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107-462: Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class and is the most commonly consumed psychoactive substance globally. It is mainly used for its eugeroic ( wakefulness promoter), ergogenic (physical performance enhancing), or nootropic (cognition improving) properties.Caffeine can supposedly, after a person grows used to it, have a lesser effect on wakefulness. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine at

214-428: A cortex , composed of neuron-bodies constituting gray matter, while internally there is more white matter that form tracts and commissures . Apart from cortical gray matter there is also subcortical gray matter making up a large number of different nuclei . From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves ). The nerves connect

321-600: A natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade. The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration . However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output. Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination. Caffeine can have negative effects on anxiety disorders . According to

428-562: A "public consultation on transparency in relation to risk assessments conducted by EFSA," it was evident that consumers wanted enhanced public access "to EFSA evaluations and documents." Chearnaigh concludes that the public's demands for direct transparency from the EFSA resulted in the creation of Regulation (EU) No. 2019/1381. This legal document outlines the importance of inclusive communication regarding chemical risk assessment to all parties involved: both government bodies and citizens. Residents of

535-485: A 2011 literature review, caffeine use may induce anxiety and panic disorders in people with Parkinson's disease . At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety. In moderate doses, caffeine has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression and lower suicide risk. Two reviews indicate that increased consumption of coffee and caffeine may reduce

642-529: A budget of €118.6 million, and a total staff of 542. The work of EFSA covers all matters with a direct or indirect impact on food and feed safety, including animal health and welfare , plant protection and plant health and nutrition . EFSA supports the European Commission , the European Parliament and EU member states in taking effective and timely risk management decisions that ensure

749-407: A decrease in performance on their standardized tests, and caffeine causes a significant improvement. When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects of the caffeine are changed, but the alcohol effects remain the same. For example, consuming additional caffeine does not reduce the effect of alcohol. However, the jitteriness and alertness given by caffeine is decreased when additional alcohol

856-530: A distinct diagnostic category, which closely mirrors the DSM-5 's proposed set of criteria for "caffeine-use disorder".  Caffeine use disorder refers to dependence on caffeine characterized by failure to control caffeine consumption despite negative physiological consequences. The APA , which published the DSM-5, acknowledged that there was sufficient evidence in order to create a diagnostic model of caffeine dependence for

963-504: A higher risk of alcohol-associated injury. Smoking tobacco has been shown to increase caffeine clearance by 56% as a result of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons inducing the CYP1A2 enzyme. The CYP1A2 enzyme that is induced by smoking is responsible for the metabolism of caffeine; increased enzyme activity leads to increased caffeine clearance, and is associated with greater coffee consumption for regular smokers. Birth control pills can extend

1070-410: A marked reduction in consumption, a minimum of 3 of these signs or symptoms is required to meet withdrawal criteria: difficulty concentrating, depressed mood / irritability , flu -like symptoms, headache , and fatigue . Additionally, the signs and symptoms must disrupt important areas of functioning and are not associated with effects of another condition. The ICD-11 includes caffeine dependence as

1177-407: A maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. Based on average body weights of children, this translates to the following age-based intake limits: Health Canada has not developed advice for adolescents because of insufficient data. However, they suggest that daily caffeine intake for this age group be no more than 2.5 mg/kg body weight. This is because

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1284-518: A maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 300 mg, or a little over two 8 oz (237 mL) cups of coffee. A 2017 systematic review on caffeine toxicology found evidence supporting that caffeine consumption up to 300 mg/day for pregnant women is generally not associated with adverse reproductive or developmental effect. There are conflicting reports in the scientific literature about caffeine use during pregnancy. A 2011 review found that caffeine during pregnancy does not appear to increase

1391-434: A mild form of drug dependence  – associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability – when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake. Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use). Caffeine

1498-401: A motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and cognition . These connections have been shown by the use of medical imaging techniques, such as functional MRI and Positron emission tomography . The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain, including that of the larger cerebrum , but

1605-550: A number of adenosine receptor types, inhibiting the centrally depressant effects of adenosine and enhancing the release of acetylcholine . Caffeine has a three-dimensional structure similar to that of adenosine, which allows it to bind and block its receptors. Caffeine also increases cyclic AMP levels through nonselective inhibition of phosphodiesterase , increases calcium release from intracellular stores, and antagonises GABA receptors, although these mechanisms typically occur at concentrations beyond usual human consumption. Caffeine

