131-639: The CHIPS and Science Act is a U.S. federal statute enacted by the 117th United States Congress and signed into law by President Joe Biden on August 9, 2022. The act authorizes roughly $ 280 billion in new funding to boost domestic research and manufacturing of semiconductors in the United States, for which it appropriates $ 52.7 billion. The act includes $ 39 billion in subsidies for chip manufacturing on U.S. soil along with 25% investment tax credits for costs of manufacturing equipment, and $ 13 billion for semiconductor research and workforce training, with
262-491: A herbicide ), reduction of spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents , biofuels , and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation . Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from 17,000 to 1,600,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 to 395,400,000 acres). 10% of
393-474: A plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli . Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle or pigs). The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like gene therapy . The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through
524-510: A "caucus"; Republicans refer to themselves as a "conference". (minority until January 20, 2021, majority thereafter) (majority until January 20, 2021, minority thereafter) The numbers refer to their Senate classes . All class 1 senators are in the middle of their term (2019–2025), having been elected in 2018 and facing re-election in 2024 . Class 2 senators are at the beginning of their term (2021–2027), having been elected in 2020 and facing re-election in 2026 . Class 3 senators are at
655-556: A National Secure Data Service per the act's directives. The DOE also issued a press release to commemorate the anniversary, noting materials science, quantum computing and biotechnology had received major attention from the act, as well as efforts to improve energy use, materials sourcing transparency and recycling of computer chips. On the second anniversary of the Act becoming law, the NSF put out an updated fact sheet. The TIP Directorate had now awarded
786-668: A Unified Database System) database is intended to help companies, interested private users and competent authorities to find precise information on the presence, detection and identification of GMOs used in the European Union . The information is provided in English. In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress , the National Institute of General Medical Sciences ( National Institutes of Health ) (NIGMS) instituted
917-455: A bacterium (of the genus Pseudomonas ) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the Pseudomonas bacterium). The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960, Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented
1048-549: A baseline scenario of 8 percent if the Act had not passed). On October 23, 2023, the Biden administration announced that it directed the Economic Development Administration to focus on 31 areas (across 32 states and Puerto Rico ) that it designated "Tech Hubs", for the purposes of spreading development evenly around the country, and incubating advanced technology and research. The Tech Hubs' organizers competed for
1179-508: A bipartisan bill (CHIPS for America) to provide the necessary funding. This led to Krach and his team's close collaboration in creating the CHIPS for America component with Senators John Cornyn (R-TX) and Mark Warner (D-VA). In June 2020, Senator Warner joined U.S. Senator John Cornyn in introducing the $ 52 billion CHIPS for America Act. Both bills were eventually merged into the U.S. Innovation and Competition Act (USICA). On June 8, 2021,
1310-532: A call for volunteers to select who will serve as board members. In June, the selection committee was announced as Janet Foutty of Deloitte, John L. Hennessy of Alphabet, Jason Gaverick Matheny of RAND Corporation, Don Rosenberg of the University of California, San Diego, and Brenda Darden Wilkerson of AnitaB.org. In September, the selection committee's activities were closed. By the White House's announcement date,
1441-438: A child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry . In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes , genes, or proteins. Most of
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#17328633328191572-413: A consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel by applying the metabolic engineering in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes. Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the metabolic pathways of E. coli by CRISPR and CRISPRi systems toward
1703-422: A drug's efficacy or toxicity . The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype , to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects . Such approaches promise the advent of " personalized medicine "; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup. Biotechnology has contributed to
1834-541: A fab in Arizona, which upon completion began producing Apple A16 chips in earnest in mid-September 2024, according to independent journalist Tim Culpan, achieving 4 percent higher production yields than the average in Taiwan by late October. These include (before the act passed on August 9, 2022): After the act passed: The following projects were announced after the Act's first anniversary: On May 13, 2024, Bloomberg News found
1965-533: A five-year period. Investment in basic and advanced research, commercialization, and education and training programs in artificial intelligence , semiconductors , quantum computing , advanced communications, biotechnology and advanced energy, amounts to $ 100 billion. Over $ 10 billion was authorized for appropriation to designate ten regional technology hubs and create a supply chain crisis -response program. The CHIPS for America Act portion stemmed from Under Secretary of State Krach and his team brokering
2096-410: A food source into another form. Before the time of Charles Darwin 's work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection. For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve
2227-417: A funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during
2358-536: A harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology. Many cities have installed CityTrees , which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres. The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish . There are differences in
