133-510: The Café Zimmermann , or Zimmermannsches Kaffeehaus , was the coffeehouse of Gottfried Zimmermann in Leipzig which formed the backdrop to the first performances of many of Bach's secular cantatas , e.g. the Coffee Cantata ( Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht ), and instrumental works. In 1723, the year Bach moved to Leipzig, it was the largest and best-appointed Kaffeehaus of Leipzig and
266-412: A franchise business model , with numerous branches across various countries around the world. While café may refer to a coffeehouse, the term "café" can also refer to a diner , British café (also colloquially called a "caff"), " greasy spoon " (a small and inexpensive restaurant), transport café , teahouse or tea room, or other casual eating and drinking place. A coffeehouse may share some of
399-699: A "'bottom-up' orthography" and there is now "a high degree of normativization or standardisation in Arabizi orthography." Among consonants, only five (ج ,ذ ,ض ,ظ ,ق) revealed variability in their Arabizi representation. A 2012 study found that on the Jordanian forum Mahjoob about one-third of messages were written in Levantine in the Arabic script, one-third in Arabizi, and one-third in English. Another 2012 study found that on Facebook,
532-418: A 2013 study, Abuhakema investigated 270 written commercial ads in two Jordanian ( Al Ghad and Ad-Dustour ) and two Palestinian ( Al-Quds and Al-Ayyam ) daily newspapers. The study concluded that MSA is still the most used variety in ads, although both varieties are acceptable and Levantine is increasingly used. Most comedies are written in Levantine. In Syria, plays became more common and popular in
665-517: A Ukrainian cossack and Polish diplomat of Ruthenian descent. Kulczycki, according to the tale, then began the first coffeehouse in Vienna with the hoard, also being the first to serve coffee with milk. There is a statue of Kulczycki on a street also named after him. However, it is now widely accepted that the first Viennese coffeehouse was actually opened by an Armenian merchant named Johannes Diodato. Johannes Diodato (also known as Johannes Theodat) opened
798-661: A Viennese coffee house on the Adriatic in Trieste , then and now the main port for coffee and coffee processing in Italy and Central Europe. From there, the Viennese Kapuziner coffee developed into today's world-famous cappuccino . This special multicultural atmosphere of the Habsburg coffee houses was largely destroyed by the later National Socialism and Communism and can only be found today in
931-660: A bar, and also sells alcoholic drinks. In the Netherlands a koffiehuis serves coffee, while a coffee shop (using the English term) sells "soft" drugs ( cannabis and hashish ) and is generally not allowed to sell alcoholic drinks. In France, most cafés serve as lunch restaurants in the day, and bars in the evening. They generally do not have pastries except in the mornings, when a croissant or pain au chocolat can be purchased with breakfast coffee. In Italy, cafés are similar to those found in France and known as bar . They typically serve
1064-709: A broad term covering Jordan and Palestine as well), "Greater Syrian", or "Syrian Arabic" (in a broad meaning, referring to all the dialects of Greater Syria , which corresponds to the Levant). Most authors only include sedentary dialects, excluding Bedouin dialects of the Syrian Desert and the Negev , which belong to the dialects of the Arabian peninsula. Mesopotamian dialects from northeast Syria are also excluded. Other authors include Bedouin varieties. The term "Levantine Arabic"
1197-735: A casual setting that was purposefully different from traditional churches. An out-of-print book, published by the ministry of David Wilkerson, titled, A Coffeehouse Manual , served as a guide for Christian coffeehouses, including a list of name suggestions for coffeehouses. In 2002, Brownstones Coffee of Amityville, New York opened its first location as a breakfast-oriented coffeehouse well before that business model became popular. The trend later caught on through coffeehouses such as Starbucks, which seemed to be on every street corner in several major American cities including Los Angeles and Seattle. Cafés may have an outdoor section (terrace, pavement or sidewalk café ) with seats, tables and parasols. This
1330-486: A centre for the middle classes and gentlemen. While women were forbidden from frequenting coffeehouses, they could attend public concerts at Zimmermann's. The coffeehouse was located at 14 Katharinenstrasse , then the most elegant street of Leipzig, connecting the Brühl to the market place. The name of the street had been taken from the old St. Catherine's Chapel which had been demolished in 1544. In Telemann's and Bach's day, only
1463-448: A coffeehouse in Paris. In a well-known engraving of a Parisian café c. 1700, the gentlemen hang their hats on pegs and sit at long communal tables strewn with papers and writing implements. Coffee pots are ranged at an open fire, with a hanging cauldron of boiling water. The only woman present presides, separated in a canopied booth, from which she serves coffee in tall cups. Aside from
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#17328513095861596-412: A coffeehouse provides patrons with a place to congregate, talk, read, write, entertain one another, or pass the time, whether individually or in small groups. A coffeehouse can serve as an informal social club for its regular members. As early as the 1950s Beatnik era and the 1960s folk music scene, coffeehouses have hosted singer-songwriter performances, typically in the evening. The digital age saw
1729-443: A culture of reading and increased literacy. These coffeehouses were a social magnet where different strata of society came together to discuss topics covered by the newspapers and pamphlets. Most coffeehouses of the 18th century would eventually be equipped with their own printing presses or incorporate a book shop. Today, the term café is used for most coffeehouses – this can be spelled both with and without an acute accent , but
1862-652: A few Aramaic-speaking villages, but it has left substrate influences on Levantine. Different Peninsular Arabic dialects competed for prestige, including the Hijazi vernacular of the Umayyad elites . In the Levant, these Peninsular dialects mixed with ancient forms of Arabic, such as the northern Old Arabic dialect. By the mid-6th century CE, the Petra papyri show that the onset of the article and its vowel seem to have weakened. The article
1995-642: A few places that have long been in the slipstream of history, such as Vienna or Trieste. The first coffeehouse in England was set up on the High Street in Oxford in 1650 –1651 by "Jacob the Jew". A second competing coffee house was opened across the street in 1654, by "Cirques Jobson, the Jew" ( Queen's Lane Coffee House ). In London, the earliest coffeehouse was established by Pasqua Rosée in 1652. Anthony Wood observed of
2128-519: A form of literary Arabic only acquired through formal education that does not function as a native language . In Israel and Turkey, Levantine is a minority language . The Palestinian dialect is the closest vernacular Arabic variety to MSA, with about 50% of common words. Nevertheless, Levantine and MSA are not mutually intelligible. Levantine speakers therefore often call their language العامية al-ʿāmmiyya listen , ' slang ', 'dialect', or 'colloquial'. However, with
