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73-510: La Cagoule ( The Cowl ; founded in 1936) was a French fascist -leaning and anti-communist militant group. It opposed the left-wing Popular Front (in office, June 1936 to 1938) and used violence to promote its activities in the final years of the Third Republic and into the Vichy Regime . La Cagoule was founded by Eugène Deloncle and bankrolled, among others, by Eugène Schueller ,

146-586: A battleground. In 1416–17, the soldiers of John the Fearless , the Duke of Burgundy, burned part of the forest in their successful campaign to capture Paris. Under Louis XI , the trees were replanted, and two roads were opened through the forest. In 1526, King Francis I of France began a royal residence, the Château de Madrid , in the forest in what is now Neuilly and used it for hunting and festivities. It took its name from

219-741: A canal drawn from Ourq River and from artesian wells in Passy . The water arrives in the Lac Superieur (Upper Lake), built in 1852 and located near the Hippodrome de Auteil, then flows by gravity to the Grand Cascade and then to the Lac Inferieur , or Lower Lake . Within the Bois de Boulogne, there are several separate botanical and floral gardens, and gardens of amusement. There is a seven-hectare campground in

292-411: A day. This well went into service in 1861. The water then had to be distributed around the park to water the lawns and gardens; the traditional system of horse-drawn wagons with large barrels of water would not be enough. A system of 66 kilometers of pipes was laid, with a faucet every 30 or 40 meters, a total of 1600 faucets. Alphand also had to build a network of roads, paths, and trails to connect

365-485: A heavy machine gun and the individual weapons. A group of three cells formed one unit, three units a battalion, three battalions a regiment, two regiments a brigade and two brigades a division. Battalions could be divided into automobile squads of about fifty men. Written communications were avoided as much as possible. The " street fighting " handbook was titled Secret Rules of the Communist Party to avoid revealing

438-571: A means to acquire weapons. It prepared to overthrow the Popular Front government in November 1937 to install a fascist government. The group initially intended to make Philippe Pétain chief of state, but he refused its overtures. The Cagoule chose Marshal Louis Franchet d'Esperey as their future chief of state. It was infiltrated by the French police. On 15 November 1937, Marx Dormoy , Minister of

511-456: A new water distribution system and sewers; and creating green spaces and recreation for Paris' rapidly growing population. In 1852, Napoleon donated the land for the Bois de Boulogne and for the Bois de Vincennes, which both belonged officially to him. Additional land in the plain of Longchamp, the site of the Château de Madrid, the Château de Bagatelle, and its gardens were purchased and attached to

584-586: A popular rendezvous place for prostitutes, usually working in vans parked by the side of the road. The practice persists despite some French government efforts to eliminate this business from the park. Bois de Boulogne is home to many red squirrels . They are protected by law in France, and dogs are required to be kept on leads in the park to ensure the safety of the squirrels. The Bois de Boulogne contains two artificial lakes and eight artificial ponds, connected by three artificial streams. They receive their water from

657-403: A publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Cowl". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Bois de Boulogne 48°52′N 2°15′E  /  48.86°N 2.25°E  / 48.86; 2.25 The Bois de Boulogne ( French pronunciation: [bwɑ d(ə) bulɔɲ] , "Boulogne woodland") is a large public park that

730-511: A similar palace in Madrid, where Francis had been held prisoner for several months. The Château was rarely used by later monarchs, fell into ruins in the 18th century, and was demolished after the French Revolution . Despite its royal status, the forest remained dangerous for travellers; the scientist and traveller Pierre Belon was murdered by thieves in the Bois de Boulogne in 1564. During

803-621: A total 1,835 hectares of green space in Paris, more than any other ruler of France before or since. By 1867 the Baedeker Guide described it as "once a forest abounding with game, the resort of duellists and suicides and the haunt of bandits ... now a delightful park". During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), which led to the downfall of Napoleon III and the long siege of Paris, the park suffered some damage from German artillery bombardment,

