125-397: Ehlers–Danlos syndromes ( EDS ) are a group of 13 genetic connective-tissue disorders . Symptoms often include loose joints, joint pain, stretchy velvety skin, and abnormal scar formation. These may be noticed at birth or in early childhood. Complications may include aortic dissection , joint dislocations , scoliosis , chronic pain , or early osteoarthritis . The current classification
250-463: A CBY1 -beta-catenin mechanism. Mutations at this gene affect the beta-catenin cascade involved in development, causing malformation of the extracellular matrix, resulting in loss of collagen. A lack of collagen here is both consistent with hEDS and explains the "floppy" mitral and aortic valve heart defects. A second genetic study specific to mitral valve prolapse focused on the PDGF signaling pathway, which
375-675: A drug use disorder . Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms. While most women experience a brief period of worry or unhappiness after delivery, postpartum depression should be suspected when symptoms are severe and last over two weeks. Among those at risk, providing psychosocial support may be protective in preventing PPD. This may include community support such as food, household chores, mother care, and companionship. Treatment for PPD may include counseling or medications. Types of counseling that are effective include interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and psychodynamic therapy . Tentative evidence supports
500-540: A hominid was in the fossil species Paranthropus robustus , with over a third of individuals displaying amelogenesis imperfecta . EDAR ( EDAR hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia ) Postpartum depression Postpartum depression ( PPD ), also called postnatal depression , is a mood disorder experienced after childbirth , which can affect women. Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy , anxiety , crying episodes, irritability, and changes in sleeping or eating patterns. PPD can also negatively affect
625-637: A " marfanoid habitus" characterized by long, slender fingers ( arachnodactyly ), unusually long limbs, and a sunken chest ( pectus excavatum ) or protruding chest ( pectus carinatum ). It can be caused by variations in the gene PLOD1 , or rarely, in the FKBP14 gene. Arthrochalasia EDS (formerly categorized as types 7A and B) is characterized by severe joint hypermobility and congenital hip dislocation . Other common features include fragile, elastic skin with easy bruising, hypotonia , kyphoscoliosis ( kyphosis and scoliosis ), and mild osteopenia . Type-I collagen
750-445: A child affected by the disorder. Examples of this type of disorder are albinism , medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency , cystic fibrosis , sickle cell disease , Tay–Sachs disease , Niemann–Pick disease , spinal muscular atrophy , and Roberts syndrome . Certain other phenotypes, such as wet versus dry earwax , are also determined in an autosomal recessive fashion. Some autosomal recessive disorders are common because, in
875-428: A child is in infancy, these problems can include unusual amounts of crying (colic) and not having normal sleeping patterns. These problems can have a cyclical effect, meaning that they can further agitate the mother's postpartum depression and can even lead to the mother further developing postpartum depression. These cyclical effects can affect the way the mother maintains her relationship with her child. These can include
1000-493: A child may spread those options even further. Low-income women are frequently trapped in a cycle of poverty, unable to advance, affecting their ability to access and receive quality healthcare to diagnose and treat postpartum depression. Studies in the US have also shown a correlation between a mother's race and postpartum depression. African American mothers have been shown to have the highest risk of PPD at 25%, while Asian mothers had
1125-528: A connective tissue disorder, as the two have separate but not totally confounding etiologies. Eosinophilic esophagitis , an inflammatory condition characterized by allergic-type reactions to various foods and chemicals and extensive esophageal remodeling, is eight times more likely in patients with connective tissue disorders when compared to patients without. Functionally, small bowel dysmotility, delayed gastric emptying and delayed colonic transit are commonly related to EDS. These changes in transit speeds within
1250-667: A correlation between connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome and both structural and functional problems within the gastrointestinal tract. High incidences of coexisting inflammatory disorders suggest a correlation between connective tissue disorders and the development of such aforementioned conditions. Inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease , ulcerative colitis and celiac disease are more common in EDS patients when compared to control groups. Of note, patients who are already diagnosed with an inflammatory bowel disorder are not necessarily likely to develop symptoms of
1375-577: A female in terms of disease severity. The chance of passing on an X-linked dominant disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked dominant disorder will all be unaffected (since they receive their father's Y chromosome), but his daughters will all inherit the condition. A woman with an X-linked dominant disorder has a 50% chance of having an affected foetus with each pregnancy, although in cases such as incontinentia pigmenti, only female offspring are generally viable. X-linked recessive conditions are also caused by mutations in genes on