2261-562: A lively description of the Persian coffeehouse ( qahveh khaneh in Persian ) scene: People engage in conversation, for it is there that news is communicated and where those interested in politics criticize the government in all freedom and without being fearful, since the government does not heed what the people say. Innocent games ... resembling checkers , hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas , dervishes , and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose. The narrations by
2394-474: A mixture of the three. Arabizi is a non-standard romanization used by Levantine speakers in social media and discussion forums , SMS messaging , and online chat . Arabizi initially developed because the Arabic script was not available or not easy to use on most computers and smartphones; its usage declined after Arabic software became widespread. According to a 2020 survey done in Nazareth , Arabizi "emerged" as
2527-613: A modified version of the Classical language, which is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Classical Arabic and vernacular varieties all developed from an unattested common ancestor, Proto-Arabic . The ISO 639-3 standard classifies Levantine as a language, member of the macrolanguage Arabic. Sedentary vernaculars (also called dialects) are traditionally classified into five groups according to shared features: Peninsular , Mesopotamian, Levantine, Egyptian , and Maghrebi . The linguistic distance between these vernaculars
2660-450: A particular clientele divided by occupation or attitude, such as Tories and Whigs , wits and stockjobbers , merchants and lawyers, booksellers and authors, men of fashion or the "cits" of the old city center . According to one French visitor, Antoine François Prévost , coffeehouses, "where you have the right to read all the papers for and against the government", were the "seats of English liberty". Jonathan's Coffee House in 1698 saw
2793-717: A popular meeting place of the French Enlightenment ; Voltaire , Rousseau , and Denis Diderot frequented it, and it is arguably the birthplace of the Encyclopédie , the first modern encyclopedia. The first known cafes in Pest date back to 1714 when a house intended to serve as a Cafe (Balázs Kávéfőző) was purchased. Minutes of the Pest City Council from 1729 mention complaints by the Balázs café and Franz Reschfellner Cafe against
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#17328513095862926-599: A post in the same script). Levantine speakers in Turkey use the Latin-based Turkish alphabet . The Arabic alphabet is always cursive , and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position ( IMFI ). Only the isolated form is shown in the tables below. In the Arabic script, short vowels are not represented by letters but by diacritics above or below
3059-528: A registered coffeehouse in Vienna in 1685. Fifteen years later, four other Armenians owned coffeehouses. The culture of drinking coffee was itself widespread in the country in the second half of the 18th century. Over time, a special coffee house culture developed in Habsburg Vienna. On the one hand, writers, artists, musicians, intellectuals, bon vivants and their financiers met in the coffee house, and on
3192-957: A restaurant that usually serves coffee and snacks rather than the word coffee that describes the drink, is derived from the French café. The first café in France is believed to have opened in 1660. The first café in Europe is believed to have been opened in Belgrade , Ottoman Serbia in 1522 as a Kafana (Serbian coffee house). The translingual word root /kafe/ appears in many European languages with various naturalized spellings, including Portuguese, Spanish, and French ( café ); German ( Kaffee ); Polish ( kawa ); Serbian ( кафа / kafa ); Ukrainian ( кава , 'kava'); and others. The first coffeehouses appeared in Damascus . These Ottoman coffeehouses also appeared in Mecca , in
3325-441: A result, more short vowels are distinguished. In the north, stressed i and u merge. They usually become i , but might also be u near emphatic consonants. Syrians and Beirutis tend to pronounce both of them as schwa [ ə ] . The long vowel "ā" is pronounced similar to "ē" or even merges with "ē", when it is not near an emphatic or guttural consonant. Syllabification and phonotactics are complex, even within
3458-415: A single dialect. Speakers often add a short vowel, called helping vowel or epenthetic vowel, sounding like a short schwa right before a word-initial consonant cluster to break it, as in ktiːr mniːħ , 'very good/well'. They are not considered part of the word and are never stressed. This process of anaptyxis is subject to social and regional variation. They are usually not written. A helping vowel
3591-695: A variety of espresso coffee, cakes and alcoholic drinks. Bars in city centers usually have different prices for consumption at the bar and consumption at a table. Coffeehouses are part of the culture of Buenos Aires and the customs of its inhabitants. They are traditional meeting places for 'porteños' and have inspired innumerable artistic creations. Some notable coffeehouses include Confitería del Molino , Café Tortoni , El Gato Negro , Café La Biela . The first coffeehouse in America opened in Boston , in 1676. However, Americans did not start choosing coffee over tea until
3724-491: A whole. Lebanese literary figure Said Akl led a movement to recognize the " Lebanese language " as a distinct prestigious language instead of MSA. Levantine is a variety of Arabic, a Semitic language . There is no consensus regarding the genealogical position of Arabic within the Semitic languages. The position of Levantine and other Arabic vernaculars in the Arabic macrolanguage family has also been contested. According to
3857-669: Is endangered . Bedouin varieties are spoken in the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula , areas of transition between Levantine and Egyptian. The dialect of Arish , Egypt, is classified by Linguasphere as Levantine. The Amman dialect is emerging as an urban standard in Jordanian Arabic , while other Jordanian and Palestinian Arabic dialects include Fellahi (rural) and Madani (urban). The Gaza dialect contains features of both urban Palestinian and Bedouin Arabic . The Levant
3990-856: Is almost exclusively written in MSA. Internet users in the Arab world communicate with their dialect language (such as Levantine) more than MSA on social media (such as Twitter, Facebook, or in the comments of online newspapers). According to one study, between 12% and 23% of all dialectal Arabic content online was written in Levantine depending on the platform. Levantine phonology is characterized by rich socio-phonetic variations along socio-cultural (gender; religion; urban, rural or Bedouin) and geographical lines. For instance, in urban varieties, interdentals /θ/ , /ð/ , and /ðʕ/ tend to merge to stops or fricatives [t] ~ [s] ; [d] ~ [z] ; and [dʕ] ~ [zʕ] respectively. The Classical Arabic voiceless uvular plosive /q/
4123-403: Is always pronounced as two syllables. The name café has also come to be used for a type of diners that offers cooked meals (again, without alcoholic beverages) which can be standalone or operating within shopping centres or department stores. In Irish usage, the presence or absence of the acute accent does not signify the type of establishment (coffeehouse versus diner), and is purely a decision by
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4256-546: Is an establishment that serves various types of coffee, espresso , latte , americano and cappuccino . Some coffeehouses may serve cold beverages, such as iced coffee and iced tea , as well as other non-caffeinated beverages. A coffeehouse may also serve food, such as light snacks, sandwiches, muffins , cakes, breads, donuts or pastries . In continental Europe, some cafés also serve alcoholic beverages. Coffeehouses range from owner-operated small businesses to large multinational corporations . Some coffeehouse chains operate on
