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125-449: The 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP17) was held in Durban , South Africa, from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions. A treaty was not established, but the conference agreed to establish a legally binding deal comprising all countries by 2015, which was to take effect in 2020. There was also progress regarding the creation of

250-403: A Green Climate Fund for which a management framework was adopted. The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts. While the president of the conference, Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success, scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 °C as more urgent action

375-416: A plant-based diet , having fewer children, using clothes and electrical products for longer, and electrifying homes. These approaches are more practical for people in high-income countries with high-consumption lifestyles. Naturally, it is more difficult for those with lower income statuses to make these changes. This is because choices like electric-powered cars may not be available. Excessive consumption

500-559: A COP must be agreed by consensus. The first UN Climate Change Conference was held in 1995 in Berlin. The first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties took place from 28 March to 7 April 1995 in Berlin , Germany. Delegates from 117 Parties and 53 Observer States attended the conference. One of the central issues of COP 1 was the adequacy of individual country commitments, resulting in a mandate to begin

625-636: A bigger effect than population growth. Rising incomes, changes in consumption and dietary patterns, as well as population growth, cause pressure on land and other natural resources. This leads to more greenhouse gas emissions and fewer carbon sinks. Some scholars have argued that humane policies to slow population growth should be part of a broad climate response together with policies that end fossil fuel use and encourage sustainable consumption. Advances in female education and reproductive health , especially voluntary family planning , can contribute to reducing population growth. An important mitigation measure

750-466: A chance to finalize a Protocol that could secure ratification. Specifically, COP-6 was intended to complete work on the two-year Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA), agreed upon at COP-4. However, these groups saw the United States as a roadblock to finalize such a Protocol. The discussions evolved rapidly into a high-level negotiation over the major political issues. These included major controversy over

875-534: A climate mitigation option. The terminology in this area is still evolving. Experts sometimes use the term geoengineering or climate engineering in the scientific literature for both CDR or SRM, if the techniques are used at a global scale. IPCC reports no longer use the terms geoengineering or climate engineering . GHG emissions 2020 by gas type without land-use change using 100 year GWP Total: 49.8 GtCO 2 e CO 2 emissions by fuel type Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen

1000-652: A decision on voting rules was deferred to COP 2. COP 2 took place from 8–19 July 1996 in Geneva , Switzerland. Its ministerial declaration was noted (but not adopted) on 18 July 1996, and reflected a United States position statement presented by Timothy Wirth , former Under Secretary for Global Affairs for the United States Department of State at that meeting, which: COP 3 took place on 1–11 December 1997 in Kyoto , Japan. After intensive negotiations, it adopted

1125-638: A definitive or detailed evaluation of most goals set for 2020. But it appears the world failed to meet most or all international goals set for that year. One update came during the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow. The group of researchers running the Climate Action Tracker looked at countries responsible for 85% of greenhouse gas emissions. It found that only four countries or political entities—the EU, UK, Chile and Costa Rica—have published

1250-528: A detailed official policy‑plan that describes the steps to realise 2030 mitigation targets. These four polities are responsible for 6% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In 2021 the US and EU launched the Global Methane Pledge to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030. The UK, Argentina, Indonesia, Italy and Mexico joined the initiative. Ghana and Iraq signaled interest in joining. A White House summary of

1375-444: A greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere". Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean . To enhance the ability of ecosystems to sequester carbon, changes are necessary in agriculture and forestry. Examples are preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation . Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project

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1500-518: A less specific "politically binding" agreement that would punt the most difficult issues into the future". Ministers and officials from 192 countries took part in the Copenhagen meeting and in addition there were participants from a large number of civil society organizations. As many Annex 1 industrialized countries are now reluctant to fulfill commitments under the Kyoto Protocol, a large part of

1625-402: A low efficiency of less than 50%. Large amounts of heat in power plants and in motors of vehicles go to waste. The actual amount of energy consumed is significantly lower at 116,000 TWh. Energy conservation is the effort made to reduce the consumption of energy by using less of an energy service. One way is to use energy more efficiently . This means using less energy than before to produce

1750-641: A low emissions global economy. COP 23 was held on 6–17 November 2017. On Friday, 18 November 2016, the end of COP 22, the Chairperson of COP 23 from Fiji announced that it would be held in Bonn, Germany . (COP 23/CMP 13). Fijian Prime Minister and incoming President of COP 23, Frank Bainimarama , on 13 April launched the logo for this year's United Nations Climate Change Conference, to be held at UN Campus, Bonn in November. This conference saw

1875-481: A lower status. If they reduce their emissions and promote green policies, these people could become low-carbon lifestyle role models. However, there are many psychological variables that influence consumers. These include awareness and perceived risk. Government policies can support or hinder demand-side mitigation options. For example, public policy can promote circular economy concepts which would support climate change mitigation. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

2000-592: A major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures. It will be necessary to accelerate the deployment of renewable energy six-fold from 0.25% annual growth in 2015 to 1.5% to keep global warming under 2 °C. The competitiveness of renewable energy is a key to a rapid deployment. In 2020, onshore wind and solar photovoltaics were the cheapest source for new bulk electricity generation in many regions. Renewables may have higher storage costs but non-renewables may have higher clean-up costs. A carbon price can increase

