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82-788: Although the 1955 constitution guaranteed the right to form workers' associations, it was not until 1962 that the Ethiopian government issued the Labor the Relations Decree, which authorized trade unions. The next year, the imperial authorities recognized the CELU, which at the beginning represented twenty-two industrial labor groups. By 1973 the Confederation had 167 affiliates with approximately 80,000 members, which represented only about 30 percent of all eligible workers. The CELU drew its membership from not only

164-556: A Marxist theoretician and produced most of the works that would later be canonised as the "Thought of Mao Zedong". The rudimentary philosophical base of Chinese Communist ideology is laid down in Mao's numerous dialectical treatises and was conveyed to newly recruited party members. This period established ideological independence from Moscow for Mao and the CCP. Although the Yan'an period did answer some of

246-506: A correct analysis of many problems, he confused right and wrong and the people with the enemy [...] herein lies his tragedy. Scholars outside China see this re-working of the definition of Maoism as providing an ideological justification for what they see as the restoration of the essentials of capitalism in China by Deng and his successors, who sought to "eradicate all ideological and physiological obstacles to economic reform". In 1978, this led to

328-668: A correspondingly unique application of Marxist theory, an application that would have to diverge from the Soviet approach. Beginning in the Yan'an period, Mao Zedong Thought became the ideological guide for developing revolutionary culture and a long-term social movement. Unlike the Mature period, this period was intellectually barren. Mao focused more on revolutionary practice and paid less attention to Marxist theory. He continued to emphasise theory as practice-oriented knowledge. The most crucial topic of

410-673: A leader's political thinking in the Marxist tradition is important in establishing a leader's ideological legitimacy. Mao Zedong Thought is frequently described as the result of collaboration between the first-generation leaders of the Party and is principally based on Mao's analysis of Marxism and Chinese history. It is often also described as the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context. Observing that concepts of both Marxism and Chinese culture were and are contested, academic Rebecca Karl writes that

492-472: A list of 16 demands, and warned that if the government did not satisfy these demands, they would call a general strike on 7 March; most of these demands specifically concerned labor issues, and only five addressed broader economic or political topics. The Endelkachew government delayed in responding to this list until the day before the general strike would occur, and then simply stated that each point would be answered in three to six months' time. "To its surprise,

574-420: A minimum of Marxist category thought. His writings in this period failed to elaborate on what he meant by the "Marxist method of political and class analysis". Before this period, Mao was concerned with the dichotomy between knowledge and action. He was more concerned with the dichotomy between revolutionary ideology and counter-revolutionary objective conditions. There was more correlation drawn between China and

656-533: A mirror image" of the U.S. Constitution, Edmond Keller notes it contained a number of ideas from that document, such as a separation of powers between three branches of government, and careful attention given to detailing the "Rights and Duties of the People", to which 28 articles were devoted. However, the constitution did not create a constitutional monarchy in the Western sense. Despite the introduction of some ideas from

738-484: A much smaller one, led by Alem Abdi , which came to align itself with the Derg; and the majority faction, led by Marqos Hagos . Four days after the deposition of Emperor Haile Selassie, on 16 September the CELU issued a communique condemning the Derg and demanding a civilian government, which led to the top three leaders of the CELU being arrested 24 September. Lacking the direction of a relatively moderate leadership, by May 1975

820-406: A series of important theories for socialist construction." After the death of Mao in 1976 and the resulting power struggles in China that followed, the international Maoist movement was divided into three camps. One group, composed of various ideologically nonaligned groups, gave weak support to the new Chinese leadership under Deng Xiaoping. Another camp denounced the new leadership as traitors to

902-518: A socialist revolution in the agricultural, pre-industrial society of the Republic of China and later the People's Republic of China . A difference between Maoism and traditional Marxism–Leninism is that a united front of progressive forces in class society would lead the revolutionary vanguard in pre-industrial societies rather than communist revolutionaries alone. This theory, in which revolutionary praxis

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984-515: A two-year-reprieve, while others were sentenced to life imprisonment or imprisonment for 15 years. After the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre , Mao's influence continued to be weaker. Although not very influential, some radical Maoists, disgruntled by the injustices suffered by migrant workers, organized a number of protests and strikes, including the Jasic incident . In the 2020s, influenced by