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#17329013068121500-447: A gene into the potentially trillions of cells that carry the defective copy. Finding an answer to this has been a roadblock between understanding the genetic disorder and correcting the genetic disorder. Around 1 in 50 people are affected by a known single-gene disorder, while around 1 in 263 are affected by a chromosomal disorder . Around 65% of people have some kind of health problem as a result of congenital genetic mutations. Due to
1625-418: A genetic disorder rests on the inheritance of genetic material. With an in depth family history , it is possible to anticipate possible disorders in children which direct medical professionals to specific tests depending on the disorder and allow parents the chance to prepare for potential lifestyle changes, anticipate the possibility of stillbirth , or contemplate termination . Prenatal diagnosis can detect
1750-619: A hereditary disease is an acquired disease . Most cancers , although they involve genetic mutations to a small proportion of cells in the body, are acquired diseases. Some cancer syndromes , however, such as BRCA mutations , are hereditary genetic disorders. A single-gene disorder (or monogenic disorder ) is the result of a single mutated gene. Single-gene disorders can be passed on to subsequent generations in several ways. Genomic imprinting and uniparental disomy , however, may affect inheritance patterns. The divisions between recessive and dominant types are not "hard and fast", although
1875-620: A history of previous psychiatric hospital admissions, infanticide may occur. In the United States, postpartum depression is one of the leading causes of the annual reported infanticide incidence rate of about 8 per 100,000 births. According to research published in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology , children can experience the effects of postpartum depression. If a mother experiences postpartum depression that goes untreated, it can have adverse effects on her children. When
2000-636: A known single-gene disorder, while around 1 in 263 are affected by a chromosomal disorder . Around 65% of people have some kind of health problem as a result of congenital genetic mutations. Due to the significantly large number of genetic disorders, approximately 1 in 21 people are affected by a genetic disorder classified as " rare " (usually defined as affecting less than 1 in 2,000 people). Most genetic disorders are rare in themselves. Genetic disorders are present before birth, and some genetic disorders produce birth defects , but birth defects can also be developmental rather than hereditary . The opposite of
2125-404: A link between postpartum depression and anti-thyroid antibodies. The psychosocial risk factors for postpartum depression include severe life events, some forms of chronic strain, relationship quality, and support from partner and mother. There is a need for more research regarding the link between psychosocial risk factors and postpartum depression. Some psychosocial risk factors can be linked to
2250-578: A month after delivery. A study done at an inner-city mental health clinic has shown that 50% of postpartum depressive episodes began before delivery. Therefore, in the DSM-5 postpartum depression is diagnosed under "depressive disorder with peripartum onset", in which "peripartum onset" is defined as any time either during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. The prevalence of postpartum depression differs across different months after childbirth . Studies done on postpartum depression amongst women in
2375-416: A more serious episode of depression later on. Postpartum psychosis is not a formal diagnosis, but is widely used to describe a psychiatric emergency that appears to occur in about 1 in 1000 pregnancies, in which symptoms of high mood and racing thoughts ( mania ), depression, severe confusion, loss of inhibition, paranoia, hallucinations, and delusions begin suddenly in the first two weeks after delivery;
2500-399: A more severe form of postpartum mood disorder, occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1,000 women following childbirth. Postpartum psychosis is one of the leading causes of the murder of children less than one year of age , which occurs in about 8 per 100,000 births in the United States. Symptoms of PPD can occur at any time in the first year postpartum. Typically, a diagnosis of postpartum depression
2625-466: A negative subjective experience of childbirth, maternal mental health (prenatal depression, perinatal anxiety, acute postpartum depression, and history of psychological problems), history of trauma, complications with delivery and baby (for example emergency cesarean section or NICU admittance), and a low level of social support. Childbirth-related PTSD has several negative health effects. Research suggests that childbirth-related PTSD may negatively affect
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#17329013068122750-407: A parent's diagnosis including mental illness. From the studies conducted thus far, although limited, it is evident that there is a much larger population that experiences depression associated with childbirth than just biological mothers. The cause of PPD is unknown. Hormonal and physical changes, personal and family history of depression, and the stress of caring for a new baby all may contribute to