1712-403: A single axon, completely surrounding it. Sometimes, they may myelinate many axons, especially when in areas of short axons. Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons. They do this by sending out thin projections of their cell membrane , which envelop and enclose the axon. During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and

1819-534: A specialized form of macrophage , involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue . Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis , a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons. The brain ( cerebrum as well as midbrain and hindbrain ) consists of

1926-565: A specific clinical question and not as routine screening. European Food Safety Authority The European Food Safety Authority ( EFSA ) is the agency of the European Union (EU) that provides independent scientific advice and communicates on existing and emerging risks associated with the food chain . EFSA was established in February 2002, is based in Parma , Italy, and for 2021 it has

2033-448: A study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. Other research states it can affect the reward system. "Caffeine addiction" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction

2140-472: A wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability , restlessness, insomnia , headaches , and palpitations after caffeine use. Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system overstimulation known as caffeine intoxication, a clinically significant temporary condition that develops during, or shortly after, the consumption of caffeine. This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over

2247-460: Is a central nervous system stimulant that may reduce fatigue and drowsiness . At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory , but it generally improves reaction time , wakefulness , concentration, and motor coordination . The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and

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2354-537: Is a bitter, white crystalline purine , a methylxanthine alkaloid , and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America and helps to protect them against herbivores and from competition by preventing the germination of nearby seeds, as well as encouraging consumption by select animals such as honey bees . The best-known source of caffeine

2461-439: Is also more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, as it includes fewer types of different neurons. It handles and processes sensory stimuli, motor information, as well as balance information from the vestibular organ . The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as

2568-475: Is associated with reduced perceived exertion. While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced. This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue. Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials, an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise. For

2675-513: Is classified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as generally recognized as safe . Toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than the typical dose of under 500 milligrams per day. The European Food Safety Authority reported that up to 400 mg of caffeine per day (around 5.7 mg/kg of body mass per day) does not raise safety concerns for non-pregnant adults, while intakes up to 200 mg per day for pregnant and lactating women do not raise safety concerns for

2782-625: Is composed of white and gray matter . This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes , while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the CNS. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia , while others such as microglia are

2889-576: Is considered a sports food supplement, also known as an ergogenic aid. Some popular examples of sports food supplements include protein powder/bars, creatine , and electrolyte beverages. Similar to the established food laws, the European Union has laws in place to ensure that sports supplements do not mislead consumers with false information. In an analytical assessment article, it states that supplement labels and advertisements often make false health claims, and about 70% of athletes are heavily influenced by

2996-442: Is consumed. Alcohol consumption alone reduces both inhibitory and activational aspects of behavioral control. Caffeine antagonizes the effect of alcohol on the activational aspect of behavioral control, but has no effect on the inhibitory behavioral control. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as taking them together may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with

3103-542: Is housed in the spinal canal within the vertebrae . Within the CNS, the interneuronal space is filled with a large amount of supporting non-nervous cells called neuroglia or glia from the Greek for "glue". In vertebrates, the CNS also includes the retina and the optic nerve ( cranial nerve II), as well as the olfactory nerves and olfactory epithelium . As parts of the CNS, they connect directly to brain neurons without intermediate ganglia . The olfactory epithelium

3210-747: Is no evidence that coffee stunts a child's growth. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that caffeine consumption, particularly in the case of energy and sports drinks, is not appropriate for children and adolescents and should be avoided. This recommendation is based on a clinical report released by American Academy of Pediatrics in 2011 with a review of 45 publications from 1994 to 2011 and includes inputs from various stakeholders (Pediatricians, Committee on nutrition, Canadian Pediatric Society, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention , Food and Drug Administration , Sports Medicine & Fitness committee, National Federations of High School Associations). For children age 12 and under, Health Canada recommends

3317-569: Is no known antidote or reversal agent for caffeine intoxication. Treatment of mild caffeine intoxication is directed toward symptom relief; severe intoxication may require peritoneal dialysis , hemodialysis , or hemofiltration . Intralipid infusion therapy is indicated in cases of imminent risk of cardiac arrest in order to scavenge the free serum caffeine. Death from caffeine ingestion appears to be rare, and most commonly caused by an intentional overdose of medications. In 2016, 3702 caffeine-related exposures were reported to Poison Control Centers in