1066-505: Is inviolable and His power indisputable." This was underpinned by the embedding in the constitution of the myth that the ruling Solomonic dynasty was descended from the biblical king Solomon : Article 2 declared that the emperor "descends without interruption from the dynasty of Menelik I, son of Queen of Ethiopia, the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Jerusalem". Although the Emperor's position

1148-426: Is primary and ideological orthodoxy is secondary, represents urban Marxism–Leninism adapted to pre-industrial China. Later theoreticians expanded on the idea that Mao had adapted Marxism–Leninism to Chinese conditions, arguing that he had in fact updated it fundamentally and that Maoism could be applied universally throughout the world. This ideology is often referred to as Marxism–Leninism–Maoism to distinguish it from

1230-547: Is regarded by today's CCP as an economic and political disaster. In Deng's day, support of radical Maoism was regarded as a form of "left deviationism" and based on a cult of personality , although these "errors" are officially attributed to the Gang of Four rather than Mao himself. Thousands of Maoists were arrested in the Hua Guofeng period after 1976. The prominent Maoists Zhang Chunqiao and Jiang Qing were sentenced to death with

1312-524: Is that China has now reached an economic and political stage, known as the primary stage of socialism , in which China faces new and different problems completely unforeseen by Mao, and as such, the solutions that Mao advocated are no longer relevant to China's current conditions. The 1981 Resolution reads: Chief responsibility for the grave 'Left' error of the 'cultural revolution,' an error comprehensive in magnitude and protracted in duration, does indeed lie with Comrade Mao Zedong [...] [and] far from making

1394-522: Is the keynote to Mao's intellectual orientation in the post-1949 period." Mao assertively revised the theory to relate it to the new practice of socialist construction. These revisions are apparent in the 1951 version of On Contradiction . "In the 1930s, when Mao talked about contradiction, he meant the contradiction between subjective thought and objective reality. In Dialectal Materialism of 1940, he saw idealism and materialism as two possible correlations between subjective thought and objective reality. In

1476-663: The All-African Labor Congress , and the International Labour Organization to finance its operations." Further, when the CELU had attempted to flex its power in two general strikes in 1964 and 1970, both times it had failed to secure the necessary widespread support. Despite these problems, the Ottaways note that when the Ethiopian Revolution erupted, "as the largest organization representing any of

1558-585: The New Culture Movement , which occurred between 1915 and 1919. Proposing the "total destruction of the traditions and values of the past", the New Culture Movement, spearheaded by the New Youth , a periodical published by Chen Duxiu, profoundly influenced the young Mao Zedong, whose first published work appeared in the magazine's pages. Along with iconoclasm, radical anti-imperialism dominated

1640-582: The Sino-Albanian split when Albanian leader Enver Hoxha denounced Deng as a revisionist and formed Hoxhaism as an anti-revisionist form of Marxism. The CCP officially regards Mao himself as a "great revolutionary leader" for his role in fighting against the Japanese fascist invasion during the Second World War and creating the People's Republic of China, but Maoism, as implemented between 1959 and 1976,

1722-646: The growing wealth gap and the 996 working hour system , Mao's thoughts are being revived in China's generation Z , as they question authority of the CCP. The Chinese government has censored some Maoist posts. The 2021 The Resolution on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century describes Mao Zedong Thought as "a summation of theories, principles, and experience on China's revolution and construction that has been proven correct through practice, and [having] put forward

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1804-407: The 1940s, he introduced no new elements into his understanding of the subject-object contradiction. In the 1951 version of On Contradiction , he saw contradiction as a universal principle underlying all processes of development, yet with each contradiction possessed of its own particularity." In 1956, Mao first fully theorized his view of continual revolution. Maoism and Marxism differ in how

1886-421: The 1960s the CELU failed to exert a serious challenge to the economic status quo for a number of reasons. One was that most of the membership were "white collar workers in such organizations as banks, insurance companies and airlines" who had little in common with their industrial counterparts. As a result, the CELU "did not seriously attempt before the revolution to establish a minimum wage ." Other were flaws in