2875-787: A person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder. Each affected person usually has one affected parent. The chance a child will inherit the mutated gene is 50%. Autosomal dominant conditions sometimes have reduced penetrance , which means although only one mutated copy is needed, not all individuals who inherit that mutation go on to develop the disease. Examples of this type of disorder are Huntington's disease , neurofibromatosis type 1 , neurofibromatosis type 2 , Marfan syndrome , hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer , hereditary multiple exostoses (a highly penetrant autosomal dominant disorder), tuberous sclerosis , Von Willebrand disease , and acute intermittent porphyria . Birth defects are also called congenital anomalies. Two copies of
3000-668: A potential hEDS gene. In 2018, the Ehlers–Danlos Society began the Hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos Genetic Evaluation (HEDGE) study. The ongoing study has screened over 1,000 people who have been diagnosed with hEDS by the 2017 criteria to evaluate their genome for a common mutation. To date, 200 people with hEDS have had whole genome sequencing , and 500 have had whole exome sequencing; this study aims to increase those numbers significantly. Promising outcomes of this increased screening have been reported by
3125-441: A prior history of mental illness, especially bipolar disorder, a history of prior episodes of postpartum psychosis, or a family history put some at a higher risk. Postpartum psychosis often requires hospitalization, where treatment is antipsychotic medications, mood stabilizers , and in cases of strong risk for suicide, electroconvulsive therapy . The most severe symptoms last from 2 to 12 weeks, and recovery takes 6 months to
3250-405: A thin nose and lips, and ears without lobes. Joint hypermobility is present, but generally confined to the small joints (fingers, toes). Other common features include club foot , tendon and/or muscle rupture, acrogeria (premature aging of the skin of the hands and feet), early-onset varicose veins , pneumothorax (collapse of a lung), the recession of the gums, and a decreased amount of fat under
3375-406: A year. Women who have been hospitalized for a psychiatric condition immediately after delivery are at a much higher risk of suicide during the first year after delivery. Childbirth-Related/Postpartum Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Parents may suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or suffer post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, following childbirth. While there has been debate in
3500-465: Is Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy . It is important to stress that the vast majority of mitochondrial diseases (particularly when symptoms develop in early life) are actually caused by a nuclear gene defect, as the mitochondria are mostly developed by non-mitochondrial DNA. These diseases most often follow autosomal recessive inheritance. Genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial, or polygenic, meaning they are likely associated with
3625-581: Is supportive in nature. Physical therapy and bracing may help strengthen muscles and support joints. Several medications can help alleviate symptoms of EDS such as pain and blood pressure drugs, which reduce joint pain and complications caused by blood vessel weakness. Some forms of EDS result in a normal life expectancy , but those that affect blood vessels generally decrease it. All forms of EDS can result in fatal outcomes for some patients. While hEDS affects at least one in 5,000 people globally, other types occur at lower frequencies. The prognosis depends on
3750-503: Is a chronic stressor, so depression may occur when someone is no longer able to respond to the violence. Postpartum depression in the DSM-5 is known as "depressive disorder with peripartum onset". Peripartum onset is defined as starting anytime during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. There is no longer a distinction made between depressive episodes that occur during pregnancy or those that occur after delivery. Nevertheless,
3875-401: Is a transient postpartum mood disorder characterized by milder depressive symptoms than postpartum depression. This type of depression can occur in up to 80% of all mothers following delivery. Symptoms typically resolve within two weeks. Symptoms lasting longer than two weeks are a sign of a more serious type of depression. Women who experience "baby blues" may have a higher risk of experiencing
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4000-405: Is also a strong environmental component to many of them (e.g., blood pressure ). Other such cases include: A chromosomal disorder is a missing, extra, or irregular portion of chromosomal DNA. It can be from an atypical number of chromosomes or a structural abnormality in one or more chromosomes. An example of these disorders is Trisomy 21 (the most common form of Down syndrome ), in which there
4125-423: Is also considered a recessive condition, but heterozygous carriers have increased resistance to malaria in early childhood, which could be described as a related dominant condition. When a couple where one partner or both are affected or carriers of a single-gene disorder wish to have a child, they can do so through in vitro fertilization, which enables preimplantation genetic diagnosis to occur to check whether