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876-460: Is a remnant of the ancient oak forest of Rouvray , which included the present-day forests of Montmorency, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Chaville, and Meudon. Dagobert I hunted bears, deer, and other game in the forest. His grandson, Childeric II , gave the forest to the monks of the Abbey of Saint-Denis , who founded several monastic communities there. Philip Augustus (1180–1223) bought back the main part of

949-613: Is about two and a half times the area of Central Park in New York , slightly larger than Phoenix Park in Dublin , and slightly smaller than Richmond Park in London . Within the boundaries of the Bois de Boulogne are an English landscape garden with several lakes and a cascade; two smaller botanical and landscape gardens, the Château de Bagatelle and the Pré-Catelan; a zoo and amusement park in

1022-523: Is the western half of the 16th arrondissement of Paris , near the suburb of Boulogne-Billancourt and Neuilly-sur-Seine . The land was ceded to the city of Paris by the Emperor Napoleon III to be turned into a public park in 1852. It is the second-largest park in Paris, slightly smaller than the Bois de Vincennes on the eastern side of the city. It covers an area of 845 hectares (2088 acres), which

1095-464: Is worn over the habit during liturgical services. Originally, cowl may have referred simply to the hooded portion of a cloak . In contemporary usage, however, it is distinguished from a cloak or cape ( cappa ) by the fact that it refers to an entire closed garment consisting of a long, hooded garment with wide sleeves. The cowl is traditionally bestowed upon the monk at the time of making solemn, or lifetime, profession . Prior to their solemn vows ,

1168-707: The Cagoule in case the booklet was found by the police. At the outbreak of World War II, the French government released imprisoned Cagoulards to fight in the French Army. Some entered the Milice , such as Jacques de Bernonville . During the Occupation of France in 1940, the Vichy government arrested Marx Dormoy, as he had refused to vote for full powers for Pétain, and it eventually interned him under house arrest at Montélimar . He

1241-500: The Comte d'Artois , Louis XVI 's brother, built a charming miniature palace, the Château de Bagatelle , in the Bois in just 64 days, on a wager from his sister-in-law, Marie Antoinette . Louis XVI also opened the walled park to the public for the first time. On 21 November 1783, Pilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes took off from the Château de la Muette in a hot air balloon made by

1314-665: The French Second Republic , the Bois was largely empty, an assortment of bleak ruined meadows and tree stumps where the British and Russians had camped and dismal stagnant ponds. The Bois de Boulogne was the idea of Napoleon III , shortly after he staged a coup d'état and elevated himself from the President of the French Republic to Emperor of the French in 1852. When Napoleon III became Emperor, Paris had only four public parks -

1387-563: The Jardin d'Acclimatation , a separate concession of 20 hectares at the north end of the park; it included a zoo and a botanical garden, as well as an amusement park. Between 1877 and 1912, it also served as the home of what was called an ethnological garden, a place where groups of the inhabitants of faraway countries were put on display for weeks at a time in reconstructed villages from their homelands. They were mostly Sub-Saharan Africans, North Africans, or South American Indians, and came mostly from

1460-786: The Jardin d'Acclimatation ; GoodPlanet Foundation 's Domaine de Longchamp dedicated to ecology and humanism, The Jardin des Serres d'Auteuil , a complex of greenhouses holding a hundred thousand plants; two tracks for horse racing , the Hippodrome de Longchamp and the Auteuil Hippodrome ; the Stade Roland Garros where the French Open tennis tournament is held each year, the Louis Vuitton Foundation art museum and cultural center, and other attractions. The Bois de Boulogne

1533-499: The Maquis ), or as members of Charles de Gaulle 's Free French Forces , such as General Henri Giraud or Colonel Passy . After the war, the politician and writer Henri de Kérillis accused de Gaulle of having been a member of La Cagoule and said that de Gaulle had been ready to install a fascist government if the Allies let him become France's chief of state. The cagoulards arrested for

