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91-499: An online version of the course, CS50x , is available through the platforms edX and OpenCourseWare and follows the same curriculum as the in-person format of the course. All CS50x course materials are free and there is no fee to complete the course, though various verified certificates are available for a fee. As of 2024, CS50x teaches the languages C , Python , SQL , HTML , CSS , and JavaScript . It also teaches fundamental computer science concepts including data structures and

182-631: A standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986 and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987. Since then, the standard has been revised multiple times to include a larger set of features and incorporate common extensions. Despite the existence of standards, virtually no implementations in existence adhere to it fully, and most SQL code requires at least some changes before being ported to different database systems. SQL

273-502: A 2008 study conducted by the U.S Department of Education , during the 2006–2007 academic year about 66% of postsecondary public and private schools participating in student financial aid programs offered some distance learning courses; records show 77% of enrollment in for-credit courses with an online component. In 2008, the Council of Europe passed a statement endorsing e-learning's potential to drive equality and education improvements across

364-587: A chance to exist in the same room as, and share a dialogue with researchers, politicians, and activists. This is because it vaporizes the geographical barriers that would otherwise separate people. Simplified, social media gives students a reach that provides them with opportunities and conversations that allow them to grow as communicators. Social technologies like Twitter can provide students with an archive of free data that goes back multiple decades. Many classrooms and educators are already taking advantage of this free resource—for example, researchers and educators at

455-511: A class with younger students. Students have access to various enrichment courses in online learning, still participate in college courses, internships, sports, or work, and still graduate with their classes. Computer-based training (CBT) refers to self-paced learning activities delivered on a computer or handheld devices such as a tablet or smartphone. CBT initially delivered content via CD-ROM, and typically presented content linearly, much like reading an online book or manual. For this reason, CBT

546-511: A constructivist perspective may emphasize an active learning environment that may incorporate learner-centered problem-based learning , project-based learning , and inquiry-based learning , ideally involving real-world scenarios, in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. An illustrative discussion and example can be found in the 1980s deployment of constructivist cognitive learning in computer literacy, which involved programming as an instrument of learning. LOGO ,

637-418: A facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing

728-768: A fun way to revise. When the experience is enjoyable, the students become more engaged. Games also usually come with a sense of progression, which can help keep students motivated and consistent while trying to improve. Classroom 2.0 refers to online multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) that connect schools across geographical frontiers. Known as "eTwinning", computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) allows learners in one school to communicate with learners in another that they would not get to know otherwise, enhancing educational outcomes and cultural integration. Further, many researchers distinguish between collaborative and cooperative approaches to group learning. For example, Roschelle and Teasley (1995) argue that "cooperation

819-433: A given context may refer to theoretical, algorithmic or heuristic processes: it does not necessarily imply physical technology. Educational technology is the process of integrating technology into education in a positive manner that promotes a more diverse learning environment and a way for students to learn how to use technology as well as their common assignments. Accordingly, there are several discrete aspects to describing

910-459: A high probability of long-term cost-effectiveness. Improved Internet functionality enabled new schemes of communication with multimedia or webcams . The National Center for Education Statistics estimates the number of K-12 students enrolled in online distance learning programs increased by 65% from 2002 to 2005, with greater flexibility, ease of communication between teacher and student, and quick lecture and assignment feedback. According to

1001-576: A learning system, named Celeration, which was based on behavior analysis but substantially differed from Keller's and Skinner's models. Cognitive science underwent significant change in the 1960s and 1970s to the point that some described the period as a "cognitive revolution", particularly in reaction to behaviorism. While retaining the empirical framework of behaviorism , cognitive psychology theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning by considering how human memory works to promote learning. It refers to learning as "all processes by which

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1092-474: A local RDB and receive tables of data and status indicators in reply from remote RDBs. SQL statements can also be compiled and stored in remote RDBs as packages and then invoked by package name. This is important for the efficient operation of application programs that issue complex, high-frequency queries. It is especially important when the tables to be accessed are located in remote systems. The messages, protocols, and structural components of DRDA are defined by