4250-465: Is an autosomal-dominant disorder characterized by four major criteria of severe and intractable periodontitis of early-onset (childhood or adolescence), lack of attached gingiva , pretibial plaques, and family history of a first-degree relative who meets clinical criteria. Eight minor criteria may also contribute to the diagnosis of pEDS. Molecular testing may reveal mutations in C1R or C1S genes affecting
4375-412: Is an extra copy of chromosome 21 in all cells. Due to the wide range of genetic disorders that are known, diagnosis is widely varied and dependent of the disorder. Most genetic disorders are diagnosed pre-birth , at birth , or during early childhood however some, such as Huntington's disease , can escape detection until the patient begins exhibiting symptoms well into adulthood. The basic aspects of
4500-419: Is caused by trauma(s) to the head and neck areas such as concussion and whiplash. Ligaments in neck are unable to heal properly, so the neck structure does not have the ability to support the skull, which can then sink into the brain stem, blocking the flow of cerebrospinal fluid, which in turn causes autonomic dysfunction. Arnold–Chiari malformation is also more frequently found in patients with EDS because of
4625-475: Is common, both conductive and sensorineural, and is most often bilateral. Otosclerosis and instability of the bones in the inner ear may also contribute to hearing loss Because it is often undiagnosed or misdiagnosed in childhood, some instances of EDS have been mischaracterized as child abuse. The pain may also be misdiagnosed as a behavior disorder or Munchausen by proxy . The pain associated with EDS ranges from mild to debilitating. Every type of EDS except
4750-440: Is considered after signs and symptoms persist for at least two weeks. fMRI studies indicate differences in brain activity between mothers with postpartum depression and those without. Mothers diagnosed with PPD tend to have less activity in the left frontal lobe and increased activity in the right frontal lobe when compared with healthy controls. They also exhibit decreased connectivity between vital brain structures, including
4875-705: Is critical as up to 50% of cases go undiagnosed in the US, emphasizing the significance of comprehensive screening measures. In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists suggests healthcare providers consider depression screening for perinatal women. Additionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians screen mothers for PPD at 1-month, 2-month, and 4-month visits. However, many providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up. For example, in Canada, Alberta
5000-452: Is in the genes COL5A2 , COL5A1 , and less frequently COL1A1 . It involves the skin more than hEDS. In classical EDS, large variation in symptom presentation is seen. Because of this variance, EDS has often been underdiagnosed. Without genetic testing, healthcare professionals may be able to provide a provisional diagnosis based on careful examination of the mouth, skin, and bones, as well as by neurological assessment. A good way to begin
5125-440: Is involved in growth factor ligands and receptor isoforms. Mutations in this pathway affect the ability to localize cilia in various cell types, including cardiac cells. With the resulting ciliopathies , structures such as the cardiac outflow tract , heart tube assembly, and cardiac fusion are limited and/or damaged. Classical EDS is characterized by extremely elastic skin that is fragile and bruises easily and hypermobility of
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5250-994: Is most likely to occur 3–6 months after delivery and is correlated with maternal depression, meaning that if the mother is experiencing postpartum depression, then the father is at a higher risk of developing the illness as well. Postpartum depression in men leads to an increased risk of suicide, while also limiting healthy infant-father attachment. Men who experience PPD can exhibit poor parenting behaviors, and distress, and reduce infant interaction. Reduced paternal interaction can later lead to cognitive and behavioral problems in children. Children as young as 3.5 years old may experience problems with internalizing and externalizing behaviors, indicating that paternal postpartum depression can have long-term consequences. Furthermore, if children as young as two are not frequently read to, this negative parent-child interaction can harm their expressive vocabulary. A study focusing on low-incom e fathers found that increased involvement in their child's first year
5375-440: Is not yet known. Splanchnic circulation, small fiber neuropathy and altered vascular compliance have all been named as potential contributors to gastrointestinal complaints, particularly for patients who have a known, comorbid autonomic condition. Chronic headaches are common in patients with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, whether related to dysautonomia , TMJ , muscle tension, or craniocervical instability . Craniocervical instability
5500-451: Is often seen, which means that when standing on one leg, the pelvis drops on the other side. Osgood–Schlatter disease , a painful lump on the knee, is common as well. In infants, walking can be delayed (beyond 18 months of age), and bottom-shuffling instead of crawling occurs. The weak connective tissue causes abnormal skin. This may present as stretchy or in other types simply be velvet soft. In all types, some increased fragility occurs, but