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1606-537: The Montgolfier brothers . Previous flights had carried animals or had been tethered to the ground; this was the first manned free flight in history. The balloon rose to a height of 910 meters (3000 feet), was in the air for 25 minutes, and covered nine kilometers. Following the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, 40,000 soldiers of the British and Russian armies camped in the forest. Thousands of trees were cut down to build shelters and for firewood. From 1815 until

1679-719: The Order of the Francisque . Dr. Henri Martin was a physician suspected of having forged the Pacte synarchique and worked for the Organisation armée secrète (OAS) after World War II. Mohammed El Maadi, the head of La Cagoule for French Algeria , started the antisemitic newspaper Er Rachid and organised the North-African Brigade, known as SS-Mohammed , in 1944. The group drew most of its members from Orléanists disappointed by

1752-650: The Tuileries Gardens , the Luxembourg Garden , the Palais-Royal , and the Jardin des Plantes - all in the center of the city. There were no public parks in the rapidly growing east and west of the city. During his exile in London, he had been particularly impressed by Hyde Park , by its lakes and streams and its popularity with Londoners of all social classes. Therefore, he decided to build two large public parks on

1825-703: The Villa Windsor , a house in the Bois de Boulogne behind the garden of the Bagatelle. The house was (and still is) owned by the City of Paris and was leased to the couple. The Duke died in this house in 1972, and the Duchess died there in 1986. The lease was purchased by Mohamed al-Fayed , the owner of the Ritz Hotel in Paris. The house was visited briefly by Diana, Princess of Wales and her companion, Dodi Fayed , on 31 August 1997,

1898-497: The croquet and tug of war events. During the 1924 Summer Olympics , the equestrian events took place in the Auteuil Hippodrome . The Bois de Boulogne hosted all rowing teams participating in the Inter-Allied Games , held in Paris in 1919 following the end of World War One. The Bois de Boulogne was officially annexed by the city of Paris in 1929 and incorporated into the 16th arrondissement. Soon after World War II ,

1971-545: The 1937 conspiracy were not brought to trial for those charges until 1948, after the liberation of France. By then, many had served in the Vichy government or the Resistance, and few of them were brought to trial. Cowl Developed during the Early Middle Ages , the cowl became the formal garment for those in monastic life. Both St. Jerome and John Cassian refer to it as part of a monk's dress. In modern times, it

2044-453: The Bois, "to give life to this arid promenade". The first plan for the Bois de Boulogne was drawn up by the architect Jacques Hittorff , who, under King Louis Philippe , had designed the Place de la Concorde , and the landscape architect Louis-Sulpice Varé, who had designed French landscape gardens at several famous châteaux. Their plan called for long straight alleys in patterns crisscrossing

2117-673: The French Republic. Some argue that in the Bois de Boulogne on 26 January 1937, Jean Filiol stabbed to death Dimitri Navachine , who was a Soviet national and for several years the respected director of the Paris branch of the Soviet State Bank. Others believed that he had been killed by Joseph Stalin 's secret service, the NKVD , as the Great Purge was underway in the Soviet Union . To ease its obtaining arms from Fascist Italy , on 9 June 1937,

2190-531: The French coast, to see a statue of the Virgin Mary which was reputed to inspire miracles. He decided to build a church with a copy of the statue in a village in the forest not far from Paris, in order to attract pilgrims. The chapel was built after Philip's death between 1319 and 1330, in what is now Boulogne-Billancourt . During the Hundred Years' War , the forest became a sanctuary for robbers and sometimes

2263-626: The French colonies in Africa and South America, but also included natives of Lapland and Cossacks from Russia. These exhibitions were extremely popular and took place not only in Paris, but also in Germany, England, and at the Chicago Exposition in the United States; but they were also criticized at the time and later as being a kind of " human zoo ". Twenty-two of these exhibits were held in the park in