1183-513: A need to further develop educational services across the globe, primarily to developing countries. In 1960, the University of Illinois created a system of linked computer terminals, known as the Intranet, to give students access to recorded lectures and course materials that they could watch or use in their free time. This type of concept, called PLATO (programmed logic for automatic teaching operations),

1274-411: A primary focus on how learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality and with other learners who bring different perspectives. Constructivist learning environments require students to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning (Termos, 2012 ). Under this framework, the role of the teacher becomes that of

1365-468: A programming language, embodied an attempt to integrate Piagetian ideas with computers and technology. Initially there were broad, hopeful claims, including "perhaps the most controversial claim" that it would "improve general problem-solving skills" across disciplines. However, LOGO programming skills did not consistently yield cognitive benefits. It was "not as concrete" as advocates claimed, it privileged "one form of reasoning over all others", and it

1456-517: A prominent role in education. From the early twentieth century, duplicating machines such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices were used to produce short copy runs (typically 10–50 copies) for classroom or home use. The use of media for instructional purposes is generally traced back to the first decade of the 20th century with the introduction of educational films (the 1900s) and Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines (1920s). The first all multiple choice , large-scale assessment

1547-470: A roadblock to full use of SQL's user-defined types. JSON support, for example, needed to be added by a new standard in 2016. The concept of Null is the subject of some debate . The Null marker indicates the absence of a value, and is distinct from a value of 0 for an integer column or an empty string for a text column. The concept of Nulls enforces the 3-valued-logic in SQL , which is a concrete implementation of

1638-743: A significant portion, is delivered by the Internet . "Virtual" is used in that broader way to describe a course that is not taught in a classroom face-to-face but "virtually" with people not having to go to the physical classroom to learn. Accordingly, virtual education refers to a form of distance learning in which course content is delivered using various methods such as course management applications , multimedia resources, and videoconferencing . Virtual education and simulated learning opportunities, such as games or dissections, offer opportunities for students to connect classroom content to authentic situations. Educational content, pervasively embedded in objects,

1729-447: A variety of media. Major high-tech companies have funded schools to provide them with the ability to teach their students through technology. 2015 was the first year that private nonprofit organizations enrolled more online students than for-profits, although public universities still enrolled the highest number of online students. In the fall of 2015, more than 6 million students enrolled in at least one online course. In 2020, due to

1820-417: Is a component of the smart city concept. Helping people and children learn in ways that are easier, faster, more accurate, or less expensive can be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, such as paintings on cave walls. Various types of abacus have been used. Writing slates and blackboards have been used for at least a millennium. Since their introduction, books and pamphlets have played

1911-460: Is accomplished by the division of labor among participants, as an activity where each person is responsible for a portion of the problem solving", in contrast with collaboration that involves the "mutual engagement of participants in a coordinated effort to solve the problem together." Social technology, and social media specifically, provides avenues for student learning that would not be available otherwise. For example, it provides ordinary students

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2002-428: Is all around the learner, who may not even be conscious of the learning process. The combination of adaptive learning , using an individualized interface and materials, which accommodate to an individual, who thus receives personally differentiated instruction, with ubiquitous access to digital resources and learning opportunities in a range of places and at various times, has been termed smart learning. Smart learning

2093-458: Is based on Malan's recorded lectures, which are then supplemented by in-person class sections and office hours, all in New Haven . The University of Oxford is the third university to offer the course; it is available as an online course through their Department for Continuing Education. In 2016, CS50's lecture schedule changed so that students would only have to attend two in-person lectures during

2184-650: Is descended from those early experiments. Online education originated from the University of Illinois in 1960. Although the internet would not be created for another decade, students were able to access class information with linked computer terminals. Online learning emerged in 1982 when the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute in La Jolla, California, opened its School of Management and Strategic Studies. The school employed computer conferencing through

2275-440: Is essentially a declarative language ( 4GL ), it also includes procedural elements. SQL was one of the first commercial languages to use Edgar F. Codd 's relational model . The model was described in his influential 1970 paper, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks". Despite not entirely adhering to the relational model as described by Codd , SQL became the most widely used database language. SQL became

