Commercial Resupply Services ( CRS ) are a series of flights awarded by NASA for the delivery of cargo and supplies to the International Space Station (ISS) on commercially operated spacecraft.
101-538: SpaceX CRS-21 , also known as SpX-21 , was a Commercial Resupply Service mission to the International Space Station which launched on 6 December 2020. The mission was contracted by NASA and was flown by SpaceX using a Cargo Dragon 2 . This was the first flight for SpaceX under NASA's CRS Phase 2 contract awarded in January 2016. This was also the first Cargo Dragon of the new Dragon 2 variant, as well as
202-477: A gametangium , a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete -producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore , a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis , generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores . These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia. The spores of most of
303-421: A monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings . There is no unique generally accepted system at
404-458: A Dragon capsule's ability to remain in orbit, receive and respond to ground commands, and communicate with NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System . On 15 August 2011, SpaceX announced that NASA had combined the objectives of the COTS Demo Flight 2 and following Flight 3 into a single mission. The rescoped COTS Demo Flight 2 successfully launched on 22 May 2012, delivering cargo to
505-528: A combined, not-to-exceed value of $ 14 billion. NASA officials explained that selecting three companies rather than two for CRS-2 increases cargo capabilities and ensures more redundancy in the event of a contractor failure or schedule delay. The CRS-2 flights commenced in November 2019 with the launch of Cygnus NG-12 mission. Inside-cargo is typically transported to and from the space station in "the form factor of single Cargo Transfer Bag Equivalent (CTBE) [which
606-509: A competitive range determination to remove Boeing and Lockheed Martin. Orbital ATK (later purchased by Northrop Grumman), Sierra Nevada, and SpaceX were awarded CRS-2 contracts in January 2016 with initial task orders awarded in June 2016. Each of the three companies is guaranteed at least six cargo missions under the CRS-2 contract. As of December 2017, NASA had awarded $ 2.6 billion on three contracts with
707-735: A cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium , a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes ( basidiocarps ) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms . The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios . Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens , including Magnaporthe grisea , form
808-650: A direct source of human food , in the form of mushrooms and truffles ; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine , beer , and soy sauce . Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics , and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents . Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins , such as alkaloids and polyketides , that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of
909-615: A few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies . Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease ) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little
1010-496: A fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche , and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi)
1111-405: A high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate , ammonia , acetate , or ethanol . In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation , such as gamma radiation . This form of " radiotrophic " growth has been described for only a few species,
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#17328692067161212-573: A motile zoospore , enabling them to propel themselves through water and enter their amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean. As of 2020, around 148,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists , but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species. The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2,000 with
1313-402: A new haploid mycelium. Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection , is formed at each hyphal septum. As with
1414-431: A peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1,882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown. The following year, 2,905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as
1515-516: A process called branching , or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis ). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium , an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic . Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to
1616-501: A result Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Northrop Grumman was left with only two remaining Antares 230+ launch vehicles which were used for the CRS NG-18 and CRS NG-19 missions. Northrop Grumman acquired three flights from SpaceX with the Falcon 9 rocket while a replacement first stage and its engine are developed for its Antares 330 rocket. Northrop Grumman plans to launch further missions using
1717-567: A small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g ; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs , rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. The bird's nest fungi use
1818-581: A structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis , can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi). The filamentous fungus Paecilomyces lilacinus uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes . The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol . Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into
1919-482: A terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism , saprobism , and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times. In May 2019, scientists reported
2020-668: A third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph (asexual reproduction). Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules . Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores ( conidia ) or through mycelial fragmentation . Mycelial fragmentation occurs when