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3424-535: Is not supported by evidence. The American Psychiatric Association 's DSM-5 does not include the diagnosis of a caffeine addiction but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study. Withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. The frequency at which this occurs is self-reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence. and most cases of caffeine withdrawal were 13% in

3531-508: Is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines . It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease . Some people experience sleep disruption or anxiety if they consume caffeine, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit caffeine to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Caffeine can produce

3638-424: Is poor. It appears that caffeine in low doses improves airway function in people with asthma, increasing forced expiratory volume (FEV1) by 5% to 18% for up to four hours. The addition of caffeine (100–130 mg) to commonly prescribed pain relievers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen modestly improves the proportion of people who achieve pain relief . Consumption of caffeine after abdominal surgery shortens

3745-990: Is possible but the evidence is inconclusive. Caffeine may lessen the severity of acute mountain sickness if taken a few hours prior to attaining a high altitude. One meta analysis has found that caffeine consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes . Regular caffeine consumption may reduce the risk of developing Parkinson's disease and may slow the progression of Parkinson's disease. Caffeine increases intraocular pressure in those with glaucoma but does not appear to affect normal individuals. The DSM-5 also includes other caffeine-induced disorders consisting of caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder and unspecified caffeine-related disorders. The first two disorders are classified under "Anxiety Disorder" and "Sleep-Wake Disorder" because they share similar characteristics. Other disorders that present with significant distress and impairment of daily functioning that warrant clinical attention but do not meet

3852-406: Is reduced in pregnancy, especially in the third trimester, and the half-life of caffeine during pregnancy can be increased up to 15 hours (as compared to 2.5 to 4.5 hours in non-pregnant adults). Evidence regarding the effects of caffeine on pregnancy and for breastfeeding are inconclusive. There is limited primary and secondary advice for, or against, caffeine use during pregnancy and its effects on

3959-451: Is situated above and rostral to the pons. It includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, including the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres , among others. Additionally, parts of the visual and auditory systems are located in the midbrain, including control of automatic eye movements. The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain for a number of pathways for motor and autonomic control of

4066-524: Is the coffee bean , the seed of the Coffea plant. People may drink beverages containing caffeine to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve cognitive performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion . Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee , tea , and cola , are consumed globally in high volumes. In 2020, almost 10 million tonnes of coffee beans were consumed globally. Caffeine

4173-406: Is the only central nervous tissue outside the meninges in direct contact with the environment, which opens up a pathway for therapeutic agents which cannot otherwise cross the meninges barrier. The CNS consists of two major structures: the brain and spinal cord . The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies caudally to

4280-514: Is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug . Unlike most other psychoactive substances, caffeine remains largely unregulated and legal in nearly all parts of the world. Caffeine is also an outlier as its use is seen as socially acceptable in most cultures with it even being encouraged. Caffeine has both positive and negative health effects . It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity . Caffeine citrate

4387-543: Is therefore not generally considered addictive. However, some diagnostic models, such as the ICDM-9 and ICD-10 , include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model. Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects. Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in

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4494-578: Is used for both prevention and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants. It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language and cognitive delay. On the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible. Caffeine is used as a primary treatment for apnea of prematurity , but not prevention. It is also used for orthostatic hypotension treatment. Some people use caffeine-containing beverages such as coffee or tea to try to treat their asthma . Evidence to support this practice

4601-592: The European Court of Auditors in 2012, for "frequent conflicts of interests ", some of them undeclared. A number of undisclosed conflicts of interest involved the International Life Sciences Institute . According to Corporate Europe Observatory , in 2013, 58% of the experts of the agency were in situation of conflict of interests . In 2017, they were still 46% in situation of conflict of interests. EFSA has also been criticised by

4708-433: The face and neck . The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex . In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste. The midbrain, or mesencephalon,

4815-434: The medulla , the pons and the midbrain . The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here. Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of blood pressure and breathing . Other nuclei are involved in balance , taste , hearing , and control of muscles of

4922-459: The neocortex , and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles (lateral ventricles). Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus , hypothalamus , thalamus and epithalamus , and its cavity forms the third ventricle . The tectum , pretectum , cerebral peduncle and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct). The metencephalon becomes, among other things,

5029-418: The olfactory nerves and the optic nerves are often considered structures of the CNS. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on CNS neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of CNS tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs. At the anterior end of the spinal cord lies