2366-443: Is not found in its ability to establish a method for distance learning, but rather in its power to make this type of learning process more efficient by providing a medium in which the instructor and their students can virtually interact with one another in real-time. The topic of online education started primarily in the late 1900s when institutions and businesses started to make products to assist students' learning. These groups desired

2457-488: Is often more complex than a subject matter expert or teacher is able to use. The lack of human interaction can limit both the type of content that can be presented and the type of assessment that can be performed and may need supplementation with online discussion or other interactive elements. Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) uses instructional methods designed to encourage or require students to work together on learning tasks, allowing social learning . CSCL

2548-610: Is often used to teach static processes, such as using software or completing mathematical equations. Computer-based training is conceptually similar to web-based training (WBT), which is delivered via Internet using a web browser . Assessing learning in a CBT is often by assessments that can be easily scored by a computer such as multiple-choice questions, drag-and-drop, radio button, simulation, or other interactive means. Assessments are easily scored and recorded via online software, providing immediate end-user feedback and completion status. Users are often able to print completion records in

2639-583: Is online and working collaboratively at the same time. Since students are working collaboratively, synchronized learning helps students become more open-minded because they have to actively listen and learn from their peers. Synchronized learning fosters online awareness and improves many students' writing skills. Asynchronous learning may use technologies such as learning management systems , email , blogs , wikis , and discussion boards , as well as web -supported textbooks, hypertext documents, audio video courses, and social networking using web 2.0 . At

2730-928: Is particularly useful in handling structured data , i.e., data incorporating relations among entities and variables. Introduced in the 1970s, SQL offered two main advantages over older read–write APIs such as ISAM or VSAM . Firstly, it introduced the concept of accessing many records with one single command . Secondly, it eliminates the need to specify how to reach a record, i.e., with or without an index . Originally based upon relational algebra and tuple relational calculus , SQL consists of many types of statements, which may be informally classed as sublanguages , commonly: Data query Language (DQL), Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Control Language (DCL), and Data Manipulation Language (DML). The scope of SQL includes data query, data manipulation (insert, update, and delete), data definition ( schema creation and modification), and data access control. Although SQL

2821-517: Is primarily offered every fall semester , with CS51 being offered every spring semester. CS50x is a massive online open course and "one of the most popular MOOCs in the world." CS50 first opened to online students in 2007, but the CS50x course officially launched in 2012 as a course on edX . The course content can also be taken through OpenCourseWare for those not seeking a verified certificate. In its inaugural year, over 50 thousand students enrolled; in

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2912-540: Is similar in concept to the terminology, "e-learning 2.0" and "networked collaborative learning" (NCL). With Web 2.0 advances, sharing information between multiple people in a network has become much easier and use has increased. One of the main reasons for its usage states that it is "a breeding ground for creative and engaging educational endeavors." Learning takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. This collaborative learning differs from instruction in which

3003-2090: Is someone who is trained in the field of educational technology. Educational technologists try to analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate processes and tools to enhance learning. While the term educational technologist is used primarily in the United States, learning technologist is a synonymous term used in the UK as well as Canada. Modern electronic educational technology is an important part of society today. Educational technology encompasses e-learning, instructional technology, information and communication technology (ICT) in education, edtech, learning technology, multimedia learning, technology-enhanced learning (TEL), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer managed instruction, computer-based training (CBT), computer-assisted instruction or computer-aided instruction (CAI), internet-based training (IBT), flexible learning, web-based training (WBT), online education, digital educational collaboration, distributed learning, computer-mediated communication , cyber-learning, and multi-modal instruction, virtual education, personal learning environments, networked learning , virtual learning environments (VLE) (which are also called learning platforms), m-learning , and digital education. Each of these numerous terms has had its advocates, who point up potential distinctive features. However, many terms and concepts in educational technology have been defined nebulously. For example, Singh and Thurman cite over 45 definitions for online learning. Moreover, Moore saw these terminologies as emphasizing particular features such as digitization approaches, components, or delivery methods rather than being fundamentally dissimilar in concept or principle. For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, which allows for altered timing, location, accessibility, and context of learning; nevertheless, its purpose and conceptual principles are those of educational technology. In practice, as technology has advanced,