2121-573: A variety of other research including studies on how space conditions affect the interaction between microbes and minerals. Beginning with the CRS-2 contract, NASA reports major hardware (failed or expended hardware for diagnostic assessment, refurbishment, repair, or no longer needed) returning from the International Space Station. The CRS-21 mission returned 2,002 kg (4,414 lb) of cargo to Earth. This cargo included: Treadmill Data Avionics Unit : Failed avionics unit that supports
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#17328692067162222-414: Is a continuation of a previous experiment. This experiment will study cardiomyocytes in human heart tissue and its reaction to a zero-g environment. NASA Astronaut Kate Rubins was present for the experiment on station a few years ago, and she said that, paraphrased, few things on station make her gasp, but this is one thing that does. Subsa-Brains studies the effects of micrometeorites and space junk and
2323-460: Is a protein crystallization experiment by the American pharmaceutical company Bristol Myers Squibb . NASA astronauts will study the crystallization of monoclonal antibodies in space, with the aim of improving drug formulation and delivery for patients on Earth. Monoclonal antibodies are lab-created proteins designed to interact with specific targets, called antigens . Monoclonal antibodies are used in
2424-654: Is a test of the system for white blood cell testing on the Moon and Mars. The systems were developed under Earth's gravity, and still need to be tested in zero-g's. The Brain Organoid experiment is a continuation of the first Brain Organoid experiment. Its goal is to validate the first round of experiments and to continue the research recorded during those first tests. The program studies the early developed human brain, its movements in microgravity, and can help address and create better models of neurodegenerative disorders. Cardinal Heart
2525-577: Is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics . This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης mykes , mushroom). In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany , although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of
2626-591: Is considerably less. CRS-2 launches commenced in 2019 and will extend to at least 2024. Three more CRS-2 missions for Dragon 2 covering up to CRS-29 were announced in December 2020. When NASA issued the Commercial Resupply Services phase 2 (CRS-2) request for proposal (RFP) in September 2014, it received interest from five companies: Lockheed Martin, Boeing, Orbital ATK, Sierra Nevada, and SpaceX. NASA made
2727-404: Is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli 's 1729 work Nova plantarum genera . Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his Species plantarum (1753),
2828-655: Is intended to help inform robustness of a similar valve design on the Orion spacecraft . Commercial Resupply Services The first phase of CRS contracts (CRS-1) were signed in 2008 and awarded $ 1.6 billion to SpaceX for twelve Dragon 1 and $ 1.9 billion to Orbital Sciences for eight Cygnus flights, covering deliveries to 2016. The first operational resupply missions were flown by SpaceX in 2012 ( CRS SpX-1 ) and Orbital in 2014 ( CRS Orb-1 ). In 2015, NASA extended CRS-1 to twenty flights for SpaceX and twelve flights for Orbital ATK . A second phase of contracts ( CRS-2 )
2929-625: Is known of the true biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 148,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus , Christiaan Hendrik Persoon , and Elias Magnus Fries , fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology . Advances in molecular genetics have opened
3030-638: Is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage. Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on
3131-611: Is the prime contractor, with Thales Alenia Space manufacturing the pressurized shell and Boeing providing the berthing mechanism. It is the second commercial module of the ISS, after the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM), which was attached to the ISS in April 2016 and is expected to stay at the ISS until at least 2028. The Bishop Airlock began construction in 2015, and was berthed to Tranquility on 19 December 2020 by
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3232-531: Is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla , two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya , the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and
3333-470: Is the] unit for size of bag used to transport cargo from visiting vehicles , such as SpaceX Dragon , Northrop Grumman Cygnus , or JAXA H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV). The bags are sized at 48 cm × 41 cm × 23 cm (19 in × 16.25 in × 9 in) and limited in transport mass to 27 kg (60 lb) each. CTBE units are also used to price, and charge, commercial users of US Orbital Segment stowage space. As
3434-468: Is their means of mobility , except for spores (a few of which are flagellated ), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota ( true fungi or Eumycetes ), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a monophyletic group ), an interpretation that
3535-427: Is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution. In contrast to plants and animals , the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include
3636-529: The Automated Transfer Vehicle , to be jointly developed with Thales Alenia Space . Three companies were awarded contracts on January 14, 2016. Sierra Nevada Corporation 's Dream Chaser , the SpaceX Dragon 2 , and Orbital ATK Cygnus were selected, each for a minimum of six launches. The maximum potential value of all the contracts was indicated to be $ 14 billion, but the minimum value
3737-601: The Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales , and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte -like plants. Prototaxites , which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian and early Devonian . Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until
3838-523: The Canadarm2 . BioAsteroid is an experiment designed to test the infrastructure and tools needed for asteroid, lunar, and Martian rock biomining . It will use microorganisms (the bacterium S. desiccabilis and the fungus P. simplicissimum ) to extract metals from L- chondrite , testing the possibility to use this technique to obtain resources that will allow long-term and long-distance human space exploration and extraterrestrial settlements. Hemocue