2489-582: A new collaborative advanced research and development center (distinct from traditional fabs) named the "EPIC Center", short for "Equipment and Process Innovation and Commercialization Center", by 2026, next to its existing facility in Sunnyvale, California . The first known CHIPS Act-linked investment in Silicon Valley, the EPIC Center is worth $ 4 billion and is projected to create 2,000 jobs. In June 2023, after
2620-564: A new notice of opportunity for metrology research funding on April 16. In September 2023, the Commerce Department finalized its rule prohibiting Act funding recipients from expanding their manufacturing presence by more than 5 percent for advanced and 10 percent for mid-market chips through deals worth $ 100,000 or more, and brokering licensing agreements for technology transfers in China and other "countries of concern", as well as setting out how
2751-415: A notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies. Krimsky, Sheldon (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment". Science, Technology, & Human Values . 40 (6): 883–914. doi : 10.1177/0162243915598381 . S2CID 40855100 . I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there
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#17328633328192882-513: A number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm. The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken
3013-434: A number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess. Insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole. However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by
3144-594: A promising method to combat malnutrition in India and other countries. Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation . It includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms , or components of cells like enzymes , to generate industrially useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels . In
3275-471: A pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum , to produce acetone , which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I . Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium . His work led to the purification of
3406-531: A total of $ 32.8 billion had been allocated from the CaSA's $ 39 billion fund, with federal loans and tax credits set to reach $ 75 billion. Boston Consulting Group and the Semiconductor Industry Association estimated that by 2033, the United States would attain 28 percent of the world's market for advanced logic chips, and its share of the world's fabs would grow to 14 percent of the total (compared to
3537-402: A total of about $ 500 million in implementation grants, the first such appropriation out of a budgeted $ 10 billion over the next five years. The Biden administration also gave out "Strategy Development Grants" to 29 consortia of businesses, labor unions and governments in areas that lost out, encouraging further organizational improvements before trying again to become a Tech Hub. On July 2, 2024,
3668-498: A two-year total of 2,455 grants and signed 25 contracts in research and development, and incentivized $ 8.15 billion in private capital and more than 75 exits from federal seed funding; the NSF also designated 10 new Regional Innovation Engines in January 2024, issued the first 40 awards in the ExLENT program promoting experiential learning in semiconductor engineering at universities, launched
3799-846: A whole but is divided into three divisions with their own short titles: Division A is the CHIPS Act of 2022 (where CHIPS stands for "Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semiconductors"); Division B is the Research and Development, Competition, and Innovation Act ; and Division C is the Supreme Court Security Funding Act of 2022 . By March 2024, analysts estimated that the act incentivized between 25 and 50 separate potential projects, with total projected investments of $ 160–200 billion and 25,000–45,000 new jobs. However, these projects are faced with delays in receiving grants due to bureaucratic hurdles and shortages of skilled workers, both during
3930-414: A wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms for human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization . Modern usage also includes genetic engineering, as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as
4061-507: Is a rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address pressing global challenges and improve the quality of life for people around the world; however, despite its numerous benefits, it also poses ethical and societal challenges, such as questions around genetic modification and intellectual property rights . As a result, there is ongoing debate and regulation surrounding the use and application of biotechnology in various industries and fields. The concept of biotechnology encompasses
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4192-635: Is based on the basic biological sciences (e.g., molecular biology , biochemistry , cell biology , embryology , genetics , microbiology ) and conversely provides methods to support and perform basic research in biology. Biotechnology is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, exploitation, and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis , for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured, and marketed for
4323-638: Is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector. Jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with nature-friendly features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based. Synthetic biology can be used to engineer model microorganisms , such as Escherichia coli , by genome editing tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as bioproduction of medicines and biofuels . For instance, E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in
4454-859: Is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought. By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production. Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., biodegradable plastics , vegetable oil , biofuels ), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology
4585-455: Is in line for the largest individual investment (TSMC's $ 65 billion investment, predicted to create 6,000 jobs), the most total jobs created (above 11,000) and the most dollars overall ($ 97.5 billion). Counties that voted for Biden in 2020 received more dollars from the Act ($ 227.9 million) than counties that voted for Donald Trump ($ 44 million). In December 2023, the Financial Times found
4716-565: Is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story. And contrast: Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (January 14, 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology . 37 (2): 213–217. doi : 10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684 . ISSN 0738-8551 . PMID 26767435 . S2CID 11786594 . Here, we show that
4847-673: Is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and molecules. This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. Relatedly, biomedical engineering is an overlapping field that often draws upon and applies biotechnology (by various definitions), especially in certain sub-fields of biomedical or chemical engineering such as tissue engineering , biopharmaceutical engineering , and genetic engineering . Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit
4978-708: Is the directed use of microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching . Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ( bioremediation ), and also to produce biological weapons . A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example: In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as pharmaceutical drug discoveries and production, pharmacogenomics , and genetic testing (or genetic screening ). In 2021, nearly 40% of
5109-488: Is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization , biomarker detection from blood , antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology . By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By
5240-626: The Albany Nanotech Complex in Albany, New York . The second site was announced the next day as a chip design lab in Sunnyvale, California . Arrian Ebrahaimi and Jordan Schneider, writing for the Institute for Progress , recommended the NSTC be structured with more centralization, work quickly and ambitiously to address market failures and externalities in chip research, and follow the management model of
5371-631: The DNA of which has been modified with genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new trait that does not occur naturally in the species. Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, stressful environmental conditions, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to
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5502-569: The Endless Frontier Act , designed to boost investment in domestic high-tech research, and the CHIPS for America Act , designed to bring semiconductor manufacturing back to the U.S. The act is aimed at competing with China. The Endless Frontier Act was initially presented to Senators Chuck Schumer (D-NY) and Todd Young (R-IN) by Under Secretary of State Keith Krach in October 2019, as part of
5633-461: The Human Genome Project ) has also dramatically improved our understanding of biology and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well. Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases , and can also be used to determine
5764-481: The U.S. Senate by a vote of 64–33 on July 27, 2022. On July 28, the $ 280 billion bill passed the U.S. House by a vote of 243–187–1. On August 1, 2022, the magazine EE Times (Electronic Engineering) dubbed Under Secretary of State Keith Krach (as of February 2023, now the current Chairman of the Krach Institute for Tech Diplomacy at Purdue University ) the architect of the CHIPS and Science Act. The bill
5895-713: The environmental effects of aviation , integrating unmanned aerial vehicle detection with air traffic control , investigating nuclear propulsion for spacecraft, continuing the search for extraterrestrial intelligence and xenology efforts, and boosting astronomical surveys for Near-Earth objects including the NEO Surveyor project. The law could potentially invest $ 67 billion in accelerating advanced zero-emissions technologies (such as improved energy storage , hydrogen economy technologies, and carbon capture and storage ) to mass markets, advancing building efficiency, and improving climate science research, according to
6026-562: The $ 12 billion on-shoring of TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company) to secure the supply chain of sophisticated semiconductors, on May 15, 2020. Krach's stated strategy was to use the TSMC announcement as a stimulus for fortifying a trusted supply chain by attracting TSMC's broad ecosystem of suppliers; persuading other chip companies to produce in U.S., especially Intel and Samsung; inspiring universities to develop engineering curricula focused on semiconductor manufacturing and designing
6157-508: The 117th Congress oversaw the passage of numerous significant bills, including the Inflation Reduction Act , American Rescue Plan Act , Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act , Postal Service Reform Act , Bipartisan Safer Communities Act , CHIPS and Science Act , Honoring Our PACT Act , Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act , and Respect for Marriage Act . Note: Democrats refer to themselves as
6288-527: The 2023 Appropriations Act appropriated $ 1.564 billion and the Science Act authorized $ 1.562 billion, saw an 11 percent cut and NASA's budget fell 9 percent short of its request. As of April 2024, CHIPS research agencies have been underfunded by over $ 8 billion. In April, Commerce Secretary Raimondo revealed the CHIPS Program Office would no longer fund commercial research and development investments via
6419-646: The Act was insufficient in shoring up American mid-level, consumer market-oriented manufacturing by increasing competition and resiliency there. It recommended that the Commerce Department increasingly involve the Federal Trade Commission and other antitrust agencies in its decision-making, incubate four mid-size competitors to TSMC, require 'fabless' firms to double their source numbers, and strategically levy tariffs and fees on select consumer electronics deemed lacking in American sourcing. In August 2023, around
6550-563: The Act's $ 39 billion fund, due to high demand totaling $ 70 billion, and said applicants must seek other sources of R&D funding. The Act creates a National Semiconductor Technology Center to perform advanced research and development on semiconductors. In order to implement it, the Department of Commerce created a nonprofit public–private partnership within NIST called Natcast in April 2023, putting out