3094-517: Is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning . When referred to with its abbreviation, "EdTech", it often refers to the industry of companies that create educational technology. In EdTech Inc.: Selling, Automating and Globalizing Higher Education in the Digital Age , Tanner Mirrlees and Shahid Alvi (2019) argue "EdTech is no exception to industry ownership and market rules" and "define

3185-550: The COVID-19 pandemic , many schools across the world were forced to close, which left more and more grade-school students participating in online learning, and university-level students enrolling in online courses to enforce distance learning. Organizations such as Unesco have enlisted educational technology solutions to help schools facilitate distance education . The pandemic's extended lockdowns and focus on distance learning has attracted record-breaking amounts of venture capital to

3276-485: The Distributed Data Management Architecture . Distributed SQL processing ala DRDA is distinctive from contemporary distributed SQL databases. SQL deviates in several ways from its theoretical foundation, the relational model and its tuple calculus. In that model, a table is a set of tuples, while in SQL, tables and query results are lists of rows; the same row may occur multiple times, and

3367-499: The Flask framework. New content is added to the course each year; additional lectures on cybersecurity and emoji were added for 2022. Another adapted version of the course, CS50 AP , is designed for high school students and completes the required curriculum of AP Computer Science Principles . CS50 was first available in 1989. Michael D. Smith was the professor of the course from 2002 to 2006, after which point David J. Malan has been

3458-790: The New Jersey Institute of Technology as well as developments at the University of Guelph in Canada. In the UK, the Council for Educational Technology supported the use of educational technology, in particular administering the government's National Development Programme in Computer Aided Learning (1973–1977) and the Microelectronics Education Programme (1980–1986). By the mid-1980s, accessing course content became possible at many college libraries. In computer-based training (CBT) or computer-based learning (CBL),

3549-502: The New Jersey Institute of Technology 's Electronic Information Exchange System (EIES) to deliver a distance education program to business executives. Starting in 1985, Connected Education offered the first totally online master's degree in media studies, through The New School in New York City, also via the EIES computer conferencing system. Subsequent courses were offered in 1986 by

3640-605: The database , while prior versions of SQL Server were restricted to unmanaged extended stored procedures primarily written in C. PostgreSQL lets users write functions in a wide variety of languages—including Perl , Python , Tcl , JavaScript (PL/V8) and C. SQL implementations are incompatible between vendors and do not necessarily completely follow standards. In particular, date and time syntax, string concatenation, NULL s, and comparison case sensitivity vary from vendor to vendor. PostgreSQL and Mimer SQL strive for standards compliance, though PostgreSQL does not adhere to

3731-596: The 1950s in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw widespread use from the late 1950s. In the mid-1960s, Stanford University psychology professors, Patrick Suppes and Richard C. Atkinson , experimented with using computers to teach arithmetic and spelling via Teletypes to elementary school students in the Palo Alto Unified School District in California . Stanford's Education Program for Gifted Youth

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3822-485: The 1970s. Chamberlin and Boyce's first attempt at a relational database language was SQUARE (Specifying Queries in A Relational Environment), but it was difficult to use due to subscript/superscript notation. After moving to the San Jose Research Laboratory in 1973, they began work on a sequel to SQUARE. The original name SEQUEL, which is widely regarded as a pun on QUEL , the query language of Ingres ,

3913-486: The 1990s, teachers embarked on the method of using emerging technologies to employ multi-object oriented sites, which are text-based online virtual reality systems, to create course websites along with simple sets of instructions for their students. By 1994, the first online high school had been founded. In 1997, Graziadei described criteria for evaluating products and developing technology-based courses that include being portable, replicable, scalable, affordable, and having

4004-544: The EU. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is between learners and instructors, mediated by the computer. In contrast, CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves educator/tutor facilitation and requires the scalarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks. Students growing up in this digital age have extensive exposure to

4095-477: The EdTech industries as all the privately owned companies currently involved in the financing, production and distribution of commercial hardware, software, cultural goods, services and platforms for the educational market with the goal of turning a profit. Many of these companies are US-based and rapidly expanding into educational markets across North America, and increasingly growing all over the world." In addition to