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2336-500: The Interior and the highest officer of law enforcement, denounced its plot and ordered wide arrests of members. The French police seized 2 tons of high explosives, several anti-tank or anti-aircraft guns, 500 machine guns, 65 submachine guns, 134 rifles and 17 sawn-off shotguns. Some of the arms were of German or Italian origin, and about 70 men were arrested. Deloncle had boasted that he had 12,000 men under his order in Paris, and 120,000 in

2409-645: The accounts. The journalists of Time magazine likened La Cagoule to the American Ku Klux Klan , a right-wing group that had a widespread revival from 1915 and reached its peak of influence in 1925, with members elected to political office in midwestern cities and states as well as the South. The Cagoule was organised into cells. Light cells had eight men, armed with submachine guns (typically one per light cell), rifles , semi-automatic pistols and hand grenades . Heavy cells had twelve men, armed with

2482-500: The cascade and an artificial grotto. The pumps from the Seine could not provide enough water to fill the lakes and irrigate the park, so a new channel was created to bring the water of the Ourcq River, from Monceau to the upper lake in the Bois, but this was not enough. An artesian well 586 meters deep was eventually dug in the plain of Passy which could produce 20,000 cubic meters of water

2555-541: The convent of the Abbey of Longchamp, located where the hippodrome now stands. A famous opera singer of the period, Madmoiselle Le Maure, retired there in 1727 but continued to give recitals inside the Abbey, even during Holy Week . These concerts drew large crowds and irritated the Archbishop of Paris, who closed the Abbey to the public. Louis XVI and his family used the forest as a hunting ground and pleasure garden. In 1777,

2628-539: The day that they died in a traffic accident in the Alma tunnel. On weekends, the Bois de Boulogne is full of activities such as biking, jogging, boat rowing, horseback and pony rides, and remote control speed boats. Picnics are permitted in most parts of the park, but barbecues are not allowed. The Bois de Boulogne hosts several races, like the 10 km (6.2 mi) of Boulogne and the Boulogne half marathon. Since its creation,

2701-422: The eastern and western edges of the city where both the rich and ordinary people could enjoy themselves. These parks became an important part of the plan for the reconstruction of Paris drawn up by Napoleon III and his new Prefect of the Seine, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann . The Haussmann plan called for improving the city's traffic circulation by building new boulevards; improving the city's health by building

2774-510: The experience and aesthetics they had developed in the Bois de Boulogne. They also rebuilt the Luxembourg gardens and the gardens of the Champs- Elysees, created smaller squares and parks throughout the center of Paris, and planted thousands of trees along the new boulevards that Haussmann had created. In the 17 years of Napoleon III's reign, they planted no less than 600,000 trees and created

2847-624: The forerunner of the Milice , the collaborationist paramilitary of the Vichy regime. His nephew Henri Charbonneau was also a member. Another member was Jean Filiol , who was appointed as the head of the Milice in Limoges . He fled to Spain at the end of World War II and he worked in the Spanish subsidiary of L'Oréal. Gabriel Jeantet was a lover of a sister of François Mitterrand , who later recommended him for

2920-415: The forest from the monks to create a royal hunting reserve. In 1256, Isabelle de France , sister of Saint-Louis , founded the Abbey of Longchamp at the site of the present hippodrome. The Bois received its present name from a chapel, Notre Dame de Boulogne la Petite, which was built in the forest at the command of Philip IV of France (1268–1314). In 1308, Philip made a pilgrimage to Boulogne-sur-Mer, on

2993-405: The forest more natural, they brought 50 deer to live in and around the Pré-Catelan. The park was designed to be more than a collection of picturesque landscapes; it was meant as a place for amusement and recreation, with sports fields, bandstands, cafes, shooting galleries, riding stables, boating on the lakes, and other attractions. In 1855, Gabriel Davioud , a graduate of Ecole des Beaux-Arts ,

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3066-436: The founder of L'Oréal . La Cagoule committed assassinations, and undertook bombings, sabotage of armaments, and other violent activities, some intended to cast suspicion on communists through false flag operations and to add to political instability. Planning a November 1937 overthrow of the French government, La Cagoule was infiltrated by the police, and the national government arrested and imprisoned about 70 men. At