2125-464: A more efficient technology or production process. Another way is to use commonly accepted methods to reduce energy losses. Individual action on climate change can include personal choices in many areas. These include diet, travel, household energy use, consumption of goods and services, and family size. People who wish to reduce their carbon footprint can take high-impact actions such as avoiding frequent flying and petrol-fuelled cars, eating mainly

2250-587: A peak in global emissions by 2015, continue the Kyoto Protocol and provide a mandate for a comprehensive legally binding instrument, deliver climate finance and set up a framework for protecting forests in developing countries. Anjali Appadurai , a college student at College of the Atlantic in Maine and a member of the Youth Delegation, delivered a succinct speech that summed up the science regarding global warming and

2375-552: A plant-based diet, vast amounts of land used for animal agriculture could be allowed to return to their natural state . This in turn has the potential to sequester 100 billion tonnes of CO 2 by the end of the century. A comprehensive analysis found that plant based diets reduce emissions, water pollution and land use significantly (by 75%), while reducing the destruction of wildlife and usage of water. Population growth has resulted in higher greenhouse gas emissions in most regions, particularly Africa. However, economic growth has

2500-424: A pre-sessional period from 26 November to 1 December 2019 with up to 25 000 delegates scheduled to attend. However, following the 2019 Chilean protests , Chilean President Sebastián Piñera announced Chile's withdrawal from hosting the summit in late October 2019. UN Climate Change Executive Secretary Patricia Espinosa stated that organizers were "exploring alternative hosting options". Then Spain offered, and

2625-647: A process toward individual country action for the period beyond 2000. This included strengthening the commitments of Annex I Parties in Article 4.2(a) and (b). Delegates also established: a pilot phase for Joint Implementation projects; an agreement that the Permanent Secretariat should be located in Bonn, Germany; and the Subsidiary Bodies . Conference delegates did not reach consensus on the Rules of Procedures, and

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2750-420: A three-quarters majority vote, thus clarifying the decision-making process under the convention. Describing the proposal as "intriguing", Black noted that although it would theoretically enable developing countries to use their numerical superiority to adopt any kind of world-wide binding obligation, in practical terms they would still need the approval of rich countries to secure funding. Xie Zhenhua , head of

2875-581: A timeline and structured negotiation on the post-2012 framework (the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol) was achieved with the adoption of the Bali Action Plan (Decision 1/CP.13). The Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA) was established as a new subsidiary body to conduct the negotiations aimed at urgently enhancing the implementation of

3000-432: Is coal-fired power stations with 20% of greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane. The largest sources of anthropogenic methane emissions are agriculture , and gas venting and fugitive emissions from the fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. Agricultural soils emit nitrous oxide , partly due to fertilizers. There

3125-539: Is pumped-storage hydroelectricity . This requires locations with large differences in height and access to water. Batteries are also in wide use. They typically store electricity for short periods. Batteries have low energy density . This and their cost makes them impractical for the large energy storage necessary to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production. Some locations have implemented pumped hydro storage with capacity for multi-month usage. Nuclear power could complement renewables for electricity. On

3250-456: Is "preserving and enhancing carbon sinks ". This refers to the management of Earth's natural carbon sinks in a way that preserves or increases their capability to remove CO 2 from the atmosphere and to store it durably. Scientists call this process also carbon sequestration . In the context of climate change mitigation, the IPCC defines a sink as "Any process, activity or mechanism which removes

3375-430: Is a crime of global proportions ... An increase in global temperatures of 4 degrees Celsius, permitted under this plan, is a death sentence for Africa, Small Island States, and the poor and vulnerable worldwide. This summit has amplified climate apartheid, whereby the richest 1% of the world have decided that it is acceptable to sacrifice the 99%." Greenpeace issued a statement calling on conference participants to ensure

3500-695: Is by reducing the demand by improving infrastructure, by building a good public transport network, for example. Lastly, changes in end-use technology can reduce energy demand. For instance a well-insulated house emits less than a poorly-insulated house. Mitigation options that reduce demand for products or services help people make personal choices to reduce their carbon footprint . This could be in their choice of transport or food. So these mitigation options have many social aspects that focus on demand reduction; they are therefore demand-side mitigation actions . For example, people with high socio-economic status often cause more greenhouse gas emissions than those from

3625-413: Is competitive with other electricity generation technologies if long term costs for nuclear waste disposal are excluded from the calculation. There is also no sufficient financial insurance for nuclear accidents. Switching from coal to natural gas has advantages in terms of sustainability. For a given unit of energy produced, the life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of natural gas are around 40 times

3750-420: Is currently a high cost climate change mitigation strategy. Human land use changes such as agriculture and deforestation cause about 1/4th of climate change. These changes impact how much CO 2 is absorbed by plant matter and how much organic matter decays or burns to release CO 2 . These changes are part of the fast carbon cycle , whereas fossil fuels release CO 2 that was buried underground as part of

3875-505: Is due to report in November 2010. The negotiations on extending the Kyoto Protocol had unresolved issues as did the negotiations on a framework for long-term cooperative action. The working groups on these tracks to the negotiations are now due to report to COP 16 and CMP 6 in Mexico. COP 16 was held in Cancún , Mexico, from 28 November to 10 December 2010. The outcome of the summit