4186-700: The Electronic University Network for DOS and Commodore 64 computers. In 2002, MIT began providing online classes free of charge. As of 2009 , approximately 5.5 million students were taking at least one class online. Currently, one out of three college students takes at least one online course while in college. At DeVry University , out of all students that are earning a bachelor's degree, 80% earn two-thirds of their requirements online. Also, in 2014, 2.85 million students out of 5.8 million students that took courses online, took all of their courses online. From this information, it can be concluded that

4277-535: The ISO in 1987. It is maintained by ISO/IEC JTC 1, Information technology, Subcommittee SC 32, Data management and interchange . Until 1996, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) data-management standards program certified SQL DBMS compliance with the SQL standard. Vendors now self-certify the compliance of their products. The original standard declared that the official pronunciation for "SQL"

4368-472: The United States and Canada in 2008–2009. Disadvantages of this form of educational technology are readily apparent: image and sound quality are often grainy or pixelated; videoconferencing requires setting up a type of mini-television studio within the museum for broadcast; space becomes an issue; and specialized equipment is required for both the provider and the participant. The Open University in Britain and

4459-521: The University of British Columbia (where Web CT, now incorporated into Blackboard Inc., was first developed) began a revolution of using the Internet to deliver learning, making heavy use of web-based training, online distance learning, and online discussion between students. Practitioners such as Harasim (1995) put heavy emphasis on the use of learning networks. With the advent of the World Wide Web in

4550-500: The University of Central Florida in 2011 used Tweets posted relating to emergencies like Hurricane Irene as data points, in order to teach their students how to code data. Social media technologies also allow instructors the ability to show students how professional networks facilitate work on a technical level. This is an instructional strategy where the majority of the initial learning occurs first at home using technology. Then, students will engage with higher-order learning tasks in

4641-448: The best ways to learn something is to teach it to others. Social networks have been used to foster online learning communities around subjects as diverse as test preparation and language education . Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is the use of handheld computers or cell phones to assist in language learning. Collaborative apps allow students and teachers to interact while studying. Apps are designed after games, which provide

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4732-434: The classroom with the teacher. Often, online tools are used for the individual at-home learning, such as: educational videos, learning management systems, interactive tools, and other web-based resources. Some advantages of flipped learning include improved learning performance, enhanced student satisfaction and engagement, flexibility in learning, and increased interaction opportunities between students and instructors. On

4823-552: The ed-tech sector. In 2020, in the United States alone, ed-tech startups raised $ 1.78 billion in venture capital spanning 265 deals, compared to $ 1.32 billion in 2019. Various pedagogical perspectives or learning theories may be considered in designing and interacting with educational technology. E-learning theory examines these approaches. These theoretical perspectives are grouped into three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks: behaviorism , cognitivism , and constructivism . This theoretical framework

4914-554: The extent to which technology is used. For example, "hybrid learning" or " blended learning " may refer to classroom aids and laptops, or may refer to approaches in which traditional classroom time is reduced but not eliminated, and is replaced with some online learning. "Distributed learning" may describe either the e-learning component of a hybrid approach, or fully online distance learning environments. E-learning may either be synchronous or asynchronous . Synchronous learning occurs in real-time, with all participants interacting at

5005-417: The field of computer science. Another major influence on the field of cognitive science is Noam Chomsky . Today researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load , information processing , and media psychology . These theoretical perspectives influence instructional design . There are two separate schools of cognitivism, and these are the cognitivist and social cognitivist. The former focuses on

5096-454: The form of certificates. CBTs provide learning stimulus beyond traditional learning methodology from textbook, manual, or classroom-based instruction. CBTs can be a good alternative to printed learning materials since rich media, including videos or animations, can be embedded to enhance learning. However, CBTs pose some learning challenges. Typically, the creation of effective CBTs requires enormous resources. The software for developing CBTs

5187-404: The general 3-valued logic . Another popular criticism is that it allows duplicate rows, making integration with languages such as Python , whose data types might make accurately representing the data difficult, in terms of parsing and by the absence of modularity. This is usually avoided by declaring a primary key, or a unique constraint, with one or more columns that uniquely identify a row in