3939-611: The Cargo Dragon . The CRS-21 mission carries 2,972 kg (6,552 lb) of cargo to ISS. Nanoracks Bishop Airlock , formerly known as Bishop Airlock Module, is a payload airlock attached to the Tranquility module of the ISS, commercially developed and operated by Nanoracks . The Bishop Airlock provides five times the satellite deployment volume previously available, when the Japanese Kibō airlock served that role alone. Nanoracks
4040-632: The Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny . This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ('sponge') and Schimmel ('mold'). The word mycology is derived from the Greek mykes (μύκης 'mushroom') and logos (λόγος 'discourse'). It denotes
4141-545: The ascomycete genus Cochliobolus , and the ascomycete Pneumocystis jirovecii . The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual reproduction . Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus , may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events
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4242-440: The biopolymer chitin. Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates , such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds . Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies . These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation ) that can be used as diagnostic features in
4343-455: The roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks . Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of
4444-658: The 2000s funding was authorized for the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program, followed by the Commercial Crew Development program. On 23 December 2008, NASA announced the initial awarding of cargo contracts - twelve flights to SpaceX and eight flights to Orbital Sciences Corporation . PlanetSpace , which was not selected, submitted a protest to the Government Accountability Office . On 22 April 2009,
4545-516: The Dream Chaser spaceplane itself. Boeing's proposal likewise used a cargo version of its CST-100 crew vehicle. Lockheed Martin proposed a new cargo spacecraft called Jupiter , derived from the designs of the NASA's MAVEN and Juno spacecraft. It would have included a robotic arm based on Canadarm technology and a 4.4-meter (14 ft) diameter cargo transport module called Exoliner based on
4646-588: The Dutch Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley , August Carl Joseph Corda , Anton de Bary ,
4747-447: The GAO publicly released its decision to deny the protest, allowing the program to continue. The Antares and Falcon 9 launch vehicles and Cygnus and Dragon cargo spacecraft were developed using Space Act Agreements under NASA's Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. The first flight contracted by NASA, COTS Demo Flight 1 , took place on 8 December 2010, demonstrating
4848-703: The Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes ). Two amber -preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti ) appeared during the late Cretaceous , 90 Ma. Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments ) formed, suggesting that fungi were
4949-531: The ISS on 12 January 2021 at 14:05 UTC. SpaceX recovery teams were on standby for the parachute-assisted splashdown on 14 January 2021 at 01:26 UTC in the Gulf of Mexico , west of Tampa, Florida . Dragon returned to Earth with 2,002 kg (4,414 lb) of cargo, according to NASA . NASA contracted for the CRS-21 mission from SpaceX and therefore determines the primary payload, date of launch, and orbital parameters for
5050-636: The ISS. The spacecraft reentered on 31 May, landed in the Pacific Ocean, and was recovered, completed CRS certification requirements. Orbital Sciences first launched the Antares rocket from the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport on 21 April 2013 with a test payload. Orbital Sciences completed the Cygnus Orb-D1 demonstration flight on 29 September 2013, and the operational Cygnus CRS Orb-1
5151-564: The Rodent Research-23 mission, along with used habitats and transporters that support future research missions and analysis. Minus Eighty Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI) Electronics Unit : Failed cold stowage item requiring ground repair to enable future cold stowage missions. Thermal Amine Bulk Water Save Valve : Failed valve that supports efficient usage of the Thermal Amine system returning to ground for repair. The returned valve
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#17328692067165252-487: The air over long distances. Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins ), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of
5353-645: The apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants —has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication . Fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs , organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism . Fungi have evolved
5454-414: The basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia , can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating systems : heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of
5555-490: The basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. The oldest fossilizied mycelium to be identified from its molecular composition is between 715 and 810 million years old. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to
5656-692: The brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne , Arthur H. R. Buller , Curtis G. Lloyd , and Pier Andrea Saccardo . In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry , genetics , molecular biology , biotechnology , DNA sequencing , and phylogenetic analysis have provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity , and have challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy . Most fungi grow as hyphae , which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 μm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by
5757-621: The cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm , organelles , and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into
5858-531: The damage they can cause, as well as the process to repair the tissue, called brazing, and if it still works in a zero-gravity environment. Three-Dimensional Microbial Monitoring (3DMM) is a project that aims to construct a three-dimensional map of bacteria and metabolites that are present at various locations throughout the ISS, and determine how the spaceflight environment affects the various species identified. Monoclonal Crystal Research in Microgravity (MCRM)