3139-831: The greater glory of God). Disloyalty was punished by death. For instance, the arms suppliers Léon Jean-Baptiste and Maurice Juif were murdered by Cagoulards in October 1936 and February 1937, respectively, for attempting to enrich themselves by lying about the price that they had paid for the arms. The paramilitary organisation was active in the provinces. In Paris, it organised militias and demonstrations and amassed arms. It attempted to assassinate French Prime Minister Léon Blum , trained men in terrorism, built underground prisons and "ran guns in Belgium, Switzerland and Italy". La Cagoule directed its members in various actions aimed at creating suspicions of communists to destabilise and to destroy

3212-566: The group assassinated two Italian antifascists, the Rosselli brothers , who were refugees in France. It sabotaged airplanes clandestinely supplied by the French government to the Spanish Republic . On 11 September 1937, the Cagoule blew up two buildings owned by the Comité des Forges (Ironmasters Association) to create the impression of a communist conspiracy. Although it was widely believed at

3285-540: The group's name was later officially changed to the Secret Committee of Revolutionary Action (CSAR, Comité secret d'action révolutionnaire ). The group was founded in 1936 or 1937 by Eugène Deloncle and enjoyed privileged relations within industrial circles (National Federation of Ratepayers, Lesieur, L'Oréal etc). An important member was Joseph Darnand , who later founded the Service d'ordre légionnaire (SOL),

3358-588: The head of a new Service of Promenades and Plantations, in charge of all the parks in Paris. Alphand was charged to make a new plan for the Bois de Boulogne. Alphand's plan was radically different from the Hittorff-Varé plan. While it still had two long straight boulevards, the Allée Reine Marguerite and the Avenue Longchamp, all the other paths and alleys curved and meandered. The flat Bois de Boulogne

3431-405: The lack of action by the Action française founded by Charles Maurras . It opposed the Popular Front government , created from an alliance of left-wing groups. Historians believe that many low-level members were recruited in the belief that it was an auto-defense organization, which was intended to fight against a communist takeover. In Nice, new members were initiated in a formal ritual. In

3504-400: The lake and became a restaurant. He built another restaurant next to the park's most picturesque feature, the Grand Cascade. He designed artificial grottoes made of rocks and concrete, and bridges and balustrades made of concrete painted to look like wood. He also designed all the architectural details of the park, from cone-shaped shelters designed to protect horseback riders from the rain to

3577-418: The last part of the Paris marathon ends by crossing the Bois de Boulogne from 35 km (22 mi). Boulogne Wood is an important place of running in Paris. The Bois holds a three-day weekend party in the month of July, with over 50 bands and singers, attended mostly by students who camp out overnight. Though soliciting for prostitution is illegal in France, at night-time parts of the Bois de Boulogne are

3650-403: The last quarter of the 19th century. About ten more were held in the 20th century, with the last one taking place in 1931. In 1905, a grand new restaurant in the classical style was built in the Pré-Catelan by architect Guillaume Tronchet . Like the cafe at the Grand Cascade, it became a popular promenade destination for the French upper classes. At the 1900 Summer Olympics , the land hosted

3723-479: The monks still in training wear a hooded cloak. The cowl is generally worn in conformity with the color of the monk's tunic ; other groups which follow the Rule of St. Benedict , e.g., the Camaldolese wearing white. (The Camaldolese of Monte Corona, however, always wear a cloak instead of a cowl.) Today, cowls are primarily worn by Catholic and Anglican monks when participating in liturgical services. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

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3796-509: The outbreak of World War II (September 1939), the government released the men to fight in the French Army. Some supported other right-wing organizations and participated in the Vichy government of 1940–1944; others joined the Free French of Charles de Gaulle . It was not until 1948 that the government tried surviving members for the charges of 1937. Originally the Secret Organisation for Revolutionary National Action (Osarn or OSAR, Organisation secrète d'action révolutionnaire nationale ),