1968-521: The CELU was under the control of one faction which viciously opposed the Derg along Marxist lines. The Derg ordered the CELU headquarters closed and the organization reorganized on 19 May, but eventually backed down and allowed the headquarters to be reopened in the face of worker unrest. By the time of the general congress in Addis Ababa that September, the political makeover of the CELU was complete. "The socialist, even Maoist , language of its resolutions

2050-413: The CELU, along with a number of civilian groups, opposed the Derg having control over the creation of this vanguard party. On 25 September, an Ethiopian Airlines employee was caught distributing CELU literature amongst airport workers, leading to a battle between workers and police which left four people dead and 22 wounded. The CELU leadership called for a general strike and went underground; the Derg placed

2132-575: The Chinese intellectual tradition and slowly evolved into a fierce nationalist fervor which influenced Mao's philosophy immensely and was crucial in adapting Marxism to the Chinese model. Vital to understanding Chinese nationalist sentiments of the time is the Treaty of Versailles , which was signed in 1919. The Treaty aroused a wave of bitter nationalist resentment in Chinese intellectuals as lands formerly ceded to Germany in Shandong were—without consultation with

2214-685: The Chinese—transferred to Japanese control rather than returned to Chinese sovereignty. The adverse reaction culminated in the May Fourth Movement in 1919, during which a protest began with 3,000 students in Beijing displaying their anger at the announcement of the Versailles Treaty's concessions to Japan. The protest turned violent as protesters began attacking the homes and offices of ministers who were seen as cooperating with or being in

2296-697: The Communist Party's Central Committee adopted the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China . The Resolution assesses the legacy of the Mao era, describing Mao as first among equals in the development of Mao Zedong Thought before 1949 and deeming Mao Zedong Thought as successful in establishing national independence, transforming China's social classes,

2378-411: The Communist Party's Constitution as Deng Xiaoping abolished most Maoist practices in 1978, advancing a guiding ideology called " socialism with Chinese characteristics ". Shortly after Mao died in 1976, Deng Xiaoping initiated socialist market reforms in 1978, thereby beginning the radical change in Mao's ideology in the People's Republic of China (PRC). Although Mao Zedong Thought nominally remains

2460-456: The Confucian moral order, and it did much to make Confucianism synonymous with political and social conservatism in the minds of Chinese intellectuals. This association of conservatism and Confucianism lent to the iconoclastic nature of Chinese intellectual thought during the first decades of the 20th century. Chinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and vociferously by Chen Duxiu during

2542-630: The Derg—and which became the principal target of the Red Terror . 1955 Constitution of Ethiopia Emperor Haile Selassie proclaimed a revised constitution in November 1955 of the Ethiopian Empire . The new constitution was intended to improve Ethiopia's international image. While it consolidated the Emperor's absolutist powers it introduced concepts such as the separation of powers and expanded

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2624-488: The Endelkachew government to sign an agreement, but not long enough to extract significant concessions." Despite the lack of a decisive victory, this general strike inspired a series of wildcat strikes over the following weeks by the public employees of the different government bodies. CELU also increased its membership in the months following the general strike by a third, although the Ottaways argue that this "shows how great

2706-716: The Great Leap Forward, the Anti-rightist movement of the 1950s, and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of the 1960s-1970s . The social upheavals that occurred from the New Culture Movement - as well as the May Fourth Movement that followed it - largely focused around the dismantling of traditional Han Chinese cultural norms in which the majority of the populace were illiterate and largely uneducated. This consequence of this social dynamic

2788-519: The PLA sought to restrain the mass organizations that had developed during the early phase of the Cultural Revolution, and began reframing the movement as one to study Mao Zedong Thought rather than using it as a guide to immediate action. Mao drew from the writings of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels , and Vladimir Lenin in elaborating his theory. Philosophically, his most important reflections emerge on

2870-519: The Soviet Union was similar to the New Culture and May Fourth movements experienced by China in that it also placed a great importance on mass education and the normalisation of challenging of traditional cultural norms in the realising of a socialist society. However, the movements occurring in the Soviet Union had a far more adversarial mindset towards proponents of traditional values, with leadership in