5959-512: The discovery of a fossilized fungus, named Ourasphaira giraldae , in the Canadian Arctic , that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants were living on land. Pyritized fungus-like microfossils preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China. Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during
6060-602: The dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary. Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there
6161-535: The early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert , mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota . At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian , 318.1–299 Ma). Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and
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#17328692067166262-412: The effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO 2 fixation via visible light , but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy. Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that
6363-427: The environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides , proteins , and lipids —into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below
6464-522: The estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415 Ma; this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus , found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are
6565-458: The first Cargo Dragon flight that was docked at the same time as a Crew Dragon spacecraft ( SpaceX Crew-1 ). This mission used Booster B1058.4, becoming the first NASA mission to reuse a booster previously used on a non-NASA mission. This was also first time SpaceX launched a NASA payload on a booster with more than one previous flight. SpaceX plans to reuse the Cargo Dragons up to five times. It
6666-535: The force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns , a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores. In homothallic sexual reproduction , two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that can then undergo meiosis . Homothallic fungi include species with an Aspergillus -like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera, several species of
6767-417: The formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural asci ) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp , or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores . After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form
6868-414: The general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms , form conspicuous fruit bodies , which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses . The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around
6969-769: The higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature . Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants , fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized nomenclatural repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms ). The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi
7070-408: The host cells to consume nutrients. Although fungi are opisthokonts —a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum —all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan ) and other typical components, also contains
7171-411: The identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of Armillaria solidipes , which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years. The apothecium —a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is
7272-416: The intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans , parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as
7373-486: The introduction of a larger Enhanced Cygnus, enabled Orbital ATK to cover their initial CRS contracted payload obligation by OA-7. During August 2015, Orbital ATK disclosed that they had received an extension of the resupply program for four extra missions. These flights enable NASA to cover ISS resupply needs until CRS-2 begins. NASA began a formal process to initiate Phase 2 of the Commercial Resupply Services, or CRS-2, in early 2014. Later that year, an "Industry Day"
7474-546: The more familiar mushrooms . These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms , along with Animalia , Plantae , and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista . A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants , bacteria , and some protists is chitin in their cell walls . Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs ; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize . Growth
7575-607: The nature of fungal fruiting bodies , which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues, and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy . Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving
7676-452: The new Antares 300 series (Antares 330) rockets with booster stage and engines developed by Firefly Aerospace . These missions are also slated to use a new enlarged "Mission B" variant of the Cygnus spacecraft. Fungus A fungus ( pl. : fungi or funguses ) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as
7777-401: The opposite mating type , whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself. Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis , is required for the initiation of
7878-445: The phrase fauna and flora be replaced by fauna, flora, and funga . Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile , and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among
7979-468: The plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants. Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation , as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive
8080-417: The preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi. Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology
8181-451: The researched species of fungi are transported by wind. Such species often produce dry or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example. In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through
8282-466: The resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups. Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology ,