4389-407: Is at least as large as between Germanic languages or Romance languages . It is, for instance, extremely difficult for Moroccans and Iraqis, each speaking their own variety, to understand each other. Levantine and Egyptian are the two prestige varieties of spoken Arabic; they are also the most widely understood dialects in the Arab world and the most commonly taught to non-native speakers outside
4522-475: Is characterized by ethnic diversity and religious pluralism . Levantine dialects vary along sectarian lines. Religious groups include Sunni Muslims , Shia Muslims , Alawites , Christians, Druze , and Jews. Differences between Muslim and Christian dialects are minimal, mainly involving some religious vocabulary. A minority of features are perceived as typically associated with one group. For example, in Beirut,
4655-502: Is especially the case with European cafés. Cafés offer a more open public space compared to many of the traditional pubs they have replaced, which were more male dominated with a focus on drinking alcohol. One of the original uses of the café, as a place for information exchange and communication, was reintroduced in the 1990s with the Internet café or Hotspot . The spread of modern-style cafés to urban and rural areas went hand-in-hand with
4788-457: Is in a mix of MSA and Lebanese Arabic. Levantine is seldom written, except for some novels, plays, and humorous writings. Most Arab critics do not acknowledge the literary dignity of prose in dialect. Prose written in Lebanese goes back to at least 1892 when Tannus al-Hurr published Riwāyat aš-šābb as-sikkīr ʾay Qiṣṣat Naṣṣūr as-Sikrī , 'The tale of the drunken youth, or The story of Nassur
4921-519: Is inserted: In the Damascus dialect, word stress falls on the last superheavy syllable (CVːC or CVCC). In the absence of a superheavy syllable: Until recently, Levantine was rarely written. Brustad and Zuniga report that in 1988, they did not find anything published in Levantine in Syria. By the late 2010s, written Levantine was used in many public venues and on the internet, especially social media. There
5054-446: Is learned through formal instruction rather than transmission from parent to child . This diglossia has been compared to the use of Latin as the sole written, official, liturgical , and literary language in Europe during the medieval period , while Romance languages were the spoken languages. Levantine and MSA are mutually unintelligible. They differ significantly in their phonology , morphology , lexicon and syntax . MSA
5187-590: Is no standard Levantine orthography. There have been failed attempts to Latinize Levantine, especially Lebanese . For instance, Said Akl promoted a modified Latin alphabet . Akl used this alphabet to write books and publish a newspaper, Lebnaan . Written communication takes place using a variety of orthographies and writing systems, including Arabic ( right-to-left script ), Hebrew (right-to-left, used in Israel, especially online among Bedouin , Arab Christians, and Druze ), Latin ( Arabizi , left-to-right), and
5320-436: Is not indigenous and, according to linguists Kristen Brustad and Emilie Zuniga, "it is likely that many speakers would resist the grouping on the basis that the rich phonological, morphological and lexical variation within the Levant carries important social meanings and distinctions." Levantine speakers often call their language العامية al-ʿāmmiyya , ' slang ', 'dialect', or 'colloquial' ( lit. '
5453-454: Is overwhelmingly Arabic, with a significant Aramaic influence. The lack of written sources in Levantine makes it impossible to determine its history before the modern period . Aramaic was the dominant language in the Levant starting in the 1st millennium BCE; it coexisted with other languages, including many Arabic dialects spoken by various Arab tribes. With the Muslim conquest of the Levant in
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5586-745: Is primarily spoken by Arabs . It is also spoken as a first or second language by several ethnic minorities . In particular, it is spoken natively by Samaritans and by most Circassians in Jordan , Armenians in Jordan and Israel , Assyrians in Israel , Turkmen in Syria and Lebanon , Kurds in Lebanon , and Dom people in Jerusalem. Most Christian and Muslim Lebanese people in Israel speak Lebanese Arabic. Syrian Jews , Lebanese Jews , and Turkish Jews from Çukurova are native Levantine speakers; however, most moved to Israel after 1948 . Levantine
5719-680: Is pronounced [q] (among Druze), [ʔ] (in most urban centers, especially Beirut, Damascus, and Jerusalem, and in Amman among women), [ɡ] (in Amman among men, in most other Jordanian dialects and in Gaza), [k] or even /kʕ/ (in rural Palestinian). Vowel length is phonemic in Levantine. Vowels often show dialectal or allophonic variations that are socially, geographically, and phonologically conditioned. Diphthongs /aj/ and /aw/ are found in some Lebanese dialects, they respectively correspond to long vowels /eː/ and /oː/ in other dialects. One of
5852-456: Is sometimes written as /el-/ or simply /l-/. A similar, but not identical, situation is found in the texts from the Islamic period. Unlike the pre-Islamic attestations, the coda of the article in 'conquest Arabic' assimilates to a following coronal consonant . According to Pr. Simon Hopkins, this document shows that there is "a very impressive continuity in colloquial Arabic usage, and the roots of
5985-458: Is spoken among diaspora communities from the region, especially among the Palestinian , Lebanese , and Syrian diasporas . The language has fallen into disuse among subsequent diaspora generations , such as the 7 million Lebanese Brazilians . Starting in the 1st millennium BCE , Aramaic was the dominant spoken language and the language of writing and administration in the Levant. Greek
6118-517: Is the language of literature, official documents, and formal written media (newspapers, instruction leaflets, school books). In spoken form, MSA is mostly used when reading from a scripted text (e.g., news bulletins) and for prayer and sermons in the mosque or church. In Israel, Hebrew is the language used in the public sphere, except internally among the Arab communities . Levantine is the usual medium of communication in all other domains. Traditionally in
6251-726: Is the only language of instruction in Arab schools . Hebrew is studied as a second language by all Palestinian students from at least the second grade and English from the third grade. In Jewish schools, in 2012, 23,000 pupils were studying spoken Palestinian in 800 elementary schools. Palestinian Arabic is compulsory in Jewish elementary schools in the Northern District ; otherwise, Jewish schools teach MSA. Junior high schools must teach all students MSA, but only two-thirds meet this obligation. At all stages in 2012, 141,000 Jewish students were learning Arabic. In 2020, 3.7% of Jewish students took
6384-478: Is the sole official language in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria; it has a "special status" in Israel under the Basic Law . French is also recognized in Lebanon. In Turkey, the only official language is Turkish. Any variation from MSA is considered a "dialect" of Arabic. As in the rest of the Arab world , this linguistic situation has been described as diglossia : MSA is nobody's first acquired language; it