2952-441: The Soviet model. Intellectually, this was Mao's most fruitful time. The orientation shift was apparent in his pamphlet Strategic Problems of China's Revolutionary War (December 1936). This pamphlet tried to provide a theoretical veneer for his concern with revolutionary practice. Mao started to separate from the Soviet model since it was not automatically applicable to China. China's unique set of historical circumstances demanded

3034-574: The U.S. constitution, John Spencer, in his memoirs, lamented that the Crown Council forced the constitution's authors to stress the prerogatives of the crown, giving the emperor the right to rule by emergency decree, to appoint and dismiss ministers without input from the Ethiopian parliament , and to appoint members of the Senate, judges, and even the mayors of municipalities. Spencer also regretted that many of

3116-410: The capital city under martial law on 30 September, and over the following month more than 1,500 civilians were arrested. The failure of the CELU to mount an effective protest destroyed its national organization, although individual unions survived, and a number of its leaders, including Marqos Hagos, joined the growing Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party , which was becoming the primary opposition to

3198-430: The capitalists would not repent and turn towards communism on their own; (2) the rulers must be overthrown by the people; (3) "the proletarians are discontented, and a demand for communism has arisen and had already become a fact." These reasons do not provide socioeconomic explanations, which usually form the core of Marxist ideology. In this period, Mao avoided all theoretical implications in his literature and employed

3280-828: The cause of Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought. The third camp sided with the Albanians in denouncing the Three Worlds Theory of the CCP (see the Sino-Albanian split ). The pro-Albanian camp would start to function as an international group as well (led by Enver Hoxha and the APL ) and was also able to amalgamate many of the communist groups in Latin America , including the Communist Party of Brazil . Later, Latin American Communists, such as Peru's Shining Path , also embraced

3362-437: The cities from the countryside". Maoism views the industrial-rural divide as a major division exploited by capitalism, identifying capitalism as involving industrial urban developed First World societies ruling over rural developing Third World societies. Maoism identifies peasant insurgencies in particular national contexts as part of a context of world revolution, in which Maoism views the global countryside as overwhelming

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3444-423: The communists". Holding that " political power grows out of the barrel of a gun ", Maoism emphasises the "revolutionary struggle of the vast majority of people against the exploiting classes and their state structures", which Mao termed a " people's war ". Mobilizing large parts of rural populations to revolt against established institutions by engaging in guerrilla warfare , Maoist Thought focuses on "surrounding

3526-499: The concept of "contradiction" ( maodun ). In two major essays, On Contradiction and On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People , he adopts the idea that contradiction is present in matter itself and thus also in the ideas of the brain. Matter always develops through a dialectical contradiction: "The interdependence of the contradictory aspects present in all things and the struggle between these aspects determine

3608-456: The correct interpretation of Marxism–Leninism and the ideological leader of world communism . At the turn of the 19th century, the contemporary Chinese intellectual tradition was defined by two central concepts: iconoclasm and nationalism . By the turn of the 20th century, a proportionately small yet socially significant cross-section of China's traditional elite (i.e., landlords and bureaucrats) found themselves increasingly sceptical of

3690-464: The development of Mao Zedong Thought is best viewed as the result of Mao's mutual interpretation of these concepts producing Mao's view of theory and revolutionary practice. Mao Zedong Thought asserts that class struggle continues even if the proletariat has already overthrown the bourgeoisie and there are capitalist restorationist elements within the CCP itself. Maoism provided the CCP's first comprehensive theoretical guideline regarding how to continue

3772-533: The development of economic self-sufficiency, the expansion of education and health care, and China's leadership role in the Third World. The Resolution describes setbacks during the period 1957 to 1964 (although it generally affirms this period) and major mistakes beginning in 1965. The Resolution describes upholding the guidance of Mao Zedong Thought and Marxism-Leninism as among the Communist Party's cardinal principles. Contemporary Maoists in China criticise

3854-451: The direct pay of the Japanese. The popular movement which followed "catalyzed the political awakening of a society which had long seemed inert and dormant." Another international event would have a significant impact not only on Mao but also on the Chinese intelligentsia. The Russian Revolution elicited great interest among Chinese intellectuals, although the socialist revolution in China