5278-544: The instructor is the principal source of knowledge and skills. The neologism "e-learning 1.0" refers to direct instruction used in early computer-based learning and training systems (CBL). In contrast to that linear delivery of content, often directly from the instructor's material, CSCL uses social software such as blogs , social media, wikis , podcasts , cloud-based document portals, discussion groups and virtual worlds. This phenomenon has been referred to as Long Tail Learning. Advocates of social learning claim that one of

5369-443: The intellectual and technical development of educational technology: Educational technology is an inclusive term for both the material tools and processes, and the theoretical foundations for supporting learning and teaching . Educational technology is not restricted to advanced technology but is anything that enhances classroom learning in the utilization of blended, face-to-face, or online learning . An educational technologist

5460-522: The late 1970s, Relational Software, Inc. (now Oracle Corporation ) saw the potential of the concepts described by Codd, Chamberlin, and Boyce, and developed their own SQL-based RDBMS with aspirations of selling it to the U.S. Navy , Central Intelligence Agency , and other U.S. government agencies. In June 1979, Relational Software introduced one of the first commercially available implementations of SQL, Oracle V2 (Version2) for VAX computers. By 1986, ANSI and ISO standard groups officially adopted

5551-444: The learning interaction was between the student and computer drills or micro-world simulations. Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid-1980s. Educational institutions began to take advantage of the new medium by offering distance learning courses using computer networking for information. Early e-learning systems, based on computer-based learning/training often replicated autocratic teaching styles whereby

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5642-466: The most popular commercial and proprietary SQL DBMSs, are Oracle (whose DATE behaves as DATETIME , and lacks a TIME type) and MS SQL Server (before the 2008 version). As a result, SQL code can rarely be ported between database systems without modifications. Several reasons for the lack of portability between database systems include: SQL was adopted as a standard by the ANSI in 1986 as SQL-86 and

5733-461: The number of students taking classes online is on a steady increase. The recent article, "Shift Happens: Online Education as a New Paradigm in Learning", Linda Harasim covers an overview of the history of online education as well as a framework for understanding the type of need it addresses. The concept of distance learning has already been invented for many centuries. The value of online education

5824-556: The order of rows can be employed in queries (e.g., in the LIMIT clause). Critics argue that SQL should be replaced with a language that returns strictly to the original foundation: for example, see The Third Manifesto by Hugh Darwen and C.J. Date (2006, ISBN   0-321-39942-0 ). Early specifications did not support major features, such as primary keys. Result sets could not be named, and subqueries had not been defined. These were added in 1992. The lack of sum types has been described as

5915-418: The other hand, the disadvantages of flipped learning involve challenges related to student motivation, internet accessibility, quality of videos, and increased workload for teachers. SQL Structured Query Language ( SQL ) ( pronounced S-Q-L ; or alternatively as "sequel") is a domain-specific language used to manage data, especially in a relational database management system (RDBMS). It

6006-468: The particular "narrowly defined" terminological aspect that was initially emphasized by name has blended into the general field of educational technology. Initially, "virtual learning" as narrowly defined in a semantic sense implied entering an environmental simulation within a virtual world , for example in treating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In practice, a "virtual education course" refers to any instructional course in which all, or at least

6097-427: The pattern: ISO/IEC 9075-n:yyyy Part n: title , or, as a shortcut, ISO/IEC 9075 . Interested parties may purchase the standards documents from ISO, IEC, or ANSI. Some old drafts are freely available. ISO/IEC 9075 is complemented by ISO/IEC 13249: SQL Multimedia and Application Packages and some Technical reports . A distinction should be made between alternatives to SQL as a language, and alternatives to

6188-1035: The practical educational experience, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge from various disciplines such as communication, education, psychology, sociology, artificial intelligence, and computer science. It encompasses several domains including learning theory , computer-based training, online learning, and m-learning where mobile technologies are used. The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) has defined educational technology as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources". It denotes instructional technology as "the theory and practice of design , development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning". As such, educational technology refers to all valid and reliable applied education sciences, such as equipment, as well as processes and procedures that are derived from scientific research , and in