6517-564: The Arabian Peninsula in the 15th century, then spread to the Ottoman Empire 's capital of Istanbul in the 16th century and in Baghdad . Coffeehouses became popular meeting places where people gathered to drink coffee, have conversations, play board games such as chess and backgammon , listen to stories and music, and discuss news and politics. They became known as "schools of wisdom" for
6650-515: The Bagrut exam in MSA. Most films and songs are in vernacular Arabic. Egypt was the most influential center of Arab media productions (movies, drama , TV series) during the 20th century, but Levantine is now competing with Egyptian. As of 2013, about 40% of all music production in the Arab world was in Lebanese. Lebanese television is the oldest and largest private Arab broadcast industry. Most big-budget pan-Arab entertainment shows are filmed in
6783-732: The Boston Tea Party and the Revolutionary War . After the Revolutionary War, Americans momentarily went back to drinking tea until after the War of 1812 when they began importing high-quality coffee from Latin America and expensive inferior-quality tea from American shippers instead of Great Britain. Whether they were drinking coffee or tea, coffeehouses served a similar purpose to that which they did in Great Britain, as places where business
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#17328513095866916-531: The Knesset , but Arabic is rarely used. MK Ahmad Tibi often adds Palestinian Arabic sentences to his Hebrew speech but only gives partial speeches in Arabic. In the Levant, MSA is the only variety authorized for use in schools, although in practice, lessons are often taught in a mix of MSA and Levantine with, for instance, the lesson read out in MSA and explained in Levantine. In Lebanon , about 50% of school students study in French. In most Arab universities ,
7049-459: The Lebanese Civil War and expanded to the rest of the Arab world. In 2009, Al Jazeera used MSA only and Al Arabiya and Al-Manar used MSA or a hybrid between MSA and colloquial for talk shows. On the popular Lebanese satellite channel Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International (LBCI), Arab and international news bulletins are only in MSA, while the Lebanese national news broadcast
7182-668: The Nabataeans —who used Aramaic for official purposes, the Tanukhids , and the Ghassanids . These dialects were local, coming from the Hauran —and not from the Arabian peninsula— and related to later Classical Arabic. Initially restricted to the steppe , Arabic-speaking nomads started to settle in cities and fertile areas after the Plague of Justinian in 542 CE. These Arab communities stretched from
7315-565: The Principality of Wallachia ), in the center of the city, where today sits the main building of the National Bank of Romania . Pasqua Rosée, an Armenian by the name Harutiun Vartian, also established the first coffeehouse in Paris in 1672 and held a citywide coffee monopoly until Procopio Cutò , his apprentice, opened the Café Procope in 1686. This coffeehouse still exists today and was
7448-514: The allomorphic variation between - a /- e in the feminine suffix. On the contrary, the insertion and deletion of vowels differ from the modern dialect. From 1516 to 1918, the Ottoman Empire dominated the Levant . Many Western words entered Arabic through Ottoman Turkish as it was the main language for transmitting Western ideas into the Arab world. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in
7581-422: The exponent تاع tēʕ is only used by Muslims and never by Christians who use تبع tabaʕ . Contrary to others, Druze and Alawite dialects retained the phoneme /q/ . MSA influences Sunni dialects more. Jewish dialects diverge more from Muslim dialects and often show influences from other towns due to trade networks and contacts with other Jewish communities. For instance,
7714-497: The medium of instruction is MSA in social sciences and humanities , and English or French in the applied and medical sciences . In Syria , only MSA is used. In Turkey , article 42.9 of the Constitution prohibits languages other than Turkish from being taught as a mother tongue and almost all indigenous Arabic speakers are illiterate in the Arabic script unless they have learned it for religious purposes. In Israel, MSA
7847-525: The verb precedes the object . SVO is more common in Levantine, while Classical Arabic prefers VSO. Subject-initial order indicates topic-prominent sentences, while verb-initial order indicates subject-prominent sentences. In interrogative sentences, the interrogative particle comes first. Nouns are either masculine or feminine and singular, dual or plural. The dual is formed with the suffix ين- -ēn . Most feminine singular nouns end with ـة tāʼ marbūṭah , pronounced as –a or -e depending on
7980-492: The vulgarisms encountered in Damascene poet Usama ibn Munqidh 's Memoirs : "All of them are found in today's spoken language of Syria and it is very interesting to note that that language is, on the whole, not very different from the language of ˀUsāma's days", in the 12th century. Lucas Caballero's Compendio (1709) describes spoken Damascene Arabic in the early 1700s. It corresponds to modern Damascene in some respects, such as
8113-531: The 1960s through the mid-1980s, churches and individuals in the United States used the coffeehouse concept for outreach. They were often storefronts and had names like The Lost Coin (Greenwich Village), The Gathering Place (Riverside, CA), Catacomb Chapel (New York City), and Jesus For You (Buffalo, NY). Christian music (often guitar-based) was performed, coffee and food was provided, and Bible studies were convened as people of varying backgrounds gathered in
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#17328513095868246-461: The 1980s by using Levantine instead of Classical Arabic. Saadallah Wannous , the most renowned Syrian playwright, used Syrian Arabic in his later plays. Comic books , like the Syrian comic strip Kūktīl , are often written in Levantine instead of MSA. In novels and short stories, most authors, such as Arab Israelis Riyad Baydas [ ar ] and Odeh Bisharat [ ar ] , write
8379-604: The 19th and 20th centuries in Europe, coffeehouses were very often meeting points for writers and artists. The traditional tale of the origins of the Viennese café begins with the mysterious sacks of green beans left behind when the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Vienna in 1683. All the sacks of coffee were granted to the victorious Polish king Jan III Sobieski , who in turn gave them to one of his officers, Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki ,
8512-399: The 7th century, new Arabic speakers from the Arabian Peninsula settled in the area, and a lengthy language shift from Aramaic to vernacular Arabic occurred. Scholars use "Levantine Arabic" to describe the continuum of mutually intelligible dialects spoken across the Levant. Other terms include "Syro-Palestinian", "Eastern Arabic", "East Mediterranean Arabic", "Syro-Lebanese" (as
8645-548: The Arab people into different nations. On the other hand, Classical Arabic is seen as "the language of the Quran " and revered by Muslims who form the majority of the population. It is believed to be pure and everlasting, and Islamic religious ideology considers vernaculars to be inferior. Until recently, the use of Levantine in formal settings or written form was often ideologically motivated, for instance in opposition to pan-Arabism. Language attitudes are shifting, and using Levantine became de-ideologized for most speakers by
8778-458: The Arab world, colloquial varieties, such as Levantine, have been regarded as corrupt forms of MSA, less eloquent and not fit for literature, and thus looked upon with disdain. Because the French and the British emphasized vernaculars when they colonized the Arab world, dialects were also seen as a tool of colonialism and imperialism . Writing in the vernacular has been controversial because pan-Arab nationalists consider that this might divide