5625-421: Is only possible through the circumvention of infertility by medical intervention. This type of inheritance, also known as maternal inheritance, is the rarest and applies to the 13 genes encoded by mitochondrial DNA . Because only egg cells contribute mitochondria to the developing embryo, only mothers (who are affected) can pass on mitochondrial DNA conditions to their children. An example of this type of disorder
5750-416: Is opposed to the more traditional phenotype-first approach, and may identify causal factors that have previously been obscured by clinical heterogeneity , penetrance , and expressivity. On a pedigree, polygenic diseases do tend to "run in families", but the inheritance does not fit simple patterns as with Mendelian diseases. This does not mean that the genes cannot eventually be located and studied. There
5875-399: Is soft, smooth, and velvety and bruises easily, and may have chronic muscle and/or bone pain. It affects the skin less than other forms. It has no available genetic test. hEDS is the most common of the 19 types of connective tissue disorders. Since no genetic test exists, providers have to diagnose hEDS based on what they know about the condition and the patient's physical attributes. Other than
6000-770: Is typically defined as "an episode of major depressive disorder (MDD) occurring soon after the birth of a child". There are no set criteria for men to have postpartum depression. The cause may be distinct in males. Causes of paternal postpartum depression include hormonal changes during pregnancy, which can be indicative of father-child relationships. For instance, male depressive symptoms have been associated with low testosterone levels in men. Low prolactin, estrogen, and vasopressin levels have been associated with struggles with father-infant attachment, which can lead to depression in first-time fathers. Symptoms of postpartum depression in men are extreme sadness, fatigue, anxiety, irritability, and suicidal thoughts. Postpartum depression in men
6125-431: Is usually affected. It is very rare, with about 30 cases reported. It is more severe than the hypermobility type. Variations in the genes COL1A1 and COL1A2 cause it. Dermatosparaxis EDS (formerly categorized as type 7C) is associated with extremely fragile skin leading to severe bruising and scarring; saggy, redundant skin, especially on the face; hypermobility ranging from mild to serious; and hernias. Variations in
6250-477: The ADAMTS2 gene cause it. It is extremely rare, with around 11 cases reported worldwide. Brittle-cornea syndrome is characterized by the progressive thinning of the cornea , early-onset progressive keratoglobus or keratoconus, nearsightedness, hearing loss, and blue sclerae . Classic symptoms, such as hypermobile joints and hyperelastic skin, are also seen often. It has two types. Type 1 occurs due to variations in
6375-498: The CHST14 gene. Some other cases can be caused by variations in the DSE gene. As of 2021, 48 individuals have been reported to have mcEDS-CHST14, while 8 individuals have mcEDS-DSE. Bethlem myopathy 2 , formally known as Myopathic EDS (mEDS), is characterized by three major criteria: congenital muscle hypotonia and/or muscle atrophy that improves with age, proximal joint contractures of
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#17329013068126500-609: The TNXB gene. Spondylodysplastic EDS is characterized by short stature (progressive in childhood), muscle hypotonia (ranging from severe congenital to mild later-onset), and bowing of limbs. It can be caused by variations in both copies of the B4GALT7 gene. Other cases can be caused by variations in the B3GALT6 gene. People with variations in this gene can have kyphoscoliosis , tapered fingers, osteoporosis , aortic aneurysms , and problems with
6625-543: The ZNF469 gene. Type 2 is due to variations in the PRDM5 gene. Classical-like EDS is characterized by skin hyperextensibility with velvety skin texture and absence of atrophic scarring, generalized joint hypermobility with or without recurrent dislocations (most often shoulder and ankle), and easily bruised skin or spontaneous ecchymoses (discolorations of the skin resulting from bleeding underneath). It can be caused by variations in
6750-521: The C1r protein. Cardiac-valvular EDS (cvEDS) is characterized by three major criteria: severe progressive cardiac-valvular problems (affecting aortic and mitral valves), skin problems such as hyperextensibility, atrophic scarring, thin skin, and easy bruising, and joint hypermobility (generalized or restricted to small joints). Four minor criteria may aid in diagnosis of cvEDS. cvEDS is an autosomal recessive disorder, inherited through variation in both alleles of
6875-586: The LGBTQ community may be more susceptible to prenatal depression and anxiety than cisgender and heterosexual people. According to two other studies, LGBTQ people were discouraged from accessing postpartum mental health services due to societal stigma adding a social barrier that heteronormative mothers do not have. Lesbian participants expressed apprehension about receiving a mental health diagnosis because of worries about social stigma and employment opportunities. Concerns were also raised about possible child removal and