3869-417: The park began to come back to life. In 1945, it held its first motor race after the war: the Paris Cup. In 1953, a British group, Les Amis de la France, created the Shakespeare Garden on the site of the old floral theater in the Pré-Catelan. From 1952 until 1986, the Duke of Windsor , the title granted to King Edward VIII after his abdication, and his wife, Wallis Simpson , the Duchess of Windsor, lived in

3942-416: The park benches and direction signs. At the south end of the park, in the Plain of Longchamp, Davioud restored the ruined windmill which was the surviving vestige of the Abbey of Longchamp, and, working with the Jockey Club of Paris, constructed the grandstands of the Hippodrome of Longchamp, which opened in 1857. At the northern end of the park, between the Sablons gate and Neuilly, a 20-hectare section of

4015-405: The park was given to the Societé Imperiale zoologique d'Acclimatation, to create a small zoo and botanical garden, with an aviary of rare birds and exotic plants and animals from around the world. In March 1855, an area in the center of the park, called the Pré-Catelan, was leased to a concessionaire for a garden and amusement park. It was built on the site of a quarry where the gravel and sand for

4088-477: The park was the task of the new chief gardener and landscape architect of the Service of Promenades and Plantations, Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps , who had also worked with Haussmann and Alphand in Bordeaux. His gardeners planted 420,000 trees, including hornbeam , beech , linden , cedar , chestnut , and elm , and hardy exotic species, like redwoods . They planted 270 hectares of lawns, with 150 kilograms of seed per hectare, and thousands of flowers. To make

4161-441: The park's roads and paths had been dug out. It included a large circular lawn surrounded by trees, grottos, rocks, paths, and flower beds. Davioud designed a buffet, a marionette theater, a photography pavilion, stables, a dairy, and other structures. The most original feature was the Théâtre des fleurs, an open-air theater in a setting of trees and flowers. Later, an ice skating rink and shooting gallery were added. The Pré-Catelan

4234-416: The park, and, as the Emperor had asked, lakes and a long stream similar to the Serpentine in Hyde Park. Varé bungled the assignment. He failed to take into account the difference in elevation between the beginning of the stream and the end; if his plan had been followed, the upper part of the stream would have been empty, and the lower portion flooded. When Haussmann saw the partially finished stream, he saw

4307-412: The presence of the Grand Master, dressed in red and accompanied by his assesseurs dressed in black, with their faces covered, new members stood before a table draped with a French flag. A sword and torches were placed on it. Each man raised his right arm and swore the oath, Ad majorem Galliæ gloriam ("For the greater glory of France"). This oath echoed the Jesuit motto, Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam (For

4380-527: The problem immediately and had the elevations measured. He dismissed the unfortunate Varé and Hittorff, and designed the solution himself; an upper lake and a lower lake, divided by an elevated road, which serves as a dam, and a cascade which allows the water to flow between the lakes. This is the design still seen today. In 1853, Haussmann hired an experienced engineer from the corps of Bridges and Highways, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand , whom he had worked with in his previous assignment in Bordeaux, and made him

4453-441: The proposed park, so it could extend all the way to the Seine. Construction was funded out of the state budget, supplemented by selling building lots along the north end of the Bois, in Neuilly . Napoleon III was personally involved in planning the new parks. He insisted that the Bois de Boulogne should have a stream and lakes, like Hyde Park in London. "We must have a stream here, as in Hyde Park," he observed while driving through

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4526-415: The provinces, but it is likely there were no more than 200 men who knew much about the organization and its structure, and another several hundred who were more loosely affiliated with the group. Reactions to the plot and the revelations by the French government about the Cagoule varied among the international media. In the United States, the editors of the New York Times were initially suspicious of

4599-402: The reigns of Henry II and Henry III , the forest was enclosed within a wall with eight gates. Henry IV planted 15,000 mulberry trees, with the hope of beginning a local silk industry. When Henry annulled his marriage to Marguerite de Valois , she went to live in the Château de la Muette , on the edge of the forest. In the early 18th century, wealthy and important women often retired to