8911-506: The Arab world. Levantine is spoken in the fertile strip on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean : from the Turkish coastal provinces of Adana , Hatay , and Mersin in the north to the Negev, passing through Lebanon, the coastal regions of Syria ( Latakia and Tartus governorates) as well as around Aleppo and Damascus, the Hauran in Syria and Jordan, the rest of western Jordan, Palestine and Israel. Other Arabic varieties border it: Mesopotamian and North Mesopotamian Arabic to
9044-470: The Arabic script was dominant in Syria, while the Latin script dominated in Lebanon. Both scripts were used in Palestine, Israel, and Jordan. Several factors affect script choice: formality (the Arabic script is more formal), ethnicity and religion (Muslims use the Arabic script more while Israeli Druze and Bedouins prefer Hebrew characters), age (young use Latin more), education (educated people write more in Latin), and script congruence (the tendency to reply to
9177-531: The Arabic tradition, Classical Arabic was the spoken language of the pre-Islamic and Early Islamic periods and remained stable until today's MSA. According to this view, all Arabic vernaculars, including Levantine, descend from Classical Arabic and were corrupted by contacts with other languages. Several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars are not
9310-500: The Collegium Musicum no fee for hosting their concerts, nor were the audience charged a fee; Zimmermann's expenses were repaid by sales of coffee. The concerts ended with Zimmermann's death in 1741. The French baroque music ensemble Café Zimmermann is named after this coffeehouse. 51°20′30″N 12°22′30″E / 51.34176°N 12.37509°E / 51.34176; 12.37509 Coffeehouse A coffeehouse , coffee shop , or café ( French: [kafe] ),
9443-520: The Drunkard'. In the 1960s, Said Akl led a movement in Lebanon to replace MSA as the national and literary language, and a handful of writers wrote in Lebanese. Foreign works, such as La Fontaine's Fables , were translated into Lebanese using Akl's alphabet. The Gospel of Mark was published in Palestinian in 1940, followed by the Gospel of Matthew and the Letter of James in 1946. The four gospels were translated in Lebanese using Akl's alphabet in 1996 by Gilbert Khalifé. Muris 'Awwad translated
9576-618: The Italian caffè —first attested as caveé in Venice in 1570 —and in turn derived from Arabic qahwa ( قهوة ). The Arabic term qahwa originally referred to a type of wine, but after the wine ban by Islam , the name was transferred to coffee because of the similar rousing effect it induced. European knowledge of coffee (the plant, its seeds, and the drink made from the seeds) came through European contact with Turkey , likely via Venetian- Ottoman trade relations. The English word café to describe
9709-697: The Italian-originated café of Francesco Bellieno for selling underpriced coffee. During the 18th century, the oldest extant coffeehouses in Italy were established: Caffè Florian in Venice, Antico Caffè Greco in Rome, Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua , Caffè dell'Ussero in Pisa and Caffè Fiorio in Turin . In the 18th century, Dublin coffeehouses functioned as early reading centers and
9842-526: The Jewish dialect of Hatay is very similar to the Aleppo dialect, particularly the dialect of the Jews of Aleppo. It shows traits otherwise not found in any dialect of Hatay. Koineization in cities such as Damascus leads to a homogenization of the language among religious groups. In contrast, the marginalization of Christians in Jordan intensifies linguistic differences between Christian Arabs and Muslims. Levantine
9975-485: The Lebanese dialect in the studios of Beirut. Moreover, the Syrian dialect dominates in Syrian TV series (such as Bab Al-Hara ) and in the dubbing of Turkish television dramas (such as Noor ), famous across the Arab world. As of 2009 , most Arabic satellite television networks use colloquial varieties in their programs, except news bulletins in MSA. The use of vernacular in broadcasting started in Lebanon during
10108-503: The London City magistrates tried to prosecute people who frequented coffeehouses as they were liable to "spread false and seditious reports". William III 's privy council also suppressed Jacobite sympathizers in the 1680s and 1690s in coffeehouses as these were the places that they believed harbored plotters against the regimes. By 1739, there were 551 coffeehouses in London; each attracted
10241-634: The Marrare and the Marrare dictated the law"). Other coffee houses soon opened across the country, such as Café Vianna, opened in Braga , in 1858, by Manoel José da Costa Vianna, which was also visited by important Portuguese writers such as Camilo Castelo Branco and Eça de Queirós . During the 1930's , a surge in coffee houses happened in Porto with the opening of several that still exist, such as Café Guarany , opened in 1933, and A Regaleira , opened in 1934. In 1761
10374-623: The Palestinian dialect of Arab Israelis since the establishment of Israel in 1948. In the 1960s, Said Akl—inspired by the Maltese and Turkish alphabets — designed a new Latin alphabet for Lebanese and promoted the official use of Lebanese instead of MSA, but this movement was unsuccessful. Although Levantine dialects have remained stable over the past two centuries, in cities such as Amman and Damascus, language standardization occurs through variant reduction and linguistic homogenization among
10507-701: The Turm Kaffee, a shop for exported goods, was opened in St. Gallen . Finland's first coffee house, Kaffehus, was founded in Turku in 1778. The oldest still-in-use coffee house in Helsinki called Café Ekberg was founded 1852. The exclusion of women from coffeehouses as guests was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Germany, women frequented them, but in England and France they were banned. Émilie du Châtelet purportedly cross-dressed to gain entrance to
10640-520: The West. Levantine Arabic Levantine Arabic , also called Shami ( autonym : شامي šāmi or اللهجة الشامية el-lahje š-šāmiyye ), is an Arabic variety spoken in the Levant , namely in Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel and southern Turkey (historically only in Adana , Mersin and Hatay provinces). With over 54 million speakers, Levantine is, alongside Egyptian , one of
10773-439: The coffee houses of Oxford in his Life and Times (1674) "The decay of study, and consequently of learning, are coffee houses, to which most scholars retire and spend much of the day in hearing and speaking of news". The proprietor was Pasqua Rosée, the servant of a trader in goods from the Ottoman Empire named Daniel Edwards, who imported the coffee and assisted Rosée in setting up the establishment there. From 1670 to 1685,
10906-506: The dark roast style to high quality beans and opened up a small shop in Berkeley, California to educate customers on the virtues of good coffee. Starting in 1967 with the opening of the historic Last Exit on Brooklyn coffeehouse, Seattle became known for its thriving countercultural coffeehouse scene; the Starbucks chain later standardized and mainstreamed this espresso bar model. From
11039-428: The dialect from which it sprung, likely Old Hijazi. Scholars disagree on the dates of phonological changes. The shift of interdental spirants to dental stops dates to the 9th to 10th centuries or earlier. The shift from / q / to a glottal stop is dated between the 11th and 15th centuries. Imāla seems already important in pre-Islamic times. Swedish orientalist Carlo Landberg [ sv ] writes about
