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101-782: The National Coalition of the People for the Sovereignty of Congo ( French : Coalition Nationale du Peuple pour la Souveraineté du Congo , abbreviated as the CNPSC ), and also known as the Alliance of Article 64 ( French : l’Alliance de l’Article 64 , abbreviated AA64 ), is an armed rebel coalition in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The group is a coalition of around 12 different Mai-Mai groups in and around South Kivu province. It

202-525: A Batwa commander in Tanganyika Province . The announcement of the group came on 30 June 2017, with their first attack being on the hydroelectric dam of Force Bendera, a FARDC position. Through this, the coalition was able to acquire a significant amount of supplies and weapons. In the next few days, the CNPSC would attack FARDC positions in major mining sectors, most notably Misisi. Following these attacks,

303-720: A French official to teachers in the department of Finistère , in western Brittany, included the following: "And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language". The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: "Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French..." Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process

404-514: A battle against the FARDC. The port and outskirts of the town were captured by the group before they were beat back by forces of MONUSCO . On 2 October, CNPSC rebels ambushed the FARDC and reportedly killed 92. The FARDC launched a counteroffensive in December. This prompted the CNPSC to attempt to assassinate General Philemon Yav, the overall commander of the counteroffensive, this attack failed, and caused

505-431: A comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages". In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish. His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations,

606-710: A democratic regime in Zaire. This led to the formation of youth militias initiating attacks and murders in Kivu, but were subsequently halted following the intervention of the Special Presidential Division to restore some semblance of order. At the onset of the Second Congo War , the Banyamulenge allied with Rwandan Tutsi refugees dispersed across Kivu to combat discriminatory nationality and land laws. They aligned with

707-543: A foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050. French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages). French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and

808-593: A native language, a chieftainship to represent the tribe, and a well-defined territory acknowledged by neighboring tribes. Despite their mother tongue being Kinyarwanda, the Banyarwanda lacked both a chieftainship and a defined territory, which disqualified them from being recognized as a Congolese tribe. The designation "Banyamulenge" was not documented in colonial records. Throughout history, " Banyamulenge " were predominantly recognized as "Banyarwanda", denoting their status as migrant with Rwanda origins. It wasn't until

909-688: A period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France. Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages ( patois ) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire 's "Report on

1010-494: A relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs. The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in

1111-489: A rural commune and the appointment of Gad Mukiza, a Tutsi, as mayor on 28 September 2020, sparked significant controversy and opposition from other Congolese tribes who assert territorial claims. Many Congolese perceived the declaration of Minembwe as a rural commune as a stratagem for the Banyamulenge to consolidate control over the region. Some critics contended that the move was made under pressure from neighboring countries, particularly Rwanda, long accused of supporting

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1212-573: A second language. French is the second most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German ; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union ). French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers , and

1313-404: A second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In some North African countries, though not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside indigenous languages, but only

1414-897: A second one among the general population. In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania. French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union . Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as

1515-536: A variant of Canadian French , is spoken in parts of New England . Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana ), but is nearly extinct today. French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana , such as Mon Louis Island , Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in

1616-437: Is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna , it is 84%. In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French

1717-467: Is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people , and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates , and on official buildings (alongside Arabic). Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon , with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone. The use of English

1818-484: Is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English). Given

1919-430: Is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including

2020-456: Is an official language in 27 countries , as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language. Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share

2121-628: Is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories ( Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon ). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population. Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario , the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in

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2222-495: Is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French. Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English

2323-404: Is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects . The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from

2424-462: Is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%). MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in

2525-775: Is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Caribbean Court of Justice , the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for

2626-562: Is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence , education, and diplomacy. In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat 's only two working languages ), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union , an official language of NATO ,

2727-538: Is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value. French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu , where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023. In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia , 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure

2828-479: Is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population. Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg , where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco . At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in

2929-492: Is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire . In Louisiana , it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut , Rhode Island , and New Hampshire . Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French . New England French , essentially

