fragments throughout the area. To reach the wreck, one must travel by boat. The surroundings of the wreck are adorned coral formations, and it is home to

2064-463: The northeast coast of Hispaniola , the first Spanish settlement in the Americas. Relationships between the Spaniards and the Taíno would ultimately sour. Some of the lower-level chiefs of the Taíno appeared to have assigned a supernatural origin to the explorers. When Columbus returned to La Navidad on his second voyage, he found the settlement burned down and the 39 men he had left there killed. With

2112-477: The number of recorded Taíno was greatly diminished through forced labor, disease and warfare, but also through changes to how Indio groups were recorded in the Spanish Caribbean. For example, the 1787 census in Puerto Rico lists 2,300 "pure" Indios in the population, but on the next census, in 1802, not a single Indio is listed. This created the enduring belief that the Taíno people went extinct, also known as

2160-637: The only road in Noord was the one in front of the St Ann's Church . There were no direct roads leading to the lighthouse. Instead, there was a single path specifically for donkeys or horses that led to the Hudishibana area. In order to construct the lighthouse at that time, they needed to rent donkeys from a local family named Figaroa who resided in Noord. Construction tools, materials, and cargo had to be transported by donkey from

2208-476: The same level of large-scale infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, storage, ports, and power, etc.) and therefore can be found in multi-sector business parks. The large-scale petrochemical manufacturing locations have clusters of manufacturing units that share utilities and large-scale infrastructures such as power stations, storage tanks, port facilities, road and rail terminals. In the United Kingdom, for example, there are four main locations for such manufacturing: near

2256-479: The terms Arawak and Caribs to distinguish the peoples of the Caribbean, with Carib reserved for Indigenous groups that they considered hostile and Arawak for groups that they considered friendly. In 1871, ethnologist Daniel Garrison Brinton proposed calling the Caribbean populace "Island Arawak" because of their cultural and linguistic similarities with the mainland Arawak. Subsequent scholars shortened this convention to "Arawak", creating confusion between

2304-629: Was granted to the people by the British government in 1903. The Dominican Kalinago elect their own chief. In July 2003, the Kalinago observed 100 Years of Territory, and in July 2014, Charles Williams was elected Kalinago Chief, succeeding Chief Garnette Joseph. In the 21st century, about 10,000 Lokono live primarily in Guyana, with smaller numbers present in Venezuela, Suriname, and French Guiana. Despite colonization,

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