6279-429: The primary professor. Margo Seltzer , Brian Yu, and Doug Lloyd have also taught the course. Guest lecturers have included Mark Zuckerberg (2005) and Steve Ballmer (2014). Yale University began offering the course in 2015, becoming the second institution to teach an official version of the course. The course was offered experimentally for three years until it was added as a permanently-available course. At Yale, CS50

6370-612: The problem sets. After each week's material, the student submits a problem set, which automatically receives a calculated grade. At the end of the course, the student must submit a final project to complete the course or receive a verified certificate. There are a variety of other CS50 courses available on edX and OpenCourseWare as of 2024, including courses on Python , R , and SQL , as well as CS50 AI and CS50 Web, with focuses on artificial intelligence and web applications , respectively. Online course Educational technology (commonly abbreviated as edutech , or edtech )

6461-508: The professional educational level, training may include virtual operating rooms . Asynchronous learning is beneficial for students who have health problems or who have childcare responsibilities. They have the opportunity to complete their work in a low-stress environment and within a more flexible time frame. In asynchronous online courses, students are allowed the freedom to complete work at their own pace. Being non-traditional students, they can manage their daily life and school and still have

6552-489: The relational model itself. Below are proposed relational alternatives to the SQL language. See navigational database and NoSQL for alternatives to the relational model. Distributed Relational Database Architecture (DRDA) was designed by a workgroup within IBM from 1988 to 1994. DRDA enables network-connected relational databases to cooperate to fulfill SQL requests. An interactive user or program can issue SQL statements to

6643-486: The role of the e-learning system was assumed to be for transferring knowledge, as opposed to systems developed later based on computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), which encouraged the shared development of knowledge. Videoconferencing was an important forerunner to the educational technologies known today. This work was especially popular with museum education . Even in recent years, videoconferencing has risen in popularity to reach over 20,000 students across

6734-503: The same time. In contrast, asynchronous learning is self-paced and allows participants to engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency on other participants' involvement at the same time. Synchronous learning refers to exchanging ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period. Examples are face-to-face discussion, online real-time live teacher instruction and feedback, Skype conversations, and chat rooms or virtual classrooms where everyone

6825-509: The semester. Instead, lectures are now primarily delivered online. In 2023, an AI-powered teaching assistant was introduced to the course. CS32 (Computational Thinking and Problem Solving), taught by Michael D. Smith , is an alternative to CS50 but does not have a free online version. The next course in sequence after CS32 or CS50 is CS51: Abstraction and Design in Computation, instructed by Stuart M. Shieber with Brian Yu as co-instructor. CS50

6916-477: The sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used" by the human mind. The Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as theoretical frameworks. Computer science and information technology have had a major influence on cognitive science theory. The cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short-term memory) and long-term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from

7007-409: The social aspect. Asynchronous collaborations allow the student to reach out for help when needed and provide helpful guidance, depending on how long it takes them to complete the assignment. Many tools used for these courses are but are not limited to: videos, class discussions, and group projects. Through online courses, students can earn their diplomas faster, or repeat failed courses without being in

7098-618: The standard "Database Language SQL" language definition. New versions of the standard were published in 1989, 1992, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2011, 2016 and most recently, 2023. The SQL language is subdivided into several language elements, including: SQL is designed for a specific purpose: to query data contained in a relational database . SQL is a set -based, declarative programming language , not an imperative programming language like C or BASIC . However, extensions to Standard SQL add procedural programming language functionality, such as control-of-flow constructs. In addition to

7189-572: The standard SQL/PSM extensions and proprietary SQL extensions, procedural and object-oriented programmability is available on many SQL platforms via DBMS integration with other languages. The SQL standard defines SQL/JRT extensions (SQL Routines and Types for the Java Programming Language) to support Java code in SQL databases. Microsoft SQL Server 2005 uses the SQLCLR (SQL Server Common Language Runtime) to host managed .NET assemblies in

7280-571: The standard in all cases. For example, the folding of unquoted names to lower case in PostgreSQL is incompatible with the SQL standard, which says that unquoted names should be folded to upper case. Thus, according to the standard, Foo should be equivalent to FOO , not foo . Popular implementations of SQL commonly omit support for basic features of Standard SQL, such as the DATE or TIME data types. The most obvious such examples, and incidentally