3030-424: Is the sole official language in the province of Quebec , where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal , which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers. New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism

3131-738: The Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands . It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa . The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland , with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French. The majority of

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3232-459: The Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere. French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers. According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022, without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses. In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as

3333-539: The Democratic Republic of Congo . There is not a single African French , but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages . Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth. It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years. Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of

3434-485: The European Union , French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains

3535-640: The Fizi Territory , which was subsequently segmented into five divisions: Itombwe, Lulenge, Mutambala , Ngandja, and Tangani'a . However, post-decolonization, the Itombwe sector was realigned closer to the Mwenga Territory to facilitate more immediate administrative oversight for the indigenous populace. During the 1920s, swathes of the South and North Kivu's territories were adjudged sparsely populated, prompting

3636-547: The Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries). Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect. Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar. Politically,

3737-718: The Indo-European family . Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . French evolved from Gallo-Romance , the Latin spoken in Gaul , and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl —languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien ) largely supplanted. French

3838-820: The International Olympic Committee , the Council of Europe , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest , one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency , World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It

3939-609: The Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia , while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis ), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland , epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court , as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange . It

4040-729: The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and later with the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL) and the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD). Following Mobutu's ousting, the RCD, a Rwandan-backed rebel faction led by Azarias Ruberwa , established Minembwe as an independent Tutsi region in 1999, alongside Bunyakiri in Kalehe Territory . The recognition of these two territorial entities instigated ethnic tensions within

4141-620: The Rwandan Revolution of 1959–1961 , the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) settled Rwandan refugees in the sites of Lemera , Mulenge , and Katobo. Many of these refugees ended up dispersing throughout the Lulenge sector and settling in some of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the South and North Kivu regions. The Banyarwanda who settled in Lulenge from the late 1950s to

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4242-601: The United Nations reported that at least 15 people had been killed and dozens injured in clashes between the Banyamulenge and other groups in the area. The UN also estimated that over 50,000 people had been displaced by the violence. On 20 July 2021, Twiganeho militiamen and their allies attacked the Musika village, located in the southern Basimunyaka groupement in Lulenge. According to several testimonies, fifteen homes of civilians were incinerated, compelling civilian members of

4343-895: The United Nations , the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the World Trade Organization , the International Olympic Committee , the General Conference on Weights and Measures , and the International Committee of the Red Cross . French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin ) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French . Due to Roman rule, Latin

4444-407: The identity crisis between Banyamulenge and other Congolese tribes was evident, as civil status offices were frequently torched to destroy documents necessary for granting nationality or land to Banyamulenge. Between 1991 and 1993, ethnic tensions erupted violently during Kivu's representation at the National Sovereign Conference ( Conférence Nationale Souveraine ) in Kinshasa, aimed at establishing

4545-439: The lingua franca , with Swahili also in widespread use, though numerous minority groups continue to converse in their indigenous languages . Traditionally, the Babembe people predominantly inhabited Minembwe, which functioned as a hub for trade, commerce, and cultural exchange, with people from various ethnic groups converging in the region. During the Belgian colonial era, the Bembe and Buyu communities were integrated into

4646-614: The transitional government in 2006. The Banyamulenge, having supported AFDL and RCD forces during the Second Congo War, were accused of attacking refugee camps and densely populated villages, committing civilian executions, and engaging in terrorism against Zairean civilians across South and North Kivu, including Bwegera , Luberizi , Luvungi , Katala, Rubenga, Lubarika , Kakumbukumbu, Mutarule , Kagunga, Kiliba , Ndunda, Biriba, Sange , Rwenena, Kahororo, Kamanyola , Lemera , Kidote , Makobola , Kasika , Kilungutwe , Kilungutwe River and Katogota . Consequently, many Congolese perceived