6681-582: The Biden administration announced that it would award $ 504 million in additional grants to 12 of the Tech Hubs to further their research. It also announced that the Tech Hub program had already attracted $ 4 billion in private sector investments. Estimates of the results of the CHIPS Act vary. The trade group Semiconductor Industry Association , which analyzed announced investments from May 2020 to December 2022, claimed
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#17328633328196812-444: The Biden administration, and has established a Workforce Center of Excellence and "Community of Interest", beginning its first $ 100 million grant competition in the summer, with a focus on improving artificial intelligence and making cutting-edge research cheaper. It has prepared its strategic plan for fiscal years 2025-27, outlining goals that range from scaling up multi-process wafer access to computer-aided design of chips to organizing
6943-426: The CHIPS Act had led to more than 50 projects worth more than $ 200 billion that would create 44,000 jobs. By the count of policy researcher Jack Conness, the CHIPS Act led to 37 projects worth $ 272 billion and a predicted 36,300 jobs as of November 14, 2024; when considered together with Inflation Reduction Act investments, the total comes out to 218 projects worth $ 388 billion creating 135,800 jobs. Arizona
7074-677: The CHIPS Act, and they were joined by seventeen Republican senators, including Senate Republican leader Mitch McConnell , Utah senator Mitt Romney , and South Carolina senator Lindsey Graham . Many legislators and elected officials from across both the federal government and various state governments endorsed the passage. A large group of governors consisting of Pennsylvania's Tom Wolf , Alabama's Kay Ivey , California's Gavin Newsom , Kentucky's Andy Beshear , Michigan's Gretchen Whitmer , Wisconsin's Tony Evers , Illinois' J. B. Pritzker , Kansas' Laura Kelly , and North Carolina's Roy Cooper pushed for
7205-401: The Commerce Department would be too friendly to states with right-to-work laws (where the first new fabs would be built), that the bill did not restrictively define a "domestic company" regarding financing, and that fab owners would simply use CHIPS Act money to buy back stocks . In response to these concerns, on February 28, 2023, United States Secretary of Commerce Gina Raimondo published
7336-495: The DOC to establish $ 10 billion worth of research hubs in post-industrial rural and urban communities that have been subjected to historical underinvestment. As a national security law, the law contains a variety of provisions related to research ethics, foreign talent recruitment, restrictions on Confucius Institutes , and establishing new research security initiatives in the DOE, NIST, and
7467-455: The EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ. The EUginius (European GMO Initiative for
7598-556: The Global Economic Security Strategy to boost investment in high-tech research vital to U.S. national security. The plan was to grow $ 150 billion in government R&D funding into a $ 500 billion investment, with matching investments from the private sector and a coalition of technological allies dubbed the "Techno-Democracies-10" (TD-10). On May 27, 2020, Senators Young and Schumer, along with Congressmen Ro Khanna (D-CA) and Mike Gallagher (R-WI.), introduced
7729-487: The IIJA, CaSA, and IRA together catalyzed over $ 988 billion in private investment (including $ 446 billion in electronics and semiconductors, $ 180 billion in electric vehicles and batteries, $ 184 billion in clean power, $ 84 billion in clean energy tech manufacturing and infrastructure, and $ 48 billion in heavy industry) and over $ 696.3 billion in public infrastructure spending (including $ 96.8 billion in energy aside from tax credits in
7860-688: The IRA and CaSA together catalyzed over $ 224 billion in investments and over 100,000 new jobs by the preceding July. According to the New Democrat -linked think tank Center for American Progress , the CHIPS and Science Act, the Inflation Reduction Act, and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act have together led to more than 35,000 public and private investments. The Biden administration itself claimed that as of November 15, 2024,
7991-531: The IRA). In California , where the semiconductor industry was founded in Silicon Valley , experts say that it is very unlikely that any new manufacturing facilities will be built, due to tight regulations, high costs of land and electricity, and unreliable water supplies. These factors have contributed to the state's 33% decline in manufacturing jobs since 1990. In May 2023, Applied Materials announced it would build
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#17328633328198122-946: The NSF SBIR/SBTT Fast-Track pilot program for certain startups and the APTO program promoting technology prediction, and signed a memorandum of understanding with the Commerce Department for further action in workforce development. In September 2024, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine produced a report on NASA's organizational efficiency mandated by the law, which found several critical weaknesses, namely, in long-term planning, workforce retention, headquarters staffing levels, budgetary support from Congress, aging infrastructure, and emphasis on research and development as part of instrument planning. Many companies and ecosystem suppliers have announced investment plans since May 2020, when TSMC announced that it would build
8253-521: The NSF. The law makes extensive recommendations to the NSF to add social, legal, and ethical considerations to the award process in all of its research activities, hinting at an embrace of public participatory technology assessment ; the law does not invoke an NSF doctrine called the "broader impacts criterion" to do so. The law invests roughly $ 90 billion in strengthening and diversifying the STEM workforce through 33 programs, many of them incorporated deeply in