7000-927: The Middle East show that the prevalence in the first three months of postpartum was 31%, while the prevalence from the fourth to twelfth months of postpartum was 19%. PPD may last several months or even a year. Postpartum depression can also occur in women who have suffered a miscarriage. For fathers, several studies show that men experience the highest levels of postpartum depression between 3–6 months postpartum. Postpartum depression can interfere with normal maternal-infant bonding and adversely affect acute and long-term child development. Postpartum depression may lead mothers to be inconsistent with childcare . These childcare inconsistencies may include feeding routines, sleep routines, and health maintenance. In rare cases, or about 1 to 2 per 1,000, postpartum depression appears as postpartum psychosis . In these, or among women with
7125-519: The Middle East . Studies in Qatar have found a correlation between lower education levels and higher PPD prevalence. According to research done in Egypt and Lebanon , rural residential living is linked to an increased risk. It was found that rural Lebanese women who had Caesarean births had greater PPD rates. On the other hand, Lebanese women in urban areas showed an opposite pattern. Research conducted in
7250-475: The anterior cingulate cortex , dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex , amygdala , and hippocampus . Brain activation differences between depressed and nondepressed mothers are more pronounced when stimulated by non-infant emotional cues. Depressed mothers show greater neural activity in the right amygdala toward non-infant emotional cues as well as reduced connectivity between the amygdala and right insular cortex. Recent findings have also identified blunted activity in
7375-414: The infant are also frequently hypothesized to cause PPD. However, little evidence supports this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without experiencing PPD can nonetheless experience it with their latest child. Despite the biological and psychosocial changes that may accompany pregnancy and the postpartum period, most women are not diagnosed with PPD. Many mothers are unable to get
7500-607: The social determinants of health . Women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those women with more resources, such as financial. Rates of PPD have been shown to decrease as income increases. Women with fewer resources may be more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, increasing the risk of PPD. Women with fewer resources may also include single mothers of low income. Single mothers of low income may have more limited access to resources while transitioning into motherhood. These women already have fewer spending options, and having
7625-515: The Middle East has demonstrated a link between PPD risk and mothers who were not informed and who are not given due consideration when decisions are made during childbirth. There is a call to integrate both a consideration of biological and psychosocial risk factors for PPD when treating and researching the illness. A meta-analysis reviewing research on the association of violence and postpartum depression showed that violence against women increases
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#17329013068127750-521: The Norris Lab, led by Russell Norris, in the Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology at Medical University of South Carolina . Using CRISPR Cas-9 mediated genome editing on mouse models of the disease, the lab has recently identified a "very strong candidate gene" for hEDS. This finding, and a greater understanding of cardiac complications associated with the majority of EDS subtypes, has led to
7875-452: The Norris lab is attempting to find this gene is by looking at genes involved in the formation of the aorta and mitral valves, as these valves are often prolapsed or malformed as a symptom of EDS. Because hEDS is such a complex, multi-organ disease, focusing on one hallmark trait has proven successful. One gene found this way is DZIP1 , which regulates cardiac valve development in mammals through
8000-399: The X chromosome. Males are much more frequently affected than females, because they only have the one X chromosome necessary for the condition to present. The chance of passing on the disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked recessive disorder will not be affected (since they receive their father's Y chromosome), but his daughters will be carriers of one copy of
8125-443: The Y chromosome. These conditions may only be transmitted from the heterogametic sex (e.g. male humans) to offspring of the same sex. More simply, this means that Y-linked disorders in humans can only be passed from men to their sons; females can never be affected because they do not possess Y-allosomes. Y-linked disorders are exceedingly rare but the most well-known examples typically cause infertility. Reproduction in such conditions
8250-448: The active time of a genetic disorder, patients mostly rely on maintaining or slowing the degradation of quality of life and maintain patient autonomy . This includes physical therapy and pain management . The treatment of genetic disorders is an ongoing battle, with over 1,800 gene therapy clinical trials having been completed, are ongoing, or have been approved worldwide. Despite this, most treatment options revolve around treating