4747-445: The 1980s, alongside earlier migrants to the eastern Congo Free State in the nineteenth century, collectively known as " Banyamulenge ," aspired to establish their own self-governing territory like other ethnic groups. However, they were required to meet criteria set by the Belgian colonial authorities and later upheld by the Congolese state post-independence to be recognized as a distinct ethnic group. These criteria included possessing

4848-455: The 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct. French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole . It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language;

4949-474: The 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV , enjoyed

5050-462: The Banyamulenge and other indigenous ethnic communities, notably the Babembe, exacerbated by land disputes, resource competition, and politico-strategic rivalries. In the late 1950s, there was a significant influx of Banyarwanda immigrants into the Fizi Territory, particularly in the Lulenge sector. This migration was fueled by political instability in Rwanda and the search for better economic opportunities in neighboring areas. Parenthetically, during

5151-571: The Banyamulenge as invaders encroaching upon their habitats. Conversely, those on the Banyamulenge side argue that they were not given adequate space within the Fizi Territory and are therefore fighting for self-defense . This conflict resulted in the displacement of approximately 140,000 people in May 2019 due to armed skirmishes in Minembwe. In September 2020, Minembwe was designated a rural commune , despite opposition from other ethnic groups who contended that proper legal and administrative procedures were bypassed. The installment of Minembwe as

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5252-423: The Banyamulenge. On 8 October 2020, the initiative to create Minembwe as a rural commune was annulled following a declaration by President Félix Tshisekedi , citing irregularities and aiming to mitigate tensions. Félix Tshisekedi stated: "For me, the salvation of the people is the supreme law. I cannot leave my people in danger. I have decided to cancel what has been done so far for Minembwe." This annulment

5353-453: The Belgian colonial administrators to enlist labor from extraneous locales to foster regional development. This incitement culminated in the relocation of Banyarwanda to the Kivu highlands from the late 1930s through the 1950s. This demographic shift engendered profound sociocultural ramifications within the region, particularly in Minembwe. Nevertheless, the assimilation process was fraught with discord. Ethnic antagonisms erupted between

5454-411: The CNPSC attacked Mboko again and recaptured it. They were pushed out several days later, however. In January 2019, CNPSC commander Ebu Ela surrendered to the FARDC, but many of his troops joined Yakutumba's militia, which had relocated itself back to its original bases. CNPSC activity had died down throughout much of the first half of 2019, but activity emerged as the coalition entered into conflict with

5555-415: The CNPSC, and to have pushed the militia back 40 kilometers. On 30 October, the CNPSC attacked the FARDC at Kabeya and killed two FARDC soldiers. Fighting since then has continued, mainly between the CNPSC and Banyamulenge groups in the area. French language French ( français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] ) is a Romance language of

5656-510: The Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau . According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French

5757-614: The Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies , namely Guadeloupe , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Martinique . French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America. French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina , comprising modern-day Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades. In colonial Vietnam,

5858-408: The Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of

5959-408: The FARDC to launch an all out attack against the rebels. The FARDC counteroffensive caused significant losses towards the coalition, and forced Yakutumba's troops to temporarily relocate from his base in the Ubwari Peninsula to areas controlled by Mai-Mai Malaika. Yakutumba's naval commander, Ekanda, surrendered on 20 January 2018 to authorities, causing a significant officer loss to the group. Following

6060-466: The FARDC was able to beat the coalition back. According to the United Nations , this fighting had displaced 80,000 people. On 27 September, the coalition attacked the town of Mboko, in which troops from Yakutumba's militia as well as those of René Itongwa, Réunion, and Ngarukiye participated. The CNPSC beat back the FARDC and captured the town. The same day, the CNPSC marched on the city of Uvira , in which CNPSC troops and Yakutumba's naval wing took part in

6161-416: The Germanic Frankish language , which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order , a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary ) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man ), and the name of the language itself. Up until its later stages, Old French , alongside Old Occitan , maintained