5136-467: The pons and the cerebellum , the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata , and their cavities develop into the fourth ventricle . Rhinencephalon , amygdala , hippocampus , neocortex , basal ganglia , lateral ventricles Epithalamus , thalamus , hypothalamus , subthalamus , pituitary gland , pineal gland , third ventricle Tectum , cerebral peduncle , pretectum , mesencephalic duct Pons , cerebellum Planarians , members of

5243-427: The tectum ). The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters ) and of marsupials (such as kangaroos , koalas , opossums , wombats , and Tasmanian devils ) lack the convolutions – gyri and sulci – found in the neocortex of most placental mammals ( eutherians ). Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of

5350-449: The 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans. In arthropods , the ventral nerve cord , the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS. Arthropoda, unlike vertebrates, have inhibitory motor neurons due to their small size. The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in

5457-666: The DSM-5, but they noted that the clinical significance of the disorder is unclear. Due to this inconclusive evidence on clinical significance, the DSM-5 classifies caffeine-use disorder as a "condition for further study". Tolerance to the effects of caffeine occurs for caffeine-induced elevations in blood pressure and the subjective feelings of nervousness. Sensitization , the process whereby effects become more prominent with use, may occur for positive effects such as feelings of alertness and wellbeing. Tolerance varies for daily, regular caffeine users and high caffeine users. High doses of caffeine (750 to 1200 mg/day spread throughout

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5564-507: The EFSA Focal Point network: The following countries' national food safety authorities are observers of the EFSA Focal Point network: The EFSA is responsible for maintaining the safety of all food-related items to ensure the public health of all European Union residents and citizens. This includes meat processing, pesticide residue, vitamins, and other supplements. Any substance used to benefit an athletic performance or fitness goal

5671-601: The EU and beyond. It is composed of fourteen members appointed by the Council of the European Union in consultation with the European Parliament from a list drawn up by the European Commission , plus one representative of the European Commission. The Executive Director is EFSA's legal representative and is responsible for day-to-day administration, drafting and implementing work programmes, and implementing other decisions adopted by

5778-680: The European Commission, European Parliament , and European Council . Since the EFSA is an independent agency but overseen by representatives of the European Commission and Council of the European Union, the EFSA must abide by the transparency policy. According to author Blánaid Ní Chearnaigh, prior to 2018, only some EFSA documents were accessible to the public, such as risk assessments for specific chemicals. These risk assessments were detailed scientific reports that analyzed chemicals' safety levels and potential risk for causing harm, such as cancer. They were difficult to understand and poorly formatted, which frustrated consumers. She articulates that during

5885-541: The European Union want to feel confident that their government will protect them from all potential health hazards and prioritize consumers' needs, and through transparency, the EFSA can provide that confidence. As stated by Hanna Schebesta and Kai Purnhagen, the authors of EU Food Law , the EFSA contributes to a public Food Additives list posted by the European Commission that catalogs all food-related chemicals and relevant information for each of them. This additional information includes specific conditions for use, food items

5992-575: The FICR handles more of the legislative side of these transparency policies, the EFSA is consulted because the overall public health is involved. Both the EFSA and FICR ensure that all packaging of food available in the European Union includes the following aspects: an ingredient list and the amount of specific ingredients, food name, the date, allergens, total quantity, place of origin, food business operator information, nutrition information, alcoholic content (if applicable), and directions for how to store and use

6099-747: The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g. > 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis . High caffeine consumption in energy drinks (at least one liter or 320 mg of caffeine) was associated with short-term cardiovascular side effects including hypertension, prolonged QT interval , and heart palpitations. These cardiovascular side effects were not seen with smaller amounts of caffeine consumption in energy drinks (less than 200 mg). As of 2007 there

6206-761: The Management Board. They are appointed by the Management Board. The Advisory Forum advises the Executive Director, in particular in drafting a proposal for the EFSA's work programmes. It is composed of representatives of national bodies responsible for risk assessment in the Member States, with observers from Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and the European Commission. The Scientific Committee and its Scientific Panels provide scientific opinions and advice, each within their own sphere of competence, and are composed of independent scientific experts. The number and names of

6313-514: The NGO CHEM Trust for misrepresenting the results of their expert committee's report on bisphenol A (BPA) in January 2015. EFSA claimed in the abstract, press release and briefing that bisphenol A 'posed no risk' to health, when the expert report actually stated the risk was 'low' when considering aggregate exposure (beyond just food). EFSA later modified the abstract to correct this error, though