11172-408: The dialogues in their Levantine dialect, while the rest of the text is in MSA. Lebanese authors Elias Khoury (especially in his recent works) and Kahlil Gibran wrote the main narrative in Levantine. Some collections of short stories and anthologies of Palestinian folktales ( turāṯ , 'heritage literature') display full texts in dialect. On the other hand, Palestinian children's literature
11305-469: The discussion around women as guests of the coffeehouses, it is noted that women did work as waitresses at coffeehouses and also managed coffeehouses as proprietors. Well known women in the coffeehouse business were Moll King (coffee house proprietor) in England, and Maja-Lisa Borgman in Sweden. In most European countries, such as Spain, Austria , Denmark , Germany, Norway , Sweden, Portugal , and others,
11438-637: The early 20th century reduced the use of Turkish words due to Arabization and the negative perception of the Ottoman era among Arabs. With the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (1920–1946), the British protectorate over Jordan (1921–1946), and the British Mandate for Palestine (1923–1948), French and English words gradually entered Levantine Arabic. Similarly, Modern Hebrew has significantly influenced
11571-435: The emergence of circulation and subscription libraries that provided greater access to printed material for the public. The interconnectivity of the coffeehouse and virtually every aspect of the print trade were evidenced by the incorporation of printing, publishing, selling, and viewing of newspapers, pamphlets and books on the premises, most notably in the case of Dick's Coffee House , owned by Richard Pue; thus contributing to
11704-408: The emergence of social media, attitudes toward Levantine have improved. The amount of written Levantine has significantly increased, especially online, where Levantine is written using Arabic , Latin , or Hebrew characters . Levantine pronunciation varies greatly along social, ethnic, and geographical lines. Its grammar is similar to that shared by most vernacular varieties of Arabic. Its lexicon
11837-405: The exact boundary. The dialect of Aleppo shows Mesopotamian influence. The prestige dialect of Damascus is the most documented Levantine dialect. A "common Syrian Arabic" is emerging. Similarly, a "Standard Lebanese Arabic" is emerging, combining features of Beiruti Arabic (which is not prestigious) and Jabale Arabic, the language of Mount Lebanon . In Çukurova , Turkey, the local dialect
11970-613: The four gospels and The Little Prince in 2001 in Lebanese in Arabic script. The Little Prince was also translated into Palestinian and published in two biscriptal editions (one Arabic/Hebrew script, one Arabic/Latin script). Newspapers usually use MSA and reserve Levantine for sarcastic commentaries and caricatures. Headlines in Levantine are common. The letter to the editor section often includes entire paragraphs in Levantine. Many newspapers also regularly publish personal columns in Levantine, such as خرم إبرة xurm ʾibra , lit. ' [through the] needle's eye ' in
12103-458: The great auction houses of Sotheby's and Christie's . In Victorian England, the temperance movement set up coffeehouses (also known as coffee taverns) for the working classes, as a place of relaxation free of alcohol , an alternative to the public house . In 1667, Kara Hamie, a former Ottoman Janissary from Constantinople, opened the first coffee shop in Bucharest (then the capital of
12236-480: The highly popular hibiscus blend ( Egyptian Arabic : karkadeh or ennab ). The first ' ahwah opened around the 1850s and were originally patronized mostly by older people, with youths frequenting but not always ordering. There were associated by the 1920s with clubs ( Cairo ), bursa ( Alexandria ) and gharza (rural inns). In the early 20th century, some of them became crucial venues for political and social debates. In India, coffee culture has expanded in
12369-420: The history of Levantine before the modern period is unknown. Old Arabic was a dialect continuum stretching from the southern Levant (where Northern Old Arabic was spoken) to the northern Hijaz , in the Arabian Peninsula , where Old Hijazi was spoken. In the early 1st century CE, a great variety of Arabic dialects were already spoken by various nomadic or semi-nomadic Arabic tribes in the Levant , such as
12502-458: The language of administration in 700 by order of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik . The language shift from Aramaic to vernacular Arabic was a long process over several generations, with an extended period of bilingualism , especially among non-Muslims. Christians continued to speak Syriac for about two centuries, and Syriac remained their literary language until the 14th century. In its spoken form, Aramaic nearly disappeared, except for
12635-452: The language of common people ' ), to contrast it to Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and Classical Arabic ( الفصحى al-fuṣḥā , lit. ' the eloquent ' ). They also call their spoken language عربي ʿarabiyy , 'Arabic'. Alternatively, they identify their language by the name of their country. شامي šāmi can refer to Damascus Arabic , Syrian Arabic , or Levantine as
12768-525: The late 1950s onward, coffeehouses also served as a venue for entertainment, most commonly folk performers during the American folk music revival . Both Greenwich Village and North Beach became major haunts of the Beats , who were highly identified with these coffeehouses. As the youth culture of the 1960s evolved, non-Italians consciously copied these coffeehouses. The political nature of much of 1960s folk music made
12901-903: The late 2010s. Levantine is now regarded in a more positive light, and its use in informal modes of writing is acknowledged, thanks to its recent widespread use online in both written and spoken forms. Code-switching between Levantine, MSA, English, French (in Lebanon and among Arab Christians in Syria ), and Hebrew (in Israel ) is frequent among Levantine speakers, in both informal and formal settings (such as on television). Gordon cites two Lebanese examples: "Bonjour, ya habibti, how are you?" ("Hello, my love, how are you?") and "Oui, but leish?" ("Yes, but why?"). Code-switching also happens in politics. For instance, not all politicians master MSA in Lebanon, so they rely on Lebanese. Many public and formal speeches and most political talk shows are in Lebanese instead of MSA. In Israel, Arabic and Hebrew are allowed in
13034-487: The letters. When Levantine is written with the Arabic script, short vowels are usually only indicated if a word is ambiguous. In the Arabic script, a shadda above a consonant doubles it. In Latin alphabet, the consonant is written twice: مدرِّسة , mudarrise , 'a female teacher' / مدرسة , madrase , 'a school'. Said Akl's Latin alphabet uses non-standard characters. VSO and SVO word orders are possible in Levantine. In both cases,
13167-516: The listing of stock and commodity prices that evolved into the London Stock Exchange . Lloyd's Coffee House provided the venue for merchants and shippers to discuss insurance deals , leading to the establishment of Lloyd's of London insurance market, the Lloyd's Register classification society , and other related businesses. Auctions in salesrooms attached to coffeehouses provided the start for
13300-481: The modern vernaculars are thus seen to lie very deep". The Damascus Psalm Fragment , dated to the 9th century but possibly earlier, sheds light on the Damascus dialect of that period. Because its Arabic text is written in Greek characters , it reveals the pronunciation of the time; it features many examples of imāla (the fronting and raising of /a/ toward /i/ ). It also features a pre-grammarian standard of Arabic and