4672-486: The restaurant of the Grand Cascade was turned into a field hospital, and many of the park's animals and wild fowl were eaten by the hungry population. In the years following, however, the park quickly recovered. The Bois de Boulogne became a popular meeting place and promenade route for Parisians of all classes. The alleys were filled with carriages, coaches, and horseback riders, and later with men and women on bicycles, and then with automobiles. Families having picnics filled

4745-551: The second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. Scenes set in the park appeared in Nana by Émile Zola and in L'Éducation sentimentale by Gustave Flaubert . In the last pages of Du côté de chez Swann in À la recherche du temps perdu (1914), Marcel Proust minutely described a walk around the lakes taken as a child. The life in the park was also the subject of the paintings of many artists, including Édouard Manet , Pierre-Auguste Renoir , and Vincent van Gogh , and Mary Cassatt . In 1860, Napoleon opened

4818-418: The sights of the park. The two long straight alleys from the old park were retained, and his workers built an additional 58 kilometers of roads paved with stones for carriages, 12 kilometers of sandy paths for horses, and 25 kilometers of dirt trails for walkers. As a result of Louis Napoléon's exile in London and his memories of Hyde Park, all the new roads and paths were curved and meandering. The planting of

4891-399: The time that communists had set the bombs, the government took no official action against the French Communist Party , to the disappointment of the group's members. The Cagoule tried to infiltrate the International Brigades for the same purpose. Organised along military lines, the Cagoule infiltrated parts of the French military via Georges Loustaunau-Lacau 's Corvignolles as

4964-456: The woods and lawns, and Parisians rowed boats on the lake, while the upper classes were entertained in the cafes. The restaurant of the Pavillon de la Grand Cascade became a popular spot for Parisian weddings. During the winter, when the lakes were frozen, they were crowded with ice skaters. The activities of Parisians in the Bois, particularly the long promenades in carriages around the lakes, were often portrayed in French literature and art in

5037-601: Was assassinated on 26 July 1941 by a clockwork bomb set off at the house. It was believed to have been done by Cagoule terrorists in reprisal for Dormoy's arrests in 1937 and his attempt to suppress the organization. The members of the Cagoule were divided. Some of them joined various Fascist movements; Schueller and Deloncle founded the Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire , which conducted various activities for Nazi Germany in occupied France. It bombed seven synagogues in Paris in October 1941 . Others became prominent members of Philippe Pétain 's Vichy Regime . Darnand

5110-411: Was named the chief architect of the new Service of Promenades and Plantations. He was commissioned to design 24 pavilions and chalets, plus cafes, gatehouses, boating docks, and kiosks. He designed the gatehouses where the guardians of the park lived to look like rustic cottages. He had a real Swiss chalet built out of wood in Switzerland and transported to Paris, where it was reassembled on an island in

5183-418: Was popular for concerts and dances, but it had continual financial difficulties and eventually went bankrupt. The floral theater remained in business until the beginning of the First World War , in 1914. The garden-building team assembled by Haussmann of Alphand, Barrillet-Deschamps and Davioud went on to build The Bois de Vincennes , Parc Monceau Parc Montsouris , and the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont , using

5256-570: Was the leader of the Milice , the Vichy paramilitary group that fought the French Resistance , and enforced antisemitic policies. He took an oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler after he had accepted a Waffen SS rank. Other cagoulards sided against the Germans, either as members of the Resistance (such as Marie-Madeleine Fourcade , Pierre Guillain de Bénouville or Georges Loustaunau-Lacau in

5329-506: Was to be turned into an undulating landscape of lakes, hills, islands, groves, lawns, and grassy slopes, not a reproduction of but an idealization of nature. It became the prototype for the other city parks of Paris and then for city parks around the world. The building of the park was an enormous engineering project which lasted for five years. The upper and lower lakes were dug, and the earth piled into islands and hills. Rocks were brought from Fontainbleau and combined with concrete to make

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