8383-455: The scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" ( mycologicæ ) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon . The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by Robert Kaye Greville . In 1836 the English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley 's publication The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5. also refers to mycology as
8484-420: The sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis ). In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic hook (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division ,
8585-508: The size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests . The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate . The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced
8686-434: The small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites . They may become noticeable when fruiting , either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as
8787-469: The space station for up to 75 days, more than twice as long as the first-generation Dragon spacecraft". With this mission, this was the first time that two Dragon capsules were docked at the ISS at the same time. Beginning with the CRS-21 mission, the new Dragon Cargo capsules splash down under parachutes off the coast of Florida in either the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico . This NASA preference
8888-590: The start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms: Shared features: Unique features: Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as Armillaria , form rhizomorphs , which resemble and perform functions similar to
8989-609: The structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section). In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota , haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming
9090-581: The study of fungi. A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as mycobiota (plural noun, no singular). The term mycota is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word funga has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to fauna and flora . The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that
9191-605: The study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi. The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman , a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder ( Fomes fomentarius ), or for medicinal purposes ( Piptoporus betulinus ). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in
9292-503: The surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details. The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago ( Ma ); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis . Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on
9393-524: The treadmill, a critical item returning to the ground following the on-orbit replacement with a working spare. Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA) Air Selector Valve : Critical degraded valve returning for repair and refurbishment to support the carbon dioxide removal capability on-orbit. Nitrogen Oxygen Recharge System (NORS) Tank : Depressurized tank capable of flying oxygen or nitrogen, and will be utilized for future on-orbit demand in 2021. Rodent Research Habitats and Transporters : Live rodents from
9494-445: The treatment of numerous diseases, including cancer. Rodent Research-23 will study the effects of spaceflight on the eyes, specifically on the structure and function of the arteries, veins, and lymphatic vessels that are needed to maintain vision. Student Spaceflight Experiments Program : The Student Spaceflight Experiments Program (SSEP) has 27 experiments manifested as part of Mission 14A. The CRS-21 pressurized capsule carries
9595-420: The way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one subkingdom , seven phyla , and ten subphyla . The English word fungus is directly adopted from
9696-410: Was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap". Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts . Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support
9797-433: Was added to CRS-2 awards. T+00:00: Liftoff T+01:18: Maximum aerodynamic pressure T+02:30: First stage main engine cutoff (MECO) T+02:34: Stage separation T+02:41: Second stage engine start T+06:37: First stage entry burn begins T+08:38: Second stage engine cutoff (SECO) T+08:38: First stage landing on drone ship T+11:49: Dragon separation T+12:35: Dragon nose cone open sequence begins Dragon undocked from
9898-612: Was held in Houston, with seven high-level requirements disclosed to interested parties. The contracts were expected to include a variety of requirements: CRS-1 contractors Orbital Sciences and SpaceX each submitted CRS-2 proposals, joined by Sierra Nevada , Boeing , and Lockheed Martin . SNC's proposal would use a cargo version of its Dream Chaser crew vehicle, the 'Dream Chaser Cargo System'. The proposed cargo Dream Chaser included an additional expendable cargo module for uplift and trash disposal. Downmass would only be provided via
9999-450: Was launched 9 January 2014. Transport flights began under Commercial Resupply Services phase 1 (CRS-1) in 2012: Following the failure, the Antares 230 system was upgraded with newly built RD-181 first-stage engines to provide greater payload performance and increased reliability. The next two spacecraft were launched on the Atlas V . With the switch to more powerful launch vehicles and
10100-603: Was launched without seats, cockpit controls, the life support system required to sustain astronauts in space and SuperDraco abort engines. Dragon 2 improves on Dragon 1 in several ways, including lessened refurbishment time, leading to shorter periods between flights. While CRS-21 was for a standard 30 days mission, the most recent Flight Planning Integration Panel (FPIP) document indicates that beginning with CRS-23, SpaceX cargo missions will begin to stretch out to 60 days and beyond. Sarah Walker, director of Dragon mission management at SpaceX, said "the new Cargo Dragon can stay at
10201-519: Was solicited in 2014. CRS-2 contracts were awarded in January 2016 to Orbital ATK’s continued use of Cygnus , Sierra Nevada Corporation ’s new Dream Chaser , and SpaceX’s new Dragon 2 , for cargo transport flights beginning in 2019 and expected to last through 2024. NASA has been directed to pursue commercial spaceflight options since at least 1984, with the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 and Launch Services Purchase Act of 1990. By
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