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6262-418: The Ngumino and Twiganeho groups. On 26 July, Mai-Mai Malaika kidnapped workers of the Banro mining corporation. Clashes erupted in late 2019 between the CNPSC and Banyamulenge militia groups, particularly around Minembwe . On 14 October, the CNPSC launched an attack against the FARDC in Minembwe center, which they had captured that same day. On 17 October, the FARDC claimed to have recaptured Minembwe center from

6363-442: The PDDRC-S program. Being an area built on hills and without subsurface wealth, Minembwe does not present strong development possibilities except for its location as a riparian region which gives it agriculture and fishing development. Lake Tanganyika , situated in the eastern part of the region, offers tremendous fishing potential for Minembwe. Despite strong agricultural and fisheries development, Minembwe has suffered from

6464-434: The affected communities. The broad acquisition of Congolese nationality, combined with the land legislation enacted under Zairianisation , enabled influential Tutsis to acquire land, particularly former colonial plantations redistributed by the state. These acquisitions legalized the Tutsi peasantry's settlements in the Kivu region, granting them recognized status. The inability to apply the 1972 Ordinance, due to not meeting

6565-408: The basic criteria, exacerbated tensions and conflicts in the region, with other Congolese tribes perceiving themselves as expropriated by Tutsis. These ethnic tensions threatened national integrity, prompting Congolese political authorities to repeal the "1972 Ordinance" through Law no. 81/002 of 29 June 1981, and, thus, to correct the law regarding the recognition of ethnic communities. Nonetheless,

6666-505: The coalition has also engaged in heavy clashes with the Banyamulenge -led Ngumino and Twiganeho militias. While the official announcement of the coalition's formation came in 2017, the idea of the CNPSC had been existent since around 2013. The coalition actually began to form in early 2017, with Yakutumba contacting Mai-Mai leaders around South Kivu. Yakutumba was aided by ex- FARDC General Shabani Sikatenda, who worked to arm Mai-Mai groups and convince them to join up with Yakutumba. Sikatenda

6767-418: The counteroffensive, the CNPSC began to lie low and wait for the pressure of the national army to die down. CNPSC activity began again in the summer of 2018, with rebel forces attacking the Namoya Mine on 24 June, making off with weapons and supplies. On 15 September, the CNPSC attacked the FARDC in Kilembwe, and captured the town. The FARDC responded with a counteroffensive and retook Kilembwe. On 2 December,

6868-528: The country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught. Vowel phonemes in French Minembwe Historically, Minembwe was predominantly settled by the Bembe and Buyu peoples; however, the region is renowned for its profound ethnocultural diversity, serving as a nexus for myriad ethnicities such as the Bafuliiru , Banyindu , Bamushi , Baholoholo , Babwari, Bavira , Balega , Bahunde , Banyanga , Bashu, Baamba , Banyamulenge , and Baswaga. Kibembe prevails as

6969-404: The demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French "could be the language of the future". However, some African countries such as Algeria intermittently attempted to eradicate the use of French, and as of 2024 it was removed as an official language in Mali and Burkina Faso . Significant as a judicial language, French

7070-678: The early 1970s that the categorization of Banyamulenge as immigrants from Rwanda ceased during the Mobutu Sese Seko administration. In 1972, Barthélémy Bisengimana Rwema , a Tutsi cabinet director under Mobutu during his second republic, promulgated a presidential "Ordinance № 69-096", which collectively granted Zairean nationality to all Banyarwanda. In the same year, Banyarwanda changed their eponym from "Banyarwanda" to "Banyamulenge" to distinguish themselves from recent immigrants from Rwanda. However, this legislation equated both long-settled Banyarwanda populations entitled to Zairean citizenship and recent immigrants, which caused bewilderment among

7171-448: The economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige). In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged." Knowledge of French

7272-585: The elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as " Tây Bồi " (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade. However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as

7373-506: The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France . During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations ( lingua franca ). It retained this role until approximately the middle of

7474-662: The forced recruitment. In August 2022, dozens of civilians and police officers were taken hostage by Twiganeho in the Minembwe highlands. On 4 January 2023, the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in charge of operations, Chico Tshitambwe, called on the population of Minembwe to dissociate themselves from armed groups. Tshitambwe also invited the militias to lay down their arms and join