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4000-411: Is found for reducing deforestation in tropical regions. The economic potential of these activities has been estimated to be 4.2 to 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO 2 -eq) per year. The Stern Review on the economics of climate change stated in 2007 that curbing deforestation was a highly cost-effective way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. About 95% of deforestation occurs in

4125-621: Is higher in the winter when PV output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power lead to better-balanced systems. Other well-established renewable energy forms include hydropower, bioenergy and geothermal energy. Wind and solar power production does not consistently match demand. To deliver reliable electricity from variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems must be flexible. Most electrical grids were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants. The integration of larger amounts of solar and wind energy into

4250-404: Is linked to the sharing economy . There is a debate regarding the correlation of economic growth and emissions. It seems economic growth no longer necessarily means higher emissions. Global primary energy demand exceeded 161,000 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2018. This refers to electricity, transport and heating including all losses. In transport and electricity production, fossil fuel usage has

4375-652: Is more to blame for climate change than population increase. High-consumption lifestyles have a greater environmental impact, with the richest 10% of people emitting about half the total lifestyle emissions. Some scientists say that avoiding meat and dairy foods is the single biggest way an individual can reduce their environmental impact. The widespread adoption of a vegetarian diet could cut food-related greenhouse gas emissions by 63% by 2050. China introduced new dietary guidelines in 2016 which aim to cut meat consumption by 50% and thereby reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 1   Gt per year by 2030. Overall, food accounts for

4500-746: Is needed. The conference was officially referred to as the 17th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 17) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 7th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties (CMP 7) to the Kyoto Protocol . In addition, the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC – the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and

4625-522: Is now a political solution to the problem of fluorinated gases from refrigerants . This is because many countries have ratified the Kigali Amendment . Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas. Methane ( CH 4 ) emissions almost have the same short-term impact. Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) and fluorinated gases (F-Gases) play a minor role. Livestock and manure produce 5.8% of all greenhouse gas emissions. But this depends on

4750-416: Is overcoming environmental objections when constructing new clean energy sources and making grid modifications. Climate change mitigation aims to sustain ecosystems to maintain human civilisation . This requires drastic cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines mitigation (of climate change) as "a human intervention to reduce emissions or enhance

4875-488: Is possible to shift energy demand in time. Energy demand management and the use of smart grids make it possible to match the times when variable energy production is highest. Sector coupling can provide further flexibility. This involves coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via power-to-heat -systems and electric vehicles. Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy. The most commonly used and available storage method

5000-467: Is the centrepiece, it cannot be shifted. This is not about India. Does fighting climate change mean we have to give up on equity? We have agreed to protocol and legal instrument. What's the problem in having one more option? India will never be intimidated by any threat or any kind of pressure. What's this legal instrument? How do I give a blank cheque? We're talking of livelihoods and sustainability here. I'm not accusing anybody, but there are efforts to shift

5125-509: Is the process of reducing the amount of energy required to provide products and services. Improved energy efficiency in buildings ("green buildings"), industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third. This would help reduce global emissions of greenhouse gases. For example, insulating a building allows it to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain thermal comfort. Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting

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5250-681: Is variable and can require electrical grid upgrades, such as using long-distance electricity transmission to group a range of power sources. Energy storage can also be used to even out power output, and demand management can limit power use when power generation is low. Cleanly generated electricity can usually replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and running industrial processes. Certain processes are more difficult to decarbonise, such as air travel and cement production . Carbon capture and storage (CCS) can be an option to reduce net emissions in these circumstances, although fossil fuel power plants with CCS technology

5375-775: The Kyoto Protocol , which outlined the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation for Annex I countries , along with what came to be known as Kyoto mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development mechanism and joint implementation. In a separate decision of the Conference of Parties, countries agreed to a range of national security exemptions which stated that bunker fuels and emissions from multilateral military operations would not be part of national emissions totals and would be reported outside of those totals. Most industrialized countries and some central European economies in transition (all defined as Annex B countries) agreed to legally binding reductions in greenhouse gas emissions of an average of 6 to 8% below 1990 levels between

5500-486: The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change said: "I salute the countries who made this agreement. They have all laid aside some cherished objectives of their own to meet a common purpose, a long-term solution to climate change." Kumi Naidoo of Greenpeace International said: "Right now the global climate regime amounts to nothing more than a voluntary deal that's put off for a decade. This could take us over

5625-597: The United Arab Emirates , from 30 November to 12 December 2023. In advance to the conference, Pope Francis issued an apostolic exhortation called Laudate Deum in which he calls for brisk action against the climate crisis and condemns climate change denial . At the beginning of November 2023, the Pope announced he would attend the conference and would stay there for 3 days, but unfortunately he had to cancel his trip due to health issues. Charles III , King of

5750-485: The effects of climate change . India 's representative at the conference, Jayanthi Natarajan stated that India "will not be intimidated. There is an attempt to shift the blame to developing countries. We do not accept that. Please do not hold us hostage. And please do not take our agreement to be weakness." Natarajan responded to European Union Climate Commissioner Connie Hedegaard , saying that: We have shown more flexibility than virtually any other country. But equity