8384-536: The President's proposal for the 2024 United States federal budget would likely shortchange them by $ 5.1 billion, or 19 percent compared to the Act's intent. Upon reviewing the effects the shortfalls would bring on defense policy and the economy, they recommended that more science and technology spending be moved into the mandatory category, as had been done with some semiconductor spending. In March 2024, Politico contributor Christine Mui cited Hourihan in detailing how
8515-467: The Raimondo guidance as excessive. Harris later reported that as a consequence TSMC and its non-union subcontractors had routinely engaged in alleged wage theft, underreported safety violations, and cut out various installation procedures that would have prevented costly repairs, delaying its projects. In February 2024, the antitrust think tank American Economic Liberties Project released a report evaluating
8646-537: The Science Act interacted with later spending deals. In the actual 2024 budget, the NSF was underfunded by 42 percent compared to the Act's authorization and by 11 percent compared to its budget request; the Department of Energy's Office of Science was underfunded by 13 percent compared to the Act's authorization, while the Economic Development Administration 's regional hubs program was funded with $ 41 million ($ 541 million since 2022) against an annual authorization of $ 2 billion ($ 4 billion from 2022); NIST's budget, for which
8777-640: The Secretary would be notified of violations. 117th United States Congress The 117th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government , composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives . It convened in Washington, D.C. , on January 3, 2021, during the final weeks of Donald Trump's first presidency and
8908-566: The U.S. Additionally, $ 11 billion would go toward advanced semiconductor research and development, separable into $ 8.5 billion of that total going to the National Institute for Standards and Technology , $ 500 million to Manufacturing USA , and $ 2 billion to a new public research hub called the National Semiconductor Technology Center. $ 24 billion would go to a new 25 percent advanced semiconductor manufacturing tax credit to encourage firms to stay in
9039-578: The USA Telecommunications Act of 2020, which aims to enhance competitiveness of software and hardware supply chains of open RAN 5G networks." (The open RAN research innovation fund is controlled by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration .) Companies are subjected to a ten-year ban prohibiting them from producing chips more advanced than 28 nanometers in China and Russia if they are awarded subsidies under
9170-590: The USICA passed 68–32 in the Senate with bipartisan support. The House version of the Bill, America COMPETES Act of 2022 (H.R. 4521), passed on February 4, 2022. The Senate passed an amended bill by substituting the text of H.R. 4521 with the text of the USICA on March 28, 2022. A Senate and House conference was required to reconcile the differences, which resulted in the bipartisan CHIPS and Science Act , or "CHIPS Plus". The bill passed
9301-535: The United States, and $ 200 million would go to the National Science Foundation to resolve short-term labor supply issues. According to McKinsey , "The CHIPS Act allocates $ 2 billion to the Department of Defense to fund microelectronics research, fabrication, and workforce training. An additional $ 500 million goes to the Department of State to coordinate with foreign-government partners on semiconductor supply chain security. And $ 1.5 billion funds
9432-474: The United States. The U.S. Department of Commerce was granted the power to allocate funds based on companies' willingness to sustain research, build facilities, and train new workers. For semiconductor and telecommunications purposes, the CHIPS Act designates roughly $ 106 billion. The CHIPS Act includes $ 39 billion in tax benefits, loan guarantees and grants, administered by the DOC to encourage American companies to build new chip manufacturing plants in
9563-531: The Workforce Center of Excellence. The current headquarters of Natcast are in a strip mall in Portola Valley, California . States that have received huge amounts of semiconductor investments such as New York, Ohio, Arizona and Texas are vying as of May 2024 to have the headquarters relocated in them. In October, the first major NSTC site was announced, an extreme ultraviolet lithography research lab at
9694-743: The above technologies as well as promoting social and ethical considerations, and authorizes but does not appropriate $ 12 billion for ARPA-E . For the United States Department of Energy the law creates a new 501(c)(3) organization , the Foundation for Energy Security and Innovation , to leverage philanthropy for improving the workforce and bolstering energy research. It contains annual DOE budget increases for other purposes including supercomputer , nuclear fusion and particle accelerator research as well as minority-serving institution outreach and workforce development for teachers, and directs
9825-572: The aforementioned semiconductor incentive, NSF labor supply, Tech Hubs, and DoD microelectronics R&D efforts; beyond those, the law authorizes $ 2.8 billion for standalone education projects, creates a Chief Diversity Officer position and codifies the Eddie Bernice Johnson INCLUDES Network to serve as the NSF's main diversity, equity, and inclusion program. The law expands NSF demographic data collection and workplace inclusion efforts, and help to grantees in caregiver roles and
9956-518: The antibiotic compound formed by the mold by Howard Florey , Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley – to form what we today know as penicillin . In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans. The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced
10087-502: The application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms, such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock . As per the European Federation of Biotechnology , biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Biotechnology
10218-614: The bipartisan, bicameral Endless Frontier Act to solidify the United States' leadership in scientific and technological innovation through increased investments in the discovery, creation, and commercialization of technology fields of the future. The United States Innovation and Competition Act of 2021 (USICA) (S. 1260), formerly known as the Endless Frontier Act, was United States legislation sponsored by Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer and Senator Young authorizing $ 110 billion for basic and advanced technology research over