13433-479: The mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. A molla will stand up in the middle, or at one end of the qahveh-khaneh, and begin to preach in a loud voice, or a dervish enters all of a sudden, and chastises the assembled on the vanity of the world and its material goods. It often happens that two or three people talk at
13566-434: The most distinctive features of Levantine is word-final imāla , a process by which the vowel corresponding to ة tāʼ marbūṭah is raised from [a] to [æ] , [ɛ] , [e] or even [i] in some dialects. The difference between the short vowel pairs e and i as well as o and u is not always phonemic. The vowel quality is usually i and u in stressed syllables. Vowels in word-final position are shortened. As
13699-435: The music a natural tie-in with coffeehouses with their association with political action. A number of well-known performers like Joan Baez and Bob Dylan began their careers performing in coffeehouses. Blues singer Lightnin' Hopkins bemoaned his woman's inattentiveness to her domestic situation due to her overindulgence in coffeehouse socializing in his 1969 song "Coffeehouse Blues". In 1966, Alfred Peet began applying
13832-632: The name of 'Penny Universities' . Though Charles II later tried to suppress London coffeehouses as "places where the disaffected met, and spread scandalous reports concerning the conduct of His Majesty and his Ministers", the public still flocked to them. For several decades following the Restoration , the wits gathered around John Dryden at Will's Coffee House , in Russell Street, Covent Garden . As coffeehouses were believed to be areas where anti-government gossip could easily spread, Queen Mary and
13965-578: The name of the street remained. During the summer months, Zimmermann also ran an outdoor coffee garden in the Grimmaischer Steinweg [ de ] outside the city walls, near the East Gate. The four-and-a-half-story Baroque building was constructed by Doering around 1715. It consisted of two adjoining rooms, one approximately 8 by 10 metres (26 ft × 33 ft), the other approximately 5.5 by 10 metres (18 ft × 33 ft). It
14098-494: The north and north-east; Najdi Arabic to the east and south-east; and Northwest Arabian Arabic to the south and south-west. The similarity among Levantine dialects transcends geographical location and political boundaries. The urban dialects of the main cities (such as Damascus , Beirut , and Jerusalem ) have much more in common with each other than they do with the rural dialects of their respective countries. The sociolects of two different social or religious groups within
14231-464: The noun or adjective and has multiple pronunciations. Its vowel is dropped when the preceding word ends in a vowel. A helping vowel "e" is inserted if the following word begins with a consonant cluster. It assimilates with " sun letters " (consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue). The letter Jeem ( ج ) is a sun letter for speakers pronouncing it as [ ʒ ] but not for those pronouncing it as [ d͡ʒ ]. For nouns referring to humans,
14364-505: The number of London coffeehouses began to increase, and they also began to gain political importance due to their popularity as places of debate. English coffeehouses were significant meeting places, particularly in London. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses in England. The coffeehouses were great social levelers, open to all men and indifferent to social status, and as a result associated with equality and republicanism. Entry gave access to books or print news. Coffeehouses boosted
14497-491: The oldest café still functioning, having opened in 1782), Café Tavares , Botequim Parras, among others . Of these several became famous for harbouring poets and artists, such as Manuel du Bocage with his visits to Café Nicola, which opened in 1796 by the Italian Nicola Breteiro; and Fernando Pessoa with his visits to A Brasileira , which opened in 1905 by Adriano Teles. The most famous of these coffee houses
14630-585: The opening of the first coffeehouse ( kiva han ) in Istanbul : Until the year 962 [1555], in the High, God-Guarded city of Constantinople , as well as in Ottoman lands generally, coffee and coffeehouses did not exist. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city; they each opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale, and began to purvey coffee. The 17th-century French traveler and writer Jean Chardin gave
14763-711: The other hand, new coffee varieties were always served. In the coffee house, people played cards or chess, worked, read, thought, composed, discussed, argued, observed and just chatted. A lot of information was also obtained in the coffee house, because local and foreign newspapers were freely available to all guests. This form of coffee house culture spread throughout the Habsburg Empire in the 19th century. Scientific theories, political plans but also artistic projects were worked out and discussed in Viennese coffee houses all over Central Europe. James Joyce even enjoyed his coffee in
14896-642: The owner: for instance, the two largest diner-style café chains in Ireland in the 1990s were named "Kylemore Cafe" and " Bewley's Café " – i.e., one written without, and one with, the acute accent. The history of coffee in Portugal is usually told to have begun during the reign of king John V , when Portuguese agent Francisco de Melo Palheta supposedly managed to steal coffee beans from the Dutch East India Company and introduce it to Brazil. From Brazil, coffee
15029-401: The past twenty years. Chains like Indian Coffee House , Café Coffee Day , Barista Lavazza have become very popular. Cafes are considered good venues to conduct office meetings and for friends to meet. In China, an abundance of recently started domestic coffeehouse chains may be seen accommodating business people for conspicuous consumption , with coffee prices sometimes even higher than in
15162-410: The popularity of print news culture and helped the growth of various financial markets including insurance, stocks, and auctions. Lloyd's of London had its origins in a coffeehouse run by Edward Lloyd, where underwriters of ship insurance met to do business. The rich intellectual atmosphere of early London coffeehouses was available to anyone who could pay the sometimes one penny entry fee, giving them
15295-404: The preceding consonant: -a after guttural ( ح خ ع غ ق ه ء ) and emphatic consonants ( ر ص ض ط ظ ), -e after other consonants. Unlike Classical Arabic, Levantine has no case marking . Levantine has a definite article , which marks common nouns (i.e. nouns that are not proper nouns) as definite. Its absence marks common nouns as indefinite. The Arabic definite article ال il precedes
15428-484: The regular (also called sound) masculine plural is formed with the suffix -īn. The regular feminine plural is formed with -āt. The masculine plural is used to refer to a group with both genders. There are many broken plurals (also called internal plurals), in which the consonantal root of the singular is changed . These plural patterns are shared with other varieties of Arabic and may also be applied to foreign borrowings. Several patterns of broken plurals exist, and it