6420-456: The PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves . Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the trapezius muscle , which is innervated by accessory nerves as well as certain cervical spinal nerves ). Two pairs of cranial nerves;

6527-541: The Scientific Panels are adapted in the light of technical and scientific development by the European Commission at EFSA's request. The independent scientific experts are appointed by the Management Board upon a proposal from the Executive Director for three-year terms. Public transparency is the practice of informing citizens of all governmental action, and providing public access to government documents. It enables democratic accountability, meaning that citizens can hold

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6634-690: The United States, of which 846 required treatment at a medical facility, and 16 had a major outcome; and several caffeine-related deaths are reported in case studies. The LD 50 of caffeine in rats is 192 milligrams per kilogram of body mass. The fatal dose in humans is estimated to be 150–200 milligrams per kilogram, which is 10.5–14 grams for a typical 70 kg (150 lb) adult, equivalent to about 75–100 cups of coffee. There are cases where doses as low as 57 milligrams per kilogram have been fatal. A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which

6741-463: The advertised benefits. In other words, manufacturers advertise gains of using their products, such as increased endurance, knowing that it will increase sales without having any scientific evidence to prove the posted benefits. The EU prevents false health benefit claims through tasking the EFSA with fact-checking advertised health statements, such as a supplement increasing endurance. Both the EFSA and other research organizations "have previously studied

6848-486: The aforementioned reticular system the thalamus is involved in wakefulness and consciousness, such as though the SCN . The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as hunger , thirst and maternal bonding . This is regulated partly through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland . Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of

6955-541: The amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time). According to the DSM-5, caffeine intoxication may be diagnosed if five (or more) of the following symptoms develop after recent consumption of caffeine: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis , gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia or cardiac arrhythmia , periods of inexhaustibility, and psychomotor agitation . According to

7062-461: The amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement. The PNS consists of neurons, axons, and Schwann cells . Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along

7169-405: The blood, protecting the brain from most neurotoxins commonly found in food. Within the meninges the brain and spinal cord are bathed in cerebral spinal fluid which replaces the body fluid found outside the cells of all bilateral animals . In vertebrates, the CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity , while the brain is housed in the cranial cavity within the skull . The spinal cord

7276-415: The body, above the gut and notochord / spine . The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb , while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain,

7383-431: The brain. It is protected by the vertebrae . The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, and continues through or starting below the foramen magnum , and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar vertebra , occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal . Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS

7490-413: The brain. The brain makes up the largest portion of the CNS. It is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system in general. The brain is the major functional unit of the CNS. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of spinal locomotion and can process reflexes , the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system. The brainstem consists of

7597-429: The central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant , can have very high mortality rates. Symptoms depend on the size, growth rate, location and malignancy of tumors and can include alterations in motor control, hearing loss, headaches and changes in cognitive ability and autonomic functioning. Specialty professional organizations recommend that neurological imaging of the brain be done only to answer

7704-791: The characteristics of the different substances added or isolated in supplements, as well as the safety of their consumption." The EFSA and European Commission then both assess whether advertised statements are true or false based on the EFSA's scientific data. The scientific output of the European Food Safety Authority is published in the EFSA Journal , an open-access , online scientific journal . This concerns risk assessment in relation to food and feed and includes nutrition, animal health and welfare, plant health and plant protection. The EFSA has been criticised for its alleged "overregulation". The EFSA has been criticised, including by

7811-469: The chemical may be found in, and restrictions on the amount that can be used. Transparency also applies to how food is presented to consumers, such as through packaging and advertisements. The EFSA works alongside the Food Information to Consumers Regulation (FICR), a separate agency, to enforce that all food information given to the public is easy to understand, and more importantly, accurate. Although

7918-433: The cognitive capabilities of the brain. Connecting each of the hemispheres is the corpus callosum as well as several additional commissures. One of the most important parts of the cerebral hemispheres is the cortex , made up of gray matter covering the surface of the brain. Functionally, the cerebral cortex is involved in planning and carrying out of everyday tasks. The hippocampus is involved in storage of memories,

8025-401: The criteria to be diagnosed under any specific disorders are listed under "Unspecified Caffeine-Related Disorders". Caffeine is reputed to cause a fall in energy several hours after drinking, but this is not well researched. Consumption of 1–1.5 grams (1,000–1,500 mg) per day is associated with a condition known as caffeinism . Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with