5875-616: The greenhouse effect . This contributes to climate change . Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels : coal, oil, and natural gas. Human-caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. Emissions in the 2010s averaged a record 56 billion tons (Gt) a year. In 2016, energy for electricity, heat and transport was responsible for 73.2% of GHG emissions. Direct industrial processes accounted for 5.2%, waste for 3.2% and agriculture, forestry and land use for 18.4%. Electricity generation and transport are major emitters. The largest single source

6000-827: The sinks of greenhouse gases ". It is possible to approach various mitigation measures in parallel. This is because there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2 °C. There are four types of measures: The IPCC defined carbon dioxide removal as "Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO 2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS), but excludes natural CO 2 uptake not directly caused by human activities." While solar radiation modification (SRM) could reduce surface temperatures, it temporarily masks climate change rather than addressing

6125-410: The "Durban Platform for Enhanced Action", was notable in that for the first time it included developing countries such as China and India, as well as the US which had refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol . The agreement entailed the continuation of the Kyoto Protocol in the interim, although only some countries including members of the EU were indicated as likely to commit. The Ad Hoc Working Group on

6250-713: The (climate) problem to countries that have not contributed to it. If that is done, we're willing to reopen the entire Durban Package. We did not issue a threat. But are we being made into a scapegoat? Please don't hold us hostage. Bruce Campbell, Director of the CGIAR research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), said it was astonishing that agriculture, one of the worst emitters of greenhouse gases, remained excluded from global agreements on climate change. "Leading agricultural groups, from farmers and researchers to policymakers and development organisations, have all come together to call on COP17 negotiators to address

6375-569: The 1990s. A different technology is concentrated solar power (CSP). This uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight on to a receiver. With CSP, the energy can be stored for a few hours. This provides supply in the evening. Solar water heating doubled between 2010 and 2019. Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the greatest potential for wind power. Offshore wind farms are more expensive. But offshore units deliver more energy per installed capacity with less fluctuations. In most regions, wind power generation

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6500-413: The 2 °C threshold where we pass from danger to potential catastrophe." U.S. Senator Jim Inhofe , who opposes government energy regulations such as cap-and-trade and has called man-made climate change a hoax, cheered what he called the setting aside of "any remote possibility of a UN global warming treaty" and described the conference outcome as "the complete collapse of the global warming movement and

6625-405: The 2022 IPCC report on mitigation. The abbreviation stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use" The report described the economic mitigation potential from relevant activities around forests and ecosystems as follows: "the conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems (coastal wetlands, peatlands , savannas and grasslands)". A high mitigation potential

6750-516: The Buenos Aires Plan of Action was adopted. The parties also began discussing the post-Kyoto mechanism, on how to allocate emission reduction obligation following 2012, when the first commitment period ends. COP 11/CMP 1 took place between 28 November and 9 December 2005, in Montreal , Quebec, Canada. It was the first C onference of the Parties serving as the M eeting of the Parties to

6875-653: The Chinese delegation, stated that China was willing to make binding commitments to limited greenhouse gases in 2020 if they appropriately took into account historical contributions of greenhouse gases by developed countries such as the United States and European states and sustainable economic needs of developing countries such as China and India. Xie said that he was concerned about the reluctance of developed nations to reduce their own greenhouse gas emissions. He called on developed countries to provide financial and technical aid to help developing nations fight against and cope with

7000-465: The Conference began, the BBC highlighted two contentious proposals which had been submitted – one by Russia , the other by Papua New Guinea , both aiming to amend the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . Russia's proposal would bring about a "periodic review" whereby countries currently categorised as "poor" could be recategorised as "rich", and thus obliged to shoulder greater obligations in

7125-608: The Convention up to and beyond 2012. Decision 9/CP.13 is an Amended to the New Delhi work programme. These negotiations took place during 2008 (leading to COP 14/CMP 4 in Poznan, Poland) and 2009 (leading to COP 15/CMP 5 in Copenhagen). COP 14 /CMP 4 took place on 1–12 December 2008 in Poznań , Poland. Delegates agreed on principles for the financing of a fund to help

7250-470: The Convention. The COP 8 was marked by Russia's hesitation, stating that it needed more time to think it over. The Kyoto Protocol could enter into force once it was ratified by 55 countries, including countries responsible for 55 per cent of the developed world's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions. With the United States (36.1 per cent share of developed-world carbon dioxide) and Australia refusing ratification, Russia's agreement (17% of global emissions in 1990)

7375-542: The Durban Platform for Enhanced Action was consequently established to conclude the shaping of the next climate regime, which must include the entire international community – including the United States and emerging countries – in the fight against global warming (unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which only imposes binding reduction targets on countries listed in Annex I). The terms of the Durban Platform were ultimately met following

7500-601: The Environment in London, said: "The agreement here has not in itself taken us off the 4 °C path we are on... But by forcing countries for the first time to admit that their current policies are inadequate and must be strengthened by 2015, it has snatched 2 °C from the jaws of impossibility. At the same time it has re-established the principle that climate change should be tackled through international law, not national, voluntarism." Christiana Figueres , executive secretary of

7625-532: The IPCC. All parties "Recognizing that climate change represents an urgent and potentially irreversible threat to human societies and the planet, and thus requires to be urgently addressed by all Parties". It recognizes the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report goal of a maximum 2 °C global warming and all parties should take urgent action to meet this goal. It also agreed upon greenhouse gas emissions should peak as soon as possible, but recognizing that