15561-538: The rise of the Internet café along similar principles. The most common English spelling of café is the French word for both coffee and coffeehouse; it was adopted by English-speaking countries in the late 19th century. The Italian spelling, caffè , is also sometimes used in English. In Southern England , especially around London in the 1950s, the French pronunciation was often facetiously altered to / k æ f / and spelt caff . The English word coffee and French word café (coffeehouse) both derive from
15694-557: The rising use of mobile computers. Computers and Internet access in a contemporary-styled venue help to create a youthful, modern place, compared to the traditional pubs or old-fashioned diners that they replaced. Coffeehouses in Egypt are colloquially called ' ahwah /ʔhwa/ , which is the dialectal pronunciation of قَهْوة qahwah (literally "coffee") ( see also Arabic phonology#Local variations ). Also commonly served in ' ahwah are tea ( shāy ) and herbal teas , especially
15827-558: The same characteristics of a bar or restaurant, but it is different from a cafeteria. Many coffeehouses in West Asia offer shisha (actually called nargile in Levantine Arabic , Greek , and Turkish ), flavored tobacco smoked through a hookah . An espresso bar is a type of coffeehouse that specializes in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. From a cultural standpoint coffeehouses largely serve as centers of social interaction:
15960-584: The same country may also show more dissimilarity with each other than when compared with their counterparts in another country. The process of linguistic homogenization within each country of the Levant makes a classification of dialects by country possible today. Linguist Kees Versteegh classifies Levantine into three groups: Lebanese/Central Syrian (including Beirut, Damascus, Druze Arabic , Cypriot Maronite ), North Syrian (including Aleppo), and Palestinian/Jordanian. He writes that distinctions between these groups are unclear, and isoglosses cannot determine
16093-478: The same time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher and the other a storyteller. In the 17th century, coffee appeared for the first time in Europe outside the Ottoman Empire , and coffeehouses were established, soon becoming increasingly popular. The first coffeehouse is said to have appeared in 1632 in Livorno , founded by a Jewish merchant, or later in 1640, in Venice . In
16226-652: The southern extremities of the Syrian Desert to central Syria, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains , and the Beqaa Valley . The Muslim conquest of the Levant (634–640 ) brought Arabic speakers from the Arabian Peninsula who settled in the Levant. Arabic became the language of trade and public life in cities, while Aramaic continued to be spoken at home and in the countryside. Arabic gradually replaced Greek as
16359-467: The term café means a restaurant primarily serving coffee, as well as pastries such as cakes, tarts , pies , or buns . Many cafés also serve light meals such as sandwiches . European cafés often have tables on the pavement (sidewalk) as well as indoors. Some cafés also serve alcoholic drinks (e.g., wine), particularly in Southern Europe. In the Netherlands and Belgium, a café is the equivalent of
16492-434: The two prestige varieties of spoken Arabic comprehensible all over the Arab world . Levantine is not officially recognized in any state or territory. Although it is the majority language in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, it is predominantly used as a spoken vernacular in daily communication, whereas most written and official documents and media in these countries use the official Modern Standard Arabic (MSA),
16625-506: The type of clientele they attracted, and their free and frank discourse. Coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern of imams who viewed them as places for political gatherings and drinking, leading to bans between 1512 and 1524. However, these bans could not be maintained, due to coffee becoming ingrained in daily ritual and culture among Arabs and neighboring peoples. The Ottoman chronicler İbrahim Peçevi reports in his writings (1642–49) about
16758-442: The various religious groups and neighborhoods. Urbanization and the increasing proportion of youth constitute the causes of dialect change . Urban forms are considered more prestigious, and prestige dialects of the capitals are replacing the rural varieties. With the emergence of social media, the amount of written Levantine has also significantly increased online. Levantine is not recognized in any state or territory. MSA
16891-568: The weekend edition of Al-Ayyam . From 1983 to 1990, Said Akl's newspaper Lebnaan was published in Lebanese written in the Latin alphabet. Levantine is also commonly used in zajal and other forms of oral poetry. Zajal written in vernacular was published in Lebanese newspapers such as Al-Mashriq ("The Levant", from 1898) and Ad-Dabbur ("The Hornet", from 1925). In the 1940s, five reviews in Beirut were dedicated exclusively to poetry in Lebanese. In
17024-700: Was destroyed during an Allied air raid on Leipzig in December 1943 . Zimmermann also ran a coffee garden as a summer venue. From 1720 the café hosted the Collegium Musicum founded by Georg Philipp Telemann as a law student in 1702. It was later directed by Johann Sebastian Bach between 1729 and 1741, with a break between 1737 and 1739, while his former student Carl Gotthelf Gerlach stood in for Bach. The concerts directed by Bach lasted about two hours and consisted of German and Italian opera, chamber music, secular cantatas, and works for orchestra. Zimmermann charged
17157-704: Was done. In the 1780s, Merchant's Coffee House located on Wall Street in New York City was home to the organization of the Bank of New York and the New York Chamber of Commerce . Coffeehouses in the United States arose from the espresso - and pastry-centered Italian coffeehouses of the Italian American immigrant communities in the major U.S. cities, notably New York City's Little Italy and Greenwich Village , Boston's North End , and San Francisco's North Beach . From
17290-407: Was spoken natively by most Jews in Jerusalem , but the community shifted to Modern Hebrew after the establishment of Israel. Levantine is the second language of Dom people across the Levant, Circassians in Israel , Armenians in Lebanon , Chechens in Jordan , Assyrians in Syria and Lebanon , and most Kurds in Syria . In addition to the Levant, where it is indigenous , Levantine
17423-537: Was taken to Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe , which were also Portuguese colonies at the time. Although, coffee already existed in Angola , already introduced by Portuguese missionaries . During the 18th century, the first public cafés appeared, inspired by French gatherings from the 17th century, becoming spaces for cultural and artistic entertainment. Several cafes emerged in Lisbon such as: Martinho da Arcada (being
17556-557: Was the Café Marrare , opened by the napolitan Antonio Marrare, in 1820, frequently visited by Júlio Castilho , Raimundo de Bulhão Pato , Almeida Garrett , Alexandre Herculano and other members of the Portuguese government and the intelligentsia . It began its own saying: « Lisboa era Chiado , o Chiado era o Marrare e o Marrare ditava a lei » (English: "Lisbon was the Chiado, the Chiado was
17689-540: Was the language of administration of the Seleucid Empire (in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE ) and was maintained by the Roman (64 BCE–475 CE ), then Byzantine (476–640 ) empires. From the early 1st millennium BCE until the 6th century CE, there was a continuum of Central Semitic languages in the Arabian Peninsula, and Central Arabia was home to languages quite distinct from Arabic. Because there are no written sources,
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