8375-591: The administration of oxytocin to induce labor. Chronic illnesses such as diabetes, or Addison's disease, as well as issues with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysregulation (which controls hormonal responses), inflammatory processes like asthma or celiac disease , and genetic vulnerabilities such as a family history of depression or PPD. Chronic illnesses caused by neuroendocrine irregularities including irritable bowel syndrome and fibromyalgia typically put individuals at risk for further health complications. However, it has been found that these diseases do not increase
8500-434: The anterior cingulate cortex, striatum , orbitofrontal cortex , and insula in mothers with PPD when viewing images of their infants. More robust studies on neural activation regarding PPD have been conducted with rodents than humans. These studies have allowed for greater isolation of specific brain regions, neurotransmitters , hormones , and steroids . Postpartum depression onset usually begins between two weeks to
8625-664: The baby or anything that reminds one of birth, aggression, irritability, and panic attacks. Real or perceived trauma before, during, or after childbirth is a crucial element in diagnosing childbirth-related PTSD. Currently, there are no widely recognized assessments that measure postpartum post-traumatic stress disorder in medical settings. Existing PTSD assessments (such as the DSM-IV) have been used to measure childbirth-related PTSD. Some surveys exist to measure childbirth-related PTSD specifically, however, these are not widely used outside of research settings. Approximately 3-6% of mothers in
8750-498: The cell's microenvironment might be important in conferring biological risk. The use of synthetic oxytocin , a birth-inducing drug, has been linked to increased rates of postpartum depression and anxiety. Estradiol , which helps the uterus thicken and grow, is thought to contribute to the development of PPD. This is due to its relationship with serotonin . Estradiol levels increase during pregnancy, then drastically decrease following childbirth. When estradiol levels drop postpartum,
8875-408: The complement pathway. Group F are disorders of intracellular processes, and Group G is considered to be unresolved forms of EDS. Hypermobile EDS (hEDS, formerly categorized as type 3) is mainly characterized by hypermobility that affects both large and small joints. It may lead to frequent joint subluxations (partial dislocations) and dislocations. In general, people with this variant have skin that
9000-695: The degree varies depending on the underlying subtype. The skin may tear and bruise easily, and may heal with abnormal atrophic scars; atrophic scars that look like cigarette paper are a sign seen including in those whose skin might appear otherwise normal. In some subtypes, though not the hypermobile subtype, redundant skin folds occur, especially on the eyelids. Redundant skin folds are areas of excess skin lying in folds. Other skin symptoms include molluscoid pseudotumors, especially on pressure points, petechiae , subcutaneous spheroids, livedo reticularis , and piezogenic papules are less common. In vascular EDS, skin can also be thin and translucent. In dermatosparaxis EDS,
9125-896: The development of multiple druggable pathways involved in aortic and mitral valve diseases. While this candidate gene has not been publicly identified, the Norris lab has conducted several studies involving small population genome sequencing and come up with a working list of possible hEDS genes. A mutation in COL3A1 in a single family with autosomal dominant hEDS phenotype was found to cause reduced collagen secretion and an over-modification of collagen. In 35 families, copy number alterations in TPSAB1 , encoding alpha-tryptase, were associated with increased basal serum tryptase levels, associated with autonomic dysfunction , gastrointestinal disorders , allergic and cutaneous symptoms, and connective tissue abnormalities, all concurrent with hEDS phenotype. Another way
9250-522: The development of postpartum depression. Evidence suggests that hormonal changes may play a role. Understanding the neuroendocrinology characteristic of PPD has proven to be particularly challenging given the erratic changes to the brain and biological systems during pregnancy and postpartum. A review of exploratory studies in PPD has observed that women with PPD have more dramatic changes in HPA axis activity, however,
9375-512: The diagnosis process is looking at family history. EDS is an autosomal dominant condition, so is often inherited from parents. Genetic testing remains the most reliable way to diagnose EDS. No cure for type 1 EDS has been found, but a course of non-weight-bearing exercise can help with muscular tension, which can help correct some EDS symptoms. Anti-inflammatory drugs and lifestyle changes can help with joint pain. Lifestyle choices should also be made with children who have EDS to try to prevent wounds to
9500-541: The directionality of specific hormone increases or decreases remain mixed. Hormones that have been studied include estrogen , progesterone , thyroid hormone , testosterone , corticotropin releasing hormone , endorphins, and cortisol . Estrogen and progesterone levels drop back to pre-pregnancy levels within 24 hours of giving birth, and that sudden change may cause it. Aberrant steroid hormone-dependent regulation of neuronal calcium influx via extracellular matrix proteins and membrane receptors involved in responding to