7371-607: The table. In a sense similar to object–relational impedance mismatch , a mismatch occurs between the declarative SQL language and the procedural languages in which SQL is typically embedded. The SQL standard defines three kinds of data types (chapter 4.1.1 of SQL/Foundation): Constructed types are one of ARRAY, MULTISET, REF(erence), or ROW. User-defined types are comparable to classes in object-oriented language with their own constructors, observers, mutators, methods, inheritance, overloading, overwriting, interfaces, and so on. Predefined data types are intrinsically supported by

7462-549: The understanding of the thinking or cognitive processes of an individual while the latter includes social processes as influences in learning besides cognition. These two schools, however, share the view that learning is more than a behavioral change but is rather a mental process used by the learner. Educational psychologists distinguish between several types of constructivism : individual (or psychological) constructivism, such as Piaget's theory of cognitive development , and social constructivism . This form of constructivism has

7553-431: The view of teaching people how to do something with rewards and punishments, it is related to training people. B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements in teaching based on his functional analysis of verbal behavior and wrote "The Technology of Teaching", an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction . Ogden Lindsley developed

7644-539: The years since, it has become the largest MOOC on the edX platform. In 2016, it was reported that around 700 thousand students were enrolled in CS50x. In 2018, a freeCodeCamp article crowned CS50x as "the best MOOC." There are 11 weeks of material in the CS50x course. Recordings of the on-campus lectures are recorded and uploaded to multiple platforms, including YouTube , Apple TV , and Google TV (one lecture per week). Additional recommended "section" and "shorts" videos are available, as well as "walkthrough" videos within

7735-417: Was an initialism : / ˌ ɛ s ˌ k juː ˈ ɛ l / ("ess cue el"). Regardless, many English-speaking database professionals (including Donald Chamberlin himself ) use the acronym -like pronunciation of / ˈ s iː k w əl / ("sequel"), mirroring the language's prerelease development name, "SEQUEL". The SQL standard has gone through a number of revisions: The standard is commonly denoted by

7826-460: Was developed in the early 20th century based on animal learning experiments by Ivan Pavlov , Edward Thorndike , Edward C. Tolman , Clark L. Hull , and B.F. Skinner . Many psychologists used these results to develop theories of human learning, but modern educators generally see behaviorism as one aspect of a holistic synthesis. Teaching in behaviorism has been linked to training, emphasizing animal learning experiments. Since behaviorism consists of

7917-500: Was difficult to apply the thinking activity to non- LOGO -based activities. By the late 1980s, LOGO and other similar programming languages had lost their novelty and dominance and were gradually de-emphasized amid criticisms. The extent to which e-learning assists or replaces other learning and teaching approaches is variable, ranging on a continuum from none to fully online distance learning . A variety of descriptive terms have been employed (somewhat inconsistently) to categorize

8008-440: Was initially developed at IBM by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce after learning about the relational model from Edgar F. Codd in the early 1970s. This version, initially called SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language), was designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's original quasirelational database management system, System R , which a group at IBM San Jose Research Laboratory had developed during

8099-627: Was later changed to SQL (dropping the vowels) because "SEQUEL" was a trademark of the UK-based Hawker Siddeley Dynamics Engineering Limited company. The label SQL later became the acronym for Structured Query Language. After testing SQL at customer test sites to determine the usefulness and practicality of the system, IBM began developing commercial products based on their System R prototype, including System/38 , SQL/DS , and IBM Db2 , which were commercially available in 1979, 1981, and 1983, respectively. In

8190-450: Was rapidly introduced throughout the globe. Many institutions adopted this similar technique while the internet was in its developmental phase. In 1971, Ivan Illich published a hugely influential book, Deschooling Society , in which he envisioned "learning webs" as a model for people to network the learning they needed. The 1970s and 1980s saw notable contributions in computer-based learning by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hiltz at

8281-488: Was the Army Alpha , used to assess the intelligence and, more specifically, the aptitudes of World War I military recruits. Further large-scale use of technologies was employed in training soldiers during and after WWII using films and other mediated materials, such as overhead projectors . The concept of hypertext is traced to the description of memex by Vannevar Bush in 1945. Slide projectors were widely used during

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