8132-604: The day) have been shown to produce complete tolerance to some, but not all of the effects of caffeine. Doses as low as 100 mg/day, such as a 6 oz (170 g) cup of coffee or two to three 12 oz (340 g) servings of caffeinated soft-drink, may continue to cause sleep disruption, among other intolerances. Non-regular caffeine users have the least caffeine tolerance for sleep disruption. Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not. A neuroprotective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease and dementia

8239-614: The desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours. Caffeine can delay or prevent sleep and improves task performance during sleep deprivation. Shift workers who use caffeine make fewer mistakes that could result from drowsiness. Caffeine in a dose dependent manner increases alertness in both fatigued and normal individuals. A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2014 found that concurrent caffeine and L -theanine use has synergistic psychoactive effects that promote alertness, attention, and task switching ; these effects are most pronounced during

8346-432: The estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. A death was reported in 2013 of a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints. Caffeine is a substrate for CYP1A2 , and interacts with many substances through this and other mechanisms. According to DSST , alcohol causes

8453-432: The face and neck through cranial nerves, Autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the tenth cranial nerve . A large portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body. Such functions may engage the heart , blood vessels , and pupils , among others. The brainstem also holds the reticular formation , a group of nuclei involved in both arousal and alertness . The cerebellum lies behind

8560-538: The fetus or newborn. The UK Food Standards Agency has recommended that pregnant women should limit their caffeine intake, out of prudence, to less than 200 mg of caffeine a day – the equivalent of two cups of instant coffee, or one and a half to two cups of fresh coffee. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) concluded in 2010 that caffeine consumption is safe up to 200 mg per day in pregnant women. For women who breastfeed, are pregnant, or may become pregnant, Health Canada recommends

8667-432: The fetus or the breast-fed infants. A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what "bean" (seed) is used, how it is roasted, and how it is prepared (e.g., drip , percolation , or espresso ). Thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach the toxic dose. However, pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement , can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts. Caffeine

8774-784: The first hour post-dose. Caffeine is a proven ergogenic aid in humans. Caffeine improves athletic performance in aerobic (especially endurance sports ) and anaerobic conditions. Moderate doses of caffeine (around 5 mg/kg) can improve sprint performance, cycling and running time trial performance, endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of muscle fatigue and central fatigue ), and cycling power output. Caffeine increases basal metabolic rate in adults. Caffeine ingestion prior to aerobic exercise increases fat oxidation, particularly in persons with low physical fitness. Caffeine improves muscular strength and power, and may enhance muscular endurance. Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests. Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise

8881-590: The general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg. This limit was found to be safe by a 2017 systematic review on caffeine toxicology. In healthy children, moderate caffeine intake under 400 mg produces effects that are "modest and typically innocuous". As early as six months old, infants can metabolize caffeine at the same rate as that of adults. Higher doses of caffeine (>400 mg) can cause physiological, psychological and behavioral harm, particularly for children with psychiatric or cardiac conditions. There

8988-570: The government accountable for doing its job to protect them. Transparency increases citizens' trust in the government and keeps them well-informed. Transparency is a fundamental value in the European Union , as stated in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The European Commission declares that all European Union citizens/residents have the freedom of information, which entitles them to have access to all governmental documents from

9095-413: The half-life of caffeine by as much as 40%, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption. Central nervous system The rest of this article exclusively discusses the vertebrate central nervous system, which is radically distinct from all other animals. In vertebrates , the brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the meninges . The meninges provide a barrier to chemicals dissolved in

9202-431: The individual. The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine to form the cerebral hemispheres, among others: the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for

9309-593: The item. The EFSA cooperates with the national food safety authorities of the 27 EU member states, Iceland and Norway, as well as observers from Switzerland and EU candidate countries, through its Focal Points, who also communicate with research institutes and other stakeholders. They "assist in the exchange of scientific information and experts, advise on cooperation activities and scientific projects, promote training in risk assessment and raise EFSA's scientific visibility and outreach in Member States." The following countries' national food safety authorities are members of

9416-458: The maximum adult caffeine dose may not be appropriate for light-weight adolescents or for younger adolescents who are still growing. The daily dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight would not cause adverse health effects in the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers. This is a conservative suggestion since older and heavier-weight adolescents may be able to consume adult doses of caffeine without experiencing adverse effects. The metabolism of caffeine