9625-420: The diversity of subtypes within the EDS family, symptoms may vary widely between individuals diagnosed with EDS. Musculoskeletal symptoms include hyperflexible joints that are unstable and prone to sprain , dislocation , subluxation , and hyperextension . As a result of frequent tissue injury, there can be an early onset of advanced osteoarthritis , chronic degenerative joint disease, swan-neck deformity of
9750-440: The divisions between autosomal and X-linked types are (since the latter types are distinguished purely based on the chromosomal location of the gene). For example, the common form of dwarfism , achondroplasia , is typically considered a dominant disorder, but children with two genes for achondroplasia have a severe and usually lethal skeletal disorder, one that achondroplasics could be considered carriers for. Sickle cell anemia
9875-421: The effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyles and environmental factors. Multifactorial disorders include heart disease and diabetes . Although complex disorders often cluster in families, they do not have a clear-cut pattern of inheritance. This makes it difficult to determine a person's risk of inheriting or passing on these disorders. Complex disorders are also difficult to study and treat because
10000-426: The embryo has the genetic disorder. Most congenital metabolic disorders known as inborn errors of metabolism result from single-gene defects. Many such single-gene defects can decrease the fitness of affected people and are therefore present in the population in lower frequencies compared to what would be expected based on simple probabilistic calculations. Only one mutated copy of the gene will be necessary for
10125-459: The emotional attachment between mother and child. However, maternal depression or other factors may also explain this negative effect. Childbirth-related PTSD in the postpartum period may also lead to issues with the child's social-emotional development. Current research suggests childbirth-related PTSD results in lower breastfeeding rates and may prevent parents from breastfeeding for the desired amount of time. Screening for postpartum depression
10250-512: The fetus, and increased bleeding. Individuals with hEDS may run the risk of falling, postpartum depression (more than the general population), and slow healing from the birthing process. The Medical University of South Carolina discovered a gene variant common with hEDS patients. While 12 of the 13 subtypes of EDS have genetic variations that can be tested for by genetic testing , there is no known genetic cause of hEDS. Recently, several labs and research initiatives have been attempting to uncover
10375-631: The fingers, and Boutonniere deformity of the fingers. Tendon and ligament laxity offer minuscule protection from tearing in muscles and tendons, but these problems still persist. Deformities of the spine, such as scoliosis (curvature of the spine), kyphosis (a thoracic hump), tethered spinal cord syndrome , craniocervical instability (CCI), and atlantoaxial instability may also be present. Osteoporosis and osteopenia are also associated with EDS and symptomatic joint hypermobility There can also be myalgia (muscle pain) and arthralgia (joint pain), which may be severe and disabling. Trendelenburg's sign
10500-497: The gastrointestinal system can cause a host of symptoms, including but not limited to abdominal pain, bloating , nausea , reflux symptoms, vomiting , constipation , and diarrhea . Some studies also suggest problems with the liver , which is in large part responsible for bilirubin conjugation. Although research in this area is sparse, patients with joint hypermobility were found to have higher rates of indirect hyperbilirubinemia than control groups. Structurally, changes within
10625-540: The gender of the infant and polygamy . According to three studies conducted in Egypt and one in Jordan , mothers of female babies had a two-to-four-fold increased risk of postpartum depression (PPD) compared to mothers of male babies. Four studies found that conflicts with the mother-in-law are associated with PPD, with risk ratios of 1.8 and 2.7. Studies have also shown a correlation between postpartum depression in mothers living within areas of conflicts, crises, and wars in
10750-476: The gene COL1A2 . This group of disorders affects connective tissues across the body, with symptoms most typically present in the joints, skin, and blood vessels. However, as connective tissue is found throughout the body, EDS may result in an array of unexpected impacts with any degree of severity, and the condition is not limited to joints, skin, and blood vessels. Effects may range from mildly loose joints to life-threatening cardiovascular complications. Due to
10875-408: The gene must be mutated for a person to be affected by an autosomal recessive disorder. An affected person usually has unaffected parents who each carry a single copy of the mutated gene and are referred to as genetic carriers . Each parent with a defective gene normally do not have symptoms. Two unaffected people who each carry one copy of the mutated gene have a 25% risk with each pregnancy of having
11000-463: The general signs, attributes can include faulty connective tissues throughout the body, musculoskeletal issues, and family history. Along with these general signs and side effects, patients can have trouble healing. Pregnant individuals who have hEDS are at an increased risk for complications. Some possible complications are pre-labor rupture of membranes, a drop in blood pressure with anesthesia, precipitate birth (