10349-510: The board of trustees was finalized as Robin Abrams of Analog Devices Inc., Craig Barrett of Intel, Reggie Brothers of the MIT Lincoln Lab, Nick Donofrio of IBM, Donna Dubinsky of Palm and Handspring, and Erica Fuchs of Carnegie Mellon University. They selected Deirdre Hanford of Synopsys to serve as Natcast's CEO. As of October 24, 2024, Natcast was promised at least $ 5 billion from
10480-462: The broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution . Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with
10611-607: The climate action think tank Rocky Mountain Institute . The law would invest $ 81 billion in the NSF, including new money for STEM education (it recommends $ 100 million in rural schools, a 50 percent increase in Noyce Teaching Scholarships, and $ 300 million in a "STEM Teacher Corps") and defense against foreign intellectual property infringement , and $ 20 billion in the new Directorate for Technology, Innovation, and Partnerships, which would be tasked with deploying
10742-432: The construction phase and upon completion in the operational/manufacturing stage, where 40% of the permanent new workers will need two-year technician degrees and 60% will need four-year engineering degrees or higher. In addition, Congress had routinely made several funding deals that underfunded key basic research provisions of the Act by tens of billions of dollars. The CHIPS and Science Act combines two bipartisan bills:
10873-509: The course of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs. Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges. But see also: Domingo, José L.; Bordonaba, Jordi Giné (2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants" (PDF) . Environment International . 37 (4): 734–742. Bibcode : 2011EnInt..37..734D . doi : 10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003 . PMID 21296423 . Archived (PDF) from
11004-445: The current decades, significant progress has been done in creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology. By using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy. Synthetic biology
11135-488: The difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., bioremediation is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively. Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of environmental biotechnology ; whereas loss of biodiversity or loss of containment of
11266-458: The discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule pharmaceutical drugs as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – biopharmaceutics . Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with
11397-527: The dual aim of strengthening American supply chain resilience and countering China . It also invests $ 174 billion in the overall ecosystem of public sector research in science and technology, advancing human spaceflight , quantum computing , materials science , biotechnology , experimental physics , research security, social and ethical considerations, workforce development and diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts at NASA , NSF , DOE , EDA , and NIST . The act does not have an official short title as
11528-402: The early 2000s, BioFETs such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed. A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products. Rising demand for biofuels
11659-464: The end of their term (2017–2023), having been elected in 2016 and facing re-election in 2022 . All 435 seats for voting members, along with the six non-voting delegates were filled by election in November 2020. Section contents: Senate , House , Joint Prior to the passing of an organizing resolution on February 3, 2021, chairs of Senate committees remained
11790-489: The extensive environmental impact of the chipmaker and data center industry was at odds with the output from the new research programs of the Act. Robert Kuttner , economic nationalist commentator and editor of The American Prospect , expressed concerns that the bill did not provide enough resources to allow local residents near fabs to organize or form a trade union (thereby making unions rely too heavily on community benefits agreements compared to federal policy), that
11921-607: The fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law. Biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security. Crops like Golden rice are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives. Though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture. Additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food. Transgenic biofortification in cereals has been considered as
12052-472: The fight against sexual harassment. The law emphasizes skilled technical jobs that do not require a bachelor's degree, and directs grant applicants to closely integrate workforce initiatives with job training; notably, it does not invest in the United States Department of Labor to carry this out. Every senator in the Senate Democratic Caucus except for Bernie Sanders voted in favor of passing
12183-468: The first biosensor in 1962. Biosensor MOSFETs were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical , chemical , biological and environmental parameters. The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970. It is a special type of MOSFET, where the metal gate is replaced by an ion -sensitive membrane , electrolyte solution and reference electrode . The ISFET
12314-401: The first application for CHIPS Act grants, which encourages fab operators to use Project Labor Agreements for facilitating union negotiations during construction, outline their plans to curtail stock buybacks, share excess profits with the federal government, and open or point out nearby child care facilities. The application led to over 200 statements of interest from private companies within
12445-416: The first forms of biotechnology. These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer . These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia , Egypt , China and India , and still use the same basic biological methods. In brewing , malted grains (containing enzymes ) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in