9523-416: The moderate sense. Moderately physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100 mg caffeine per day, although these symptoms last no longer than a day. Some symptoms associated with psychological dependence may also occur during withdrawal. The diagnostic criteria for caffeine withdrawal require a previous prolonged daily use of caffeine. Following 24 hours of

9630-1079: The neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans. In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions. Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins , possibly related to their complex echolocation . There are many CNS diseases and conditions, including infections such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis , early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism , seizure disorders such as epilepsy , headache disorders such as migraine , late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease , Parkinson's disease , and essential tremor , autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis , genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease and Huntington's disease , as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy . Lastly, cancers of

9737-439: The nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out. The spinal cord relays information up to the brain through spinal tracts through the final common pathway to the thalamus and ultimately to the cortex. Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of

9844-466: The nerves. Axons in the CNS are often very short, barely a few millimeters, and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1 meter in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed. The way in which the Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes myelinate nerves differ. A Schwann cell usually myelinates

9951-423: The only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex (main part of the telencephalon excluding olfactory bulb) known as the neocortex . This part of the brain is, in mammals, involved in higher thinking and further processing of all senses in the sensory cortices (processing for smell was previously only done by its bulb while those for non-smell senses were only done by

10058-423: The optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a "relay station", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres ( neocortex ). Apart from its function of sorting information from the periphery, the thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum. In common with

10165-399: The phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly defined delineation of a nervous system into a CNS and a PNS . Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS. Like vertebrates, have a distinct CNS and PNS. The nerves projecting laterally from the CNS form their PNS. A molecular study found that more than 95% of

10272-400: The pons. The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes. Its function includes the control of posture and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head, as well as the limbs. Further, it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected through practice, and it will adapt to new learned movements. Despite its previous classification as

10379-411: The pressure in various muscles, including the eyelids . Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250–300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2–3 cups of coffee or 5–8 cups of tea) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks. This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and

10486-416: The process of neurogenesis , forming the rudiment of the CNS. The neural tube gives rise to both brain and spinal cord . The anterior (or 'rostral') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain vesicles (pockets): the prosencephalon at the front, the mesencephalon , and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the rhombencephalon . (By six weeks in the human embryo)

10593-416: The prosencephalon then divides further into the telencephalon and diencephalon ; and the rhombencephalon divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon . The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or 'caudal' portion of the neural tube. As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still. The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum , the hippocampus and

10700-436: The protection of the health of European consumers and the safety of the food and feed chain. EFSA also communicates to the public in an open and transparent way on all matters within its remit. Based on a regulation of 2002, the EFSA is composed of four bodies: The Management Board sets the budget, approves work programmes, and is responsible for ensuring that EFSA co-operates successfully with partner organisations across

10807-488: The results of observational studies, suggests that women who consume large amounts of caffeine (greater than 300 mg/day) prior to becoming pregnant may have a higher risk of experiencing pregnancy loss. Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss . Caffeine, alongside other factors such as stress and fatigue, can also increase

10914-454: The ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds ) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube . The formation of the neural tube is called neurulation . At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating neural stem cells in a region called the ventricular zone . The neural stem cells, principally radial glial cells , multiply and generate neurons through

11021-407: The risk of congenital malformations , miscarriage or growth retardation even when consumed in moderate to high amounts. Other reviews, however, concluded that there is some evidence that higher caffeine intake by pregnant women may be associated with a higher risk of giving birth to a low birth weight baby, and may be associated with a higher risk of pregnancy loss. A systematic review, analyzing

11128-442: The risk of depression. Some textbooks state that caffeine is a mild euphoriant, while others state that it is not a euphoriant. Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of the DSM-5 diagnosis of substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder. Whether caffeine can result in an addictive disorder depends on how addiction is defined. Compulsive caffeine consumption under any circumstances has not been observed, and caffeine

11235-460: The spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals and stimuli. This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses. All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem, some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the brachial plexa , sacral plexa etc. Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but

11342-413: The telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the entire mesencephalon . Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts . Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are

11449-404: The time to recovery of normal bowel function and shortens length of hospital stay. Caffeine was formerly used as a second-line treatment for ADHD . It is considered less effective than methylphenidate or amphetamine but more so than placebo for children with ADHD. Children, adolescents, and adults with ADHD are more likely to consume caffeine, perhaps as a form of self-medication . Caffeine

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