3936-452: The efficacy and even the moral validity of Confucianism . These skeptical iconoclasts formed a new segment of Chinese society, a modern intelligentsia whose arrival—or as the historian of China Maurice Meisner would label it, their defection—heralded the beginning of the destruction of the gentry as a social class in China. The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 marked the final failure of

4018-403: The general strike began the very next day," write the Ottaways. "With 85,000 to 100,000 workers participating, the country's main cities, particularly Addis Ababa , were paralyzed. But the CELU had no funds to sustain an unlimited strike, though they had promised one, and workers had no savings to fall back upon. By the third day, many were back on their jobs. The strike lasted long enough to force

4100-430: The global cities. Due to this imperialism by the capitalist urban First World toward the rural Third World, Maoism has endorsed national liberation movements in the Third World. Building on the theory of the vanguard party by Vladimir Lenin , the theory of the mass line outlines a strategy for the revolutionary leadership of the masses, consolidation of the dictatorship of the proletariat , and strengthening of

4182-444: The government, with the goal of reinstating traditionalism and capitalism in China. Leaning more on the example of the Soviet Union, which involved the silencing and subjugation of adversarial political forces to help bring about a cultural change, Mao called for his followers to speak openly and critically about revisionist forces that they were observing in society and to expel them, assuring them that their actions would be endorsed by

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4264-726: The ideological and theoretical questions raised by the Chinese Communist Revolution , it left many crucial questions unresolved, including how the Chinese Communist Party was supposed to launch a socialist revolution while wholly separated from the urban sphere. Mao's intellectual development can be divided into five significant periods, namely: Marxist thinking employs immanent socioeconomic explanations, whereas Mao's reasons were declarations of his enthusiasm. Mao did not believe education alone would transition from capitalism to communism for three main reasons. (1)

4346-473: The international Maoist movement evolved out of the second camp—the parties that opposed Deng and said they upheld the true legacy of Mao. The theory of the New Democracy was known to the Chinese revolutionaries from the late 1940s. This thesis held that for most people, the "long road to socialism " could only be opened by a "national, popular, democratic, anti-feudal and anti-imperialist revolution, run by

4428-580: The new social groups and classes, it was a potential force to be reckoned with." Rene Lefort observes that the Conferation "wanted to take advantage of the opportunity to increase the power of their organization. They launched a vast recruitment campaign (in two weeks the number of trade-union members rose by 40% to reach 120,000, according to CELU)". The CELU's role in the revolution came in March 1974. The Confederation presented to Prime Minister Endelkachew Makonnen

4510-519: The organization, which Edward Keller lists as including "corruption, embezzlement, election fraud, ethnic and regional discrimination, and insufficient finances. Seleshi Sisaye indicates that less than 40 percent of CELU's regular members paid dues. Annual revenues from dues averaged less than US$ 3,000. This forced CELU to rely on contributions from such international labor organizations as the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions ,

4592-610: The original ideas of Mao. From the 1950s until the Chinese economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping in the late 1970s, Maoism was the political and military ideology of the Chinese Communist Party and Maoist revolutionary movements worldwide. After the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s, the Chinese Communist Party and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union each claimed to be the sole heir and successor to Joseph Stalin concerning

4674-523: The party and that their efforts would in no way be interfered with. This warrant granted to the public ultimately lead to roughly ten years in which those seen as "Revisionist" forces - largely understood to mean landlords, rich peasants, and the so-called "bourgeoise academic" - were publicly criticised and denounced in places of gathering, and in more extreme examples had physical violence inflicted on them, including being beaten, tortured, and/or killed for their perceived crimes. Beginning in 1967, Mao and

4756-471: The party and the building of socialism . The mass line can be summarised as "from the masses, to the masses". It has three components or stages: These three steps should be applied repeatedly, reiteratively uplifting practice and knowledge to higher and higher stages. The theory of cultural revolution - rooted in Marxism-Leninism thought - states that the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of

4838-533: The party taking action to censor and exile these "enemies of change" on over 200 occasions, rather than exclusively putting pressure on these forces by enacting additive social changes such as education campaigns. The most prominent example of a Maoist application of cultural revolution can be seen in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s wherein Mao claimed that "Revisionist" forces had entered society and infiltrated