12576-529: The first month and a half, looking to invest across the entire semiconductor supply chain in 35 states; by June 2023, the number had reached over 300. The Prospect later covered the lack of progress in PLA talks between key investor TSMC and local unions in Phoenix, and included both author Lee Harris's claim that the Raimondo guidance was insufficient in helping the talks, and liberal commentator Ezra Klein 's criticism of
12707-410: The first time since the 111th Congress ended in 2011. Additionally, with the inauguration of Joe Biden as president that same day, Democrats assumed control of the executive branch as well, attaining an overall federal government trifecta , also for the first time since the 111th Congress. Despite Democrats holding thin majorities in both chambers during a period of intense political polarization,
12838-575: The first two years of Joe Biden's presidency and ended on January 3, 2023. The 2020 elections decided control of both chambers . In the House of Representatives, the Democratic Party retained their majority, albeit reduced from the 116th Congress . It was similar in size to the majority held by the Republican Party during the 83rd Congress (1953–1955). In the Senate, Republicans briefly held
12969-416: The grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation , which produced other preserved foods, such as soy sauce . Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread . Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur 's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert
13100-478: The highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively fertilize , restore nitrogen , and control pests . Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants — one of
13231-559: The innovation cycle. Seven months later, Brookings staffers Martha Ross and Mark Muro also said the act's workforce provisions reflected a fragmented approach and their costs were difficult to determine. Writing in the Substack climate and finance newsletter The Gigaton , Stanford MBA students Georgia Carroll and Zac Maslia criticized the Act for lacking incentives to add renewable energy to chipmakers' base loads , and reclaimed water and PFAS alternatives to their material inputs, and noted
13362-420: The key techniques used in biotechnology is genetic engineering , which allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of organisms to achieve desired outcomes. This can involve inserting genes from one organism into another, and consequently, create new traits or modifying existing ones. Other important techniques used in biotechnology include tissue culture, which allows researchers to grow cells and tissues in
13493-511: The lab for research and medical purposes, and fermentation , which is used to produce a wide range of products such as beer, wine, and cheese. The applications of biotechnology are diverse and have led to the development of essential products like life-saving drugs, biofuels , genetically modified crops, and innovative materials. It has also been used to address environmental challenges, such as developing biodegradable plastics and using microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites. Biotechnology
13624-770: The law. The law authorizes $ 174 billion for uses other than semiconductor and telecom technologies. It authorizes, but does not appropriate, extended NASA funding for the International Space Station to 2030, partially funds the Artemis program returning humans to the Moon, and directs NASA to establish a Moon to Mars Program Office for a human mission to Mars beyond the Artemis program. The bill also obligates NASA to perform research into further domesticating its supply chains and diversifying and developing its workforce, reducing
13755-472: The majority at the start; however, on January 20, 2021, three new Democratic senators – Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock of Georgia and Alex Padilla of California – were sworn in, resulting in 50 seats held by Republicans, 48 seats held by Democrats, and two held by independents who caucus with the Democrats. Effectively, this created a 50–50 split, which had not occurred since the 107th Congress in 2001. This
13886-715: The market, but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption. There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. GM crops also provide
14017-759: The methods of genetic engineering . These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding . Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato. To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean , corn , canola , and cotton seed oil . These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on
14148-531: The new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty . Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty , working for General Electric , had modified
14279-548: The one-year anniversary of the act becoming law, the NSF released a fact sheet outlining what it had done in the first year. Notably, the Technology, Innovation and Partnerships Directorate had awarded more than 760 grants and signed 18 contracts in research and development, and incentivized $ 4 billion in private capital and 35 exits from federal seed funding for private companies; the NSF issued two letters to employees on research security, increased STEM scholarship amounts, and created
14410-404: The original on October 9, 2022. In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as
14541-473: The passage of the debt-ceiling deal , Federation of American Scientists analysts Matt Hourihan and Melissa Roberts Chapman and Brookings Institution analyst Mark Muro noted that the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 had underfunded three key agencies to the Science Act (the NSF, the DOE's Office of Science, and NIST) by $ 2.7 billion, or 12 percent compared to the Act's intent, and that
14672-570: The passage of the bill back in November 2021. Separately, Ohio governor Mike DeWine , whose state became the home of Intel 's newest semiconductor fabrication plant in the Columbus suburb of New Albany , as well as Texas governor Greg Abbott and Texas senator John Cornyn , whose state was the home of a major investment from Samsung , each pushed for the bill to be passed and applauded its advancement through Congress. It has received widespread support from chip firms, though they were concerned about