7575-858: The former Yugoslavia , International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body . It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union , and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights 's two working languages. In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today ,

7676-818: The gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish. The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert , which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240. Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life ( chêne , bille , etc.), animals ( mouton , cheval , etc.), nature ( boue , etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau ), farming and rural units of measure ( arpent , lieue , borne , boisseau ), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield. This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being

7777-508: The language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world. French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census , it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population). French

7878-474: The language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English. A former French mandate , Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used". The French language in Lebanon

7979-602: The language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario . Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa ,

8080-475: The last to hold onto Gaulish. The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there. A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d'oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d'oc . Langue d'oïl grew into what

8181-746: The local community to relocate to Runundu and Ilundu villages. Other members of the local communities were also affected and migrated towards the villages of Lumanya and Kwamulima. Two elderly men were immolated in their residence, children were separated from their parents, and a hundred cattle were abducted, according to witnesses in the area. In May 2022, clashes between Ngumino and Mai-Mai Biloze Bishambuke and their allies resulted in nearly five fatalities in Irumba and Ngandura, villages situated 15 kilometers from Minembwe. In July 2022, four civilians were slain in Minembwe by Twiganeho, an insurgent group led by an army deserter Colonel Michel Rukunda, after refusing to join

8282-420: The necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language". When public education was made compulsory , only French was taught and the use of any other ( patois ) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany . Instructions given by

8383-630: The official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium ( Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region ); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco;

8484-528: The other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language. All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF). French was the official language of French India , consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry . It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965. A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of

8585-462: The preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union , where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture . Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union. A leading world language , French

8686-464: The rest largely speak French as a first language. As a French Creole language , Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles . French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in

8787-462: The total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa . OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa. In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes , the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050. In

8888-673: The two official languages—along with Dutch —of the Brussels-Capital Region , where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language. French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh , and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy , of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais , Fribourg and Bern . French

8989-508: The urban intellectual elite. The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization . Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by

9090-479: The use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons , which are German-speaking ) and one of

9191-531: The workplace. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese . In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of

9292-402: The world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language . This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as

9393-417: Was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the ( Germanic ) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to the French colonial empire , there are numerous French-based creole languages , most notably Haitian Creole . A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French

9494-494: Was an important factor in the creation of the Mai-Mai Malaika group, as he provided them weapons. Yakutumba additionally brought in commanders which he had fallen out with or had split from his group. These included Réunion Warusasa and Ebu Ela Kitungano. Yakutumba also contacted commanders north of Fizi Territory , the area which his group and most of the CNPSC are based, and is also reported to have entered into an alliance with

9595-791: Was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj , numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero). Within Old French many dialects emerged but

9696-484: Was formed on 30 June 2017, symbolically Congolese Independence Day. The coalition is led primarily by William Yakutumba , a veteran Mai-Mai commander who has been involved in rebellion against the government since 2007. Several other notable commanders play an important role in the coalition, notably Sheh Assani, the leader of Mai-Mai Malaika. The group has vowed to fight for the removal of Congolese President Joseph Kabila and his successor, Félix Tshisekedi . As of 2019,

9797-400: Was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan . The evolution of Latin in Gaul

9898-633: Was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha . Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English. Under the Constitution of France , French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates

9999-621: Was met with approval from various groups, including opposition parties and civil society organizations. However, it elicited mixed reactions from the Banyamulenge, who viewed it as an infringement on their rights and a reversal of the progress made in their struggle for recognition and self-determination . Some Banyamulenge leaders and activists accused the government of capitulating to pressure from other ethnic groups and reneging on its promises to safeguard their interests and foster their development. The situation in Minembwe remains volatile, with reports of violence and displacement. In October 2020,

10100-575: Was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language , which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of

10201-554: Was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census. In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census. According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie ,

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