4920-413: The proletariat do not wipe out bourgeois ideology; the class struggle continues and even intensifies during socialism. Therefore, a constant struggle against bourgeois ideology, traditional cultural values, and the social roots that encourage both of them must be conducted in order to create and maintain a society in which socialism can succeed. Practical examples of this theory's application can be seen in

5002-570: The proletariat is defined and in which political and economic conditions would start a communist revolution . The CCP's ideological framework distinguishes between political ideas described as "Thought" (as in Mao Zedong Thought) or as "Theory" (as in Deng Xiaoping Theory ). Thought carries more weight than Theory and conveys the greater relative importance of a leader's ideological and historical influence. The process of formalizing

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5084-534: The railway workers, but included workers at the Addis Ababa Fiber Mills, Indo-Ethiopian Textiles, Wonji Sugar Plantation , Ethiopian Airlines and General Ethiopian Transport (also known as the Anbassa Bus Company). The Ottaways note that the formation of a national labor organization, when only 27,000 people were employed in the manufacturing sector "was one of the paradoxes of Ethiopian politics at

5166-403: The rapid social changes underwent by post-revolution Soviet Union in the late 1920s -1930s as well as pre-revolution China in the New Culture and May Fourth movements of the 1910s-1920s. Both of these sociocultural movements can be seen as shaping Maoist theory on the need for and goals of Cultural Revolution, and subsequently the mass cultural movements enacted by the CCP under Mao, which include

5248-473: The rights were enjoyed "subject to the law". Bahru Zewde stresses the nature of these executive powers in his discussion of this document, noting that it was "a legal charter for the consolidation of absolutism." Bahru quotes the relevant section from Article 4 of the Constitution: "By virtue of His Imperial Blood, as well as by the anointing which he has received, the person of the Emperor is sacred, His dignity

5330-556: The role of the Ethiopian parliament . It was abrogated in 1974 with the Ethiopian revolution of that year which resulted in the abolition of the monarchy by the Derg . The 1955 constitution was Ethiopia's second written one, the first being the 1931 constitution . It was prompted, like its predecessor, by a concern with international opinion. Such opinion was particularly important at a time when some neighboring African states were rapidly advancing under European colonial influence and Ethiopia

5412-477: The social inequalities created by the revisionist Communist Party. Some Maoists say that Deng's Reform and Opening economic policies that introduced market principles spelled the end of Maoism in China. However, Deng asserted that his reforms were upholding Mao Zedong Thought in accelerating the output of the country's productive forces. A recent example of a Chinese politician regarded as neo-Maoist in terms of political strategies and mass mobilisation via red songs

5494-399: The socialist revolution, the creation of a socialist society, and socialist military construction and highlights various contradictions in society to be addressed by what is termed "socialist construction". While it continues to be lauded to be the major force that defeated "imperialism and feudalism" and created a "New China" by the Chinese Communist Party, the ideology survives only in name on

5576-454: The state ideology, Deng's admonition to " seek truth from facts " means that state policies are judged on their practical consequences, and in many areas, the role of ideology in determining policy has thus been considerably reduced. Deng also separated Mao from Maoism, making it clear that Mao was fallible, and hence the truth of Maoism comes from observing social consequences rather than by using Mao's quotations dogmatically. On June 27, 1981,

5658-410: The tenets of Maoism. The new Chinese leadership showed little interest in the foreign groups supporting Mao's China. Many of the foreign parties that were fraternal parties aligned with the Chinese government before 1975 either disbanded, abandoned the new Chinese government entirely, or even renounced Marxism–Leninism and developed into non-communist, social democratic parties. What is today called

5740-452: The theory he delved into was in connection with the Cheng Feng movement of 1942. Here, Mao summarised the correlation between Marxist theory and Chinese practice: "The target is the Chinese revolution, the arrow is Marxism–Leninism. We Chinese communists seek this arrow for no other purpose than to hit the target of the Chinese revolution and the revolution of the east." The only new emphasis

5822-491: The time." They assert that the formation of CELU "can best be explained in terms of the country's foreign relations. A long time adherent to the International Labour Organization 's charter, Emperor Haile Selassie apparently found it increasingly difficult not to respect it in practice, particularly at a time when he was trying to establish himself as a central figure in independent Africa." However, during