14803-457: The production of a chemical known as 1,4-butanediol , which is used in fiber manufacturing. In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the Escherichia coli by CRISPR to induce point mutation in the glt A gene, knockout of the sad gene, and knock-in six genes ( cat 1, suc D, 4hbd , cat 2, bld , and bdh ). Whereas CRISPRi system used to knockdown
14934-460: The production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops. In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used
15065-441: The products). The utilization of biological processes, organisms or systems to produce products that are anticipated to improve human lives is termed biotechnology. By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials directly ) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering
15196-723: The protectionist provisions of the CHIPS and Science Act and the risk of a subsidy race with the EU , which proposed its own European Chips Act in 2022. In a piece for Brookings on May 25, 2023, Annelies Goger and Banu Ozkazanc-Pan found the Act was vague in many of its workforce development provisions, and criticized the statute for failing to offer a comprehensive, 'wraparound' approach to workforce development. They focused on its lack of supportive provisions for closing racial and gender gaps in STEM, its lack of requirements for equitable access to child care and non-academic mentorship programs beyond well-resourced communities, and its piecemeal approach to
15327-415: The provision banning them from further investments in China. Intel CEO Pat Gelsinger said during an earnings call on September 30, 2022, that CHIPS Act subsidies were leading the company to explore building empty fab buildings (known as a "shell-first strategy") and aggressively acquire smaller competitors before installing any equipment, to avoid contributing to a predicted semiconductor glut. The bill
15458-422: The purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using
15589-467: The regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety. The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within
15720-404: The respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents
15851-469: The same as in the 116th Congress. Where the chair had retired (as in the Agriculture , Budget , and HELP committees), the chair was vacant. Biotechnology Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services. The term biotechnology
15982-591: The similar Belgian company IMEC . The Biden administration will also invest at least $ 200 million in a new Manufacturing USA Institute under the Act, focused on spreading the use of digital twins in semiconductor design, and $ 300 million in the NIST Advanced Packaging Manufacturing Program, focused on researching new substrate chemistries for semiconductor packaging . The Commerce Department also awarded $ 100 million to 29 research projects in advanced metrology by February, and released
16113-411: The state of the semiconductor industry after the CHIPS and Science Act passed. It found that the Act was insufficient in dealing with what it saw as the effective monopolization and monopsony of the American semiconductor industry by TSMC and by ' fabless ' semiconductor firms that practiced routine outsourcing, such as Nvidia and Apple Inc. , the result of shareholder-driven decisions. It also found
16244-534: The three competing genes ( gab D, ybg C, and tes B) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol. Consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/L. Environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing environmentally safe processes, such as biofiltration and biodegradation . The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. Vallero and others have argued that
16375-542: The time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder . As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use. Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling . Genetically modified crops ("GM crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in agriculture ,
16506-565: The total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in Oncology with Neurology and Rare Diseases being the other two big applications. Pharmacogenomics (a combination of pharmacology and genomics ) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Researchers in the field investigate the influence of genetic variation on drug responses in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with
16637-507: The world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010. As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil , Argentina , India , Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. Genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into their DNA with
16768-513: Was criticized by Republican House leader Kevin McCarthy and senator Bernie Sanders as a "blank check", which the latter equated to a bribe to semiconductor companies. China lobbied against the bill and criticized it as being "reminiscent of a 'Cold War mentality ' ". In a piece for the Brookings Institution on December 20, 2022, Sarah Kreps and Paul Timmers expressed concerns regarding
16899-451: Was first used by Károly Ereky in 1919 to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. The core principle of biotechnology involves harnessing biological systems and organisms, such as bacteria, yeast , and plants, to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances. Biotechnology had a significant impact on many areas of society, from medicine to agriculture to environmental science . One of
17030-409: Was only the third time in U.S. history that the Senate had been evenly split, and the longest-lasting one ever. The new senators were sworn into office by Vice President Kamala Harris , just hours after her inauguration . With Harris serving as the tie breaker in her constitutional role as President of the Senate, Democrats gained control of the Senate, and thereby full control of Congress for
17161-427: Was signed into law by President Joe Biden on August 9, 2022. The law constitutes an industrial policy initiative which takes place against the background of a perceived AI Cold War between the US and China, as artificial intelligence technology relies on semiconductors. The law was considered amidst a global semiconductor shortage and intended to provide subsidies and tax credits to chip makers with operations in
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