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7750-524: The Kyoto P rotocol (CMP 1) since their initial meeting in Kyoto in 1997. It was one of the largest intergovernmental conferences on climate change ever. The event marked the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. Hosting more than 10 000 delegates, it was one of Canada's largest international events ever and the largest gathering in Montreal since Expo 67 . The Montreal Action Plan was an agreement to "extend

7875-521: The Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) – were likely to hold their 35th sessions. The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies – the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the convention (AWG-LCA) – so they were expected to meet as well. A primary focus of

8000-706: The UNFCCC's charter). The conference was held in Warsaw , Poland from 11 to 23 November 2013. The most prominent result was the adoption of the Warsaw Framework for REDD-plus. The Conference also established the Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM) for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts (Loss and Damage Mechanism), to address loss and damage associated with impacts of climate change. This included extreme events and slow onset events, in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to

8125-546: The United Kingdom , gave the opening address at the summit, his first speech on the climate crisis since becoming monarch. United States president Joe Biden did not attend, with the 2023 Israel–Hamas war and internal US government spending difficulties being cited as possible causes. Climate change mitigation Solar energy and wind power can replace fossil fuels at the lowest cost compared to other renewable energy options. The availability of sunshine and wind

8250-539: The United States' proposal to allow credit for carbon "sinks" in forests and agricultural lands that would satisfy a major proportion of the U.S. emissions reductions in this way; disagreements over consequences for non-compliance by countries that did not meet their emission reduction targets; and difficulties in resolving how developing countries could obtain financial assistance to deal with adverse effects of climate change and meet their obligations to plan for measuring and possibly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In

8375-655: The ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. Short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years. Carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia. Short-lived climate pollutants include methane , hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) , tropospheric ozone and black carbon . Scientists increasingly use satellites to locate and measure greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. Earlier, scientists largely relied on or calculated estimates of greenhouse gas emissions and governments' self-reported data. The annual "Emissions Gap Report" by UNEP stated in 2022 that it

8500-478: The advantages of switching away from coal. The technology to curb methane leaks is widely available but it is not always used. Reducing demand for products and services that cause greenhouse gas emissions can help in mitigating climate change. One is to reduce demand by behavioural and cultural changes , for example by making changes in diet, especially the decision to reduce meat consumption, an effective action individuals take to fight climate change . Another

8625-541: The adverse effects of climate change. On 1–12 December 2014, Lima , Peru, hosted the 20th yearly session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 10th session of the Meeting of the Parties (CMP) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (the protocol having been developed under the UNFCCC's charter). The pre-COP conference was held in Venezuela. The COP 21

8750-545: The areas of support for developing countries and clean development mechanism. The parties adopted a five-year plan of work to support climate change adaptation by developing countries, and agreed on the procedures and modalities for the Adaptation Fund. They also agreed to improve the projects for clean development mechanism. COP 13/CMP 3 took place on 3–15 December 2007, at Nusa Dua , in Bali , Indonesia . Agreement on

8875-519: The combat against climate change. BBC Environment correspondent Richard Black commented that the proposal would be "provocative and explosive, if Russia pushes it", because potentially affected countries, such as China and Brazil , would "push back very strongly". Papua New Guinea's proposal, submitted by Ambassador Kevin Conrad with the support of Mexico , would introduce a "last resort" mechanism to break any deadlocks in climate change negotiations through

9000-478: The competitiveness of renewable energy. Wind and sun can provide large amounts of low-carbon energy at competitive production costs. The IPCC estimates that these two mitigation options have the largest potential to reduce emissions before 2030 at low cost. Solar photovoltaics (PV) has become the cheapest way to generate electricity in many regions of the world. The growth of photovoltaics has been close to exponential. It has about doubled every three years since

9125-610: The conference was to secure a global climate agreement as the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012) was about to end. It was also expected to focus on "finalising at least some of the Cancun Agreements", reached at the 2010 Conference , such as "co-operation on clean technology ", as well as "forest protection, adaptation to climate impacts, and finance – the promised transfer of funds from rich countries to poor in order to help them protect forests, adapt to climate impacts, and "green" their economies ". A month before

9250-558: The conferences have also served as the "Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol" (CMP); also parties to the convention that are not parties to the protocol can participate in protocol-related meetings as observers. From 2011 to 2015, the meetings were used to negotiate the Paris Agreement as part of the Durban platform , which created a general path towards climate action . Any final text of

9375-626: The differences that had produced an impasse in The Hague. However, this meeting took place after George W. Bush had become the President of the United States and had rejected the Kyoto Protocol in March 2001; as a result the United States delegation to this meeting declined to participate in the negotiations related to the Protocol and chose to take the role of observer at the meeting. As the other parties negotiated

9500-513: The diplomatic work that lays the foundation for a post-Kyoto agreement was undertaken up to the COP ;15. The conference did not achieve a binding agreement for long-term action. A 13-paragraph 'political accord' was negotiated by approximately 25 parties including US and China, but it was only 'noted' by the COP as it is considered an external document, not negotiated within the UNFCCC process. The accord

9625-425: The emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat. Natural gas combustion also produces less air pollution than coal. However, natural gas is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and leaks during extraction and transportation can negate

9750-463: The end of the session, as they had a right to under the session's rules. In closing the conference, the President said that he would note these objections in his final report. COP 19 was the 19th yearly session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 9th session of the Meeting of the Parties (CMP) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (the protocol having been developed under

9875-531: The event a special initiative on water was presided by Charafat Afailal, Morocco's Minister in Charge of Water and Aziz Mekouar, COP 22 Ambassador for Multilateral Negotiations. Another focal issue was the need to reduce greenhouse emissions and utilize low-carbon energy sources. Peter Thomson , President of the UN General Assembly, called for the transformation of the global economy in all sectors to achieve

10000-586: The failure of the Kyoto process". Inhofe said that the message from Washington, including from President Obama and the Democratic leadership of the U.S. Senate, to the delegates of the conference was that they are being ignored. German media criticised the outcome as "almost useless", saying the pledges are vague and the timeline is slow, the main merit being that the talks have been kept alive. United Nations Climate Change Conference The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in

10125-486: The failure of the UNFCCC negotiations to rein in climate change, demanding the UN "Get it done!" After two weeks of negotiations a deal was reached only on the last day, Sunday 11 December, after a 60-hour marathon negotiation session. Negotiators agreed to be part of a legally binding treaty to address global warming. The terms of the future treaty were to be defined by 2015 and become effective in 2020. The agreement, referred to as

10250-414: The final hours of COP 6, despite some compromises agreed between the United States and some EU countries, notably the United Kingdom, the EU countries as a whole, led by Denmark and Germany, rejected the compromise positions, and the talks in The Hague collapsed. Jan Pronk , the President of COP 6, suspended COP 6 without agreement, with the expectation that negotiations would later resume. It

10375-481: The framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). They serve as the formal meeting of the UNFCCC parties – the Conference of the Parties (COP) – to assess progress in dealing with climate change , and beginning in the mid-1990s, to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol to establish legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions . Starting in 2005

10500-468: The greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation, the first two non-Annex countries to do so. COP 5 took place between 25 October and 5 November 1999, in Bonn , Germany. It was primarily a technical meeting, and did not reach major conclusions. 165 Parties were represented at the conference. Conference delegates continued their work toward fulfilling the Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA) adopted at COP 4. In

10625-509: The grid requires a change of the energy system; this is necessary to ensure that the supply of electricity matches demand. There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale. There is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low. Linking different geographical regions through long-distance transmission lines also makes it possible to reduce variability. It

10750-547: The key issues, agreement was reached on most of the major political issues, to the surprise of most observers, given the low expectations that preceded the meeting. The agreements included: A number of operational details attendant upon these decisions remained to be negotiated and agreed upon, and these were the major issues considered by the COP 7 meeting that followed. At the COP 7 meeting in Marrakech , Morocco, from 29 October to 10 November 2001, negotiators wrapped up

10875-402: The large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century. There are concerns about over-reliance on these technologies, and their environmental impacts. But ecosystem restoration and reduced conversion are among the mitigation tools that can yield the most emissions reductions before 2030. Land-based mitigation options are referred to as "AFOLU mitigation options" in

11000-428: The largest share of consumption-based greenhouse gas emissions. It is responsible for nearly 20% of the global carbon footprint. Almost 15% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have been attributed to the livestock sector. A shift towards plant-based diets would help to mitigate climate change. In particular, reducing meat consumption would help to reduce methane emissions. If high-income nations switched to

11125-526: The last two days of the Conference, COP 5 adopted 32 draft decisions and conclusions related to the review of the implementation of commitments. Despite reaching no major conclusions, COP-5 served as an important "intermediate step" laying out the difficult path to finalizing the Kyoto Protocol at COP-6. COP 6 took place on 13–25 November 2000, in The Hague , Netherlands. Many in the international community and domestic environmental groups saw this meeting as

11250-581: The launch of the Powering Past Coal Alliance . COP 24 was held on 3–14 December 2018 in Katowice , Poland. The Polish government's vision for presidency states that the organisation of COP 24 will provide an opportunity for convincing other countries that Poland does not hamper the process of tackling dangerous climate change and that Poland is one of the leaders of this process. The Climate Change Conference of UNFCCC Subsidiary Bodies

11375-511: The life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions". Canada's environment minister at the time, Stéphane Dion , said the agreement provides a "map for the future". COP 12/CMP 2 took place on 6–17 November 2006 in Nairobi , Kenya. At the meeting, BBC reporter Richard Black coined the phrase "climate tourists" to describe some delegates who attended "to see Africa, take snaps of

11500-655: The meeting noted those countries represent six of the top 15 methane emitters globally. Israel also joined the initiative. The energy system includes the delivery and use of energy. It is the main emitter of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Rapid and deep reductions in the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector are necessary to limit global warming to well below 2 °C. IPCC recommendations include reducing fossil fuel consumption, increasing production from low- and zero carbon energy sources, and increasing use of electricity and alternative energy carriers. Nearly all scenarios and strategies involve

11625-494: The need for a Work Programme on agriculture", Campbell said. "Now, it is up to negotiators to heed our joint call-to-action and allow agriculture to play its part in building resilience amongst vulnerable populations, helping farmers adapt to more unpredictable and extreme weather conditions and mitigating future climate change". Nnimmo Bassey, Chair of Friends of the Earth International, said "delaying real action until 2020

11750-491: The other hand, environmental and security risks could outweigh the benefits. The construction of new nuclear reactors currently takes about 10 years. This is much longer than scaling up the deployment of wind and solar. And this timing gives rise to credit risks. However nuclear may be much cheaper in China. China is building a significant number of new power plants. As of 2019 the cost of extending nuclear power plant lifetimes

11875-408: The parties also agreed to review the first national reports submitted by 110 non-Annex I countries. COP 10 took place on 6–17 December 2004. COP 10 discussed the progress made since the first Conference of the Parties 10 years ago and its future challenges, with special emphasis on climate change mitigation and adaptation. To promote developing countries better adapt to climate change,

12000-400: The period post 2020. There was also progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate Fund (GCF) for which a management framework was adopted. The fund is to distribute US$ 100 billion per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts. While the president of the conference, Maite Nkoana-Mashabane , declared it a success, scientists and environmental groups warned that the deal

12125-500: The pledges for 2030. The rise would be 2.1 °C with the achievement of the long-term targets too. Full achievement of all announced targets would mean the rise in global temperature will peak at 1.9 °C and go down to 1.8 °C by the year 2100. Experts gather information about climate pledges in the Global Climate Action Portal - Nazca . The scientific community is checking their fulfilment. There has not been

12250-571: The poorest nations cope with the effects of climate change and they approved a mechanism to incorporate forest protection into the efforts of the international community to combat climate change. Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol were the primary focus of the conference. COP 15 took place in Copenhagen , Denmark , on 7–18 December 2009. The overall goal for the COP 15/CMP 5 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Denmark

12375-527: The process at some point and worked to achieve ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the requisite number of countries to bring it into force (55 countries needed to ratify it, including those accounting for 55% of developed-country emissions of carbon dioxide in 1990). The date of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (August–September 2002) was put forward as a target to bring the Kyoto Protocol into force. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

12500-443: The remaining issues unresolved in Kyoto would be finalized at this meeting. However, the complexity and difficulty of finding agreement on these issues proved insurmountable, and instead the parties adopted a two-year "Buenos Aires Plan of Action" (BAPA) to advance efforts and to devise mechanisms for implementing the Kyoto Protocol, to be completed by 2000. During COP 4, Argentina and Kazakhstan expressed their commitment to take on

12625-452: The root cause, which is greenhouse gases. SRM would work by altering how much solar radiation the Earth absorbs. Examples include reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the surface, reducing the optical thickness and lifetime of clouds, and changing the ability of the surface to reflect radiation. The IPCC describes SRM as a climate risk reduction strategy or supplementary option rather than

12750-437: The same service. Another way is to reduce the amount of service used. An example of this would be to drive less. Energy conservation is at the top of the sustainable energy hierarchy . When consumers reduce wastage and losses they can conserve energy. The upgrading of technology as well as the improvements to operations and maintenance can result in overall efficiency improvements. Efficient energy use (or energy efficiency )

12875-849: The slow carbon cycle. Methane is a short lived greenhouse gas that is produced by decaying organic matter and livestock, as well as fossil fuel extraction. Land use changes can also impact precipitation patterns and the reflectivity of the surface of the Earth . It is possible to cut emissions from agriculture by reducing food waste , switching to a more plant-based diet (also referred to as low-carbon diet ), and by improving farming processes. Various policies can encourage climate change mitigation. Carbon pricing systems have been set up that either tax CO 2 emissions or cap total emissions and trade emission credits . Fossil fuel subsidies can be eliminated in favor of clean energy subsidies , and incentives offered for installing energy efficiency measures or switching to electric power sources. Another issue

13000-539: The successful negotiation of the Paris Agreement at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris , France . The conference led to agreement on a management framework for a future Green Climate Fund . The fund is to distribute US$ 100bn per year to help poor countries adapt to climate impacts. After the conference concluded, Michael Jacobs of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and

13125-561: The threshold for adoption was reached with over 55 countries representing at least 55% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions ratifying the Agreement. COP 22 was held in Marrakech , in the North African country of Morocco, on 7–18 November 2016. A focal issue of COP 22 is that of water scarcity , water cleanliness, and water-related sustainability , a major problem in the developing world , including many African states. Prior to

13250-432: The time frame for peaking will be longer in developing countries, since social and economic development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of developing countries . The 2011 COP 17 was held in Durban, South Africa , from 28 November to 9 December 2011. The conference agreed to a start negotiations on a legally binding deal comprising all countries, to be adopted in 2015, governing

13375-539: The time frame used to calculate the global warming potential of the respective gas. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are measured in CO 2 equivalents . Scientists determine their CO 2 equivalents from their global warming potential (GWP). This depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. There are widely used greenhouse gas accounting methods that convert volumes of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases to carbon dioxide equivalents . Estimates largely depend on

13500-401: The tropics, where clearing of land for agriculture is one of the main causes. One forest conservation strategy is to transfer rights over land from public ownership to its indigenous inhabitants. Land concessions often go to powerful extractive companies. Conservation strategies that exclude and even evict humans, called fortress conservation , often lead to more exploitation of the land. This

13625-483: The use of coal-fired power stations . COP 27 was originally expected to take place in November 2021, but was moved to 2022 due to the rescheduling of COP 26 from 2020 to 2021. It took place in Sharm El Sheikh , Egypt. It led to an agreement on loss and damage , under which rich countries could compensate poor countries for damage caused by climate change. COP 28 took place at Expo City Dubai, in

13750-414: The wildlife, the poor, dying African children and women". Black also noted that due to delegates concerns over economic costs and possible losses of competitiveness, the majority of the discussions avoided any mention of reducing emissions. Black concluded that was a disconnect between the political process and the scientific imperative. Despite such criticism, certain strides were made at COP12, including in

13875-514: The words of Secretary-General of the United Nations António Guterres : "Main emitters must drastically cut emissions starting this year". Climate Action Tracker described the situation on 9 November 2021 as follows. The global temperature will rise by 2.7 °C by the end of the century with current policies and by 2.9 °C with nationally adopted policies. The temperature will rise by 2.4 °C if countries only implement

14000-539: The work on the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, finalizing most of the operational details and setting the stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The completed package of decisions is known as the Marrakech Accords . The United States delegation maintained its observer role, declining to participate actively in the negotiations. Other parties continued to express hope that the United States would re-engage in

14125-471: The world should focus on broad-based economy-wide transformations and not incremental change. In 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Sixth Assessment Report on climate change. It warned that greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030 to have a good chance of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Or in

14250-458: The years 2008–2012, defined as the first emissions budget period. The United States would be required to reduce its total emissions an average of 7% below 1990 levels; however Congress did not ratify the treaty after Clinton signed it. The Bush administration explicitly rejected the protocol in 2001. COP 4 took place on 2–14 November 1998 in Buenos Aires , Argentina. It had been expected that

14375-532: Was an agreement adopted by the states' parties that called for the US$ 100 billion per annum " Green Climate Fund ", and a "Climate Technology Centre" and network. However the funding of the Green Climate Fund was not agreed upon. Nor was a commitment to a second period of the Kyoto Protocol agreed upon, but it was concluded that the base year shall be 1990 and the global warming potentials shall be those provided by

14500-646: Was appointed, as the new host. COP 26 was originally scheduled to take place from 9 to 19 November 2020, in Glasgow , United Kingdom, but was postponed to 31 October to 12 November 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic . Among other things, this conference led to the development of the Accelerating to Zero coalition to accelerate the phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles , and the Glasgow Climate Pact to "phase down"

14625-602: Was convened in Bonn, Germany, from 17 to 27 June 2019. The 25th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 25) to the UNFCCC was planned to take place from 11 to 22 November 2019 in Brazil. Upon election as President of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro withdrew Brazil from hosting the event. COP 25 was then planned to take place in Parque Bicentenario Cerrillos in Santiago de Chile, Chile from 2 to 13 December with

14750-449: Was held in Paris from 30 November to 12 December 2015. Negotiations resulted in the adoption of the Paris Agreement on 12 December, governing climate change reduction measures from 2020. The adoption of this agreement ended the work of the Durban platform, established during COP 17. The agreement entered into force (and thus become fully effective) on 4 November 2016. On 4 October 2016

14875-472: Was later announced that the COP 6 meetings (termed "COP 6 bis") would be resumed in Bonn , Germany, in the second half of July. The next regularly scheduled meeting of the parties to the UNFCCC, COP 7, had been set for Marrakech, Morocco , in October–November 2001. COP 6 negotiations resumed on 16–27 July 2001, in Bonn , Germany, with little progress having been made in resolving

15000-399: Was necessary to almost halve emissions. "To get on track for limiting global warming to 1.5°C, global annual GHG emissions must be reduced by 45 per cent compared with emissions projections under policies currently in place in just eight years, and they must continue to decline rapidly after 2030, to avoid exhausting the limited remaining atmospheric carbon budget ." The report commented that

15125-568: Was not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 °C as more urgent action is needed. Qatar hosted COP 18 which took place in Doha , Qatar, from 26 November to 7 December 2012. The Conference produced a package of documents collectively titled The Doha Climate Gateway . The documents collectively contained: The conference made little progress towards the funding of the Green Climate Fund . Russia, Belarus and Ukraine objected at

15250-488: Was notable in that it referred to a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach US$ 30 billion for the period 2010–2012. Longer-term options on climate financing mentioned in the accord are being discussed within the UN Secretary General's High Level Advisory Group on Climate Financing , which

15375-459: Was required to meet the ratification criteria and therefore Russia could delay the process. COP 9 took place on 1–12 December 2003 in Milan , Italy . The parties agreed to use the Adaptation Fund established at COP 7 in 2001 primarily in supporting developing countries better adapt to climate change. The fund would also be used for capacity-building through technology transfer. At COP 9,

15500-626: Was to be held in Johannesburg , South Africa. The main decisions at COP 7 included: Taking place from 23 October to 1 November 2002, in New Delhi COP ;8 adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that, amongst others, called for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries. It is also approved the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of

15625-472: Was to establish an ambitious global climate agreement for the period from 2012 when the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol expires. However, on 14 November 2009, the New York Times announced that "President Obama and other world leaders have decided to put off the difficult task of reaching a climate change agreement... agreeing instead to make it the mission of the Copenhagen conference to reach

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