5904-510: The two Ethiopian officials would then report to the Crown Council ; according to Spencer, "In many instances, the Crown Council, dominated by the extreme conservative, Ras Kassa , would veto our proposals and we would then seek some compromise formula. Progress was extremely slow." It was eventually promulgated by the decree of the emperor on 4 November 1955. The new constitution consisted of eight chapters and 131 articles. While clearly "not

5986-519: Was Bo Xilai in Chongqing . Although Mao Zedong Thought is still listed as one of the Four Cardinal Principles of the People's Republic of China, its historical role has been re-assessed. The Communist Party now says that Maoism was necessary to break China free from its feudal past, but it also says that the actions of Mao led to excesses during the Cultural Revolution. The official view

6068-435: Was Mao's concern with two types of subjectivist deviation: (1) dogmatism , the excessive reliance upon abstract theory; (2) empiricism , excessive dependence on experience. In 1945, the party's first historical resolution put forward Mao Zedong Thought as the party's unified ideology. It was also incorporated into the party's constitution . To Mao, the victory of 1949 was a confirmation of theory and practice. "Optimism

6150-427: Was its budgetary function: parliament now had the responsibility of approving or rejecting all proposed budgets, including taxes and allocations. In John Turner's opinion, the absence of a census, the near total illiteracy of the population, and the domination of the countryside by the nobility meant that the majority of candidates who sought election in 1957 were in effect chosen by the elite. The Chamber of Deputies

6232-538: Was its past failure to fully organize the working class. Up to this time, the CELU was dominated by leaders like CELU President Beyene Solomon , who had been trained by American labor unions, saw the organization in purely economic terms and denied any intent to make it into a political force. But as the revolution progressed, these leaders were pushed aside by more radical members in the annual meeting in September 1974. Two factions vied for control, according to Rene Lefort:

6314-419: Was not altogether a rubber stamp, at times discussing bills and questioning state ministers. This constitution was suspended by the Derg in their Proclamation No. 1, which was broadcast on 15 September 1974, three days after Emperor Haile Selassie was deposed. Maoism Maoism , officially Mao Zedong Thought , is a variety of Marxism–Leninism that Mao Zedong developed while trying to realize

6396-529: Was not considered a viable option until after the 4 May Incident. Afterward, "[t]o become a Marxist was one way for a Chinese intellectual to reject both the traditions of the Chinese past and Western domination of the Chinese present." Immediately following the Long March , Mao and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) were headquartered in the Yan'an Soviet in Shaanxi . During this period, Mao established himself as

6478-410: Was pressing its claims internationally for the incorporation of Eritrea , where an elected parliament and more modern administration had existed since 1952. The constitution was drawn up by three American advisors—A.H. Garretson, John Spencer, and Edgar Burlington—who worked with two leading figures of the restored monarchy, Wolde Giyorgis Wolde Yohannes and Aklilu Habte-Wold . After each session

6560-614: Was strengthened, the purview of the bicameral Ethiopian parliament was expanded over the 1931 constitution. Although the Senate remained appointive, the Chamber of Deputies was elected. In contrast to the legislature under the 1931 Constitution which could only discuss matters referred to it, it now had the authority to propose laws and veto laws proposed by the executive. It could also summon ministers for questioning, and in extraordinary circumstances it could initiate impeachment proceedings against them. Keller believes its most significant new power

6642-628: Was that political and economic power largely resided in the hands of a small group of educated elites, and Han Chinese culture formed around principles of respect and reverence for these educated and powerful authority figures. The aforementioned movements sought to combat these social norms through grassroots educational campaigns which were focused primarily around giving educational opportunities towards to people from traditionally uneducated families and normalising all people to be comfortable making challenges towards traditional figures of authority in Confucian society. The cultural revolution experienced by

6724-424: Was unmistakable," note the Ottaways. "American-trained leaders had been replaced by more radical ones who embraced a far different ideology and concept of unionism. but, as would become apparent later, the new leadership was far ahead of, and cut off from, the bulk of the confederation's own rank and file." According to Marxist theory, for the Ethiopian Revolution to be successful a vanguard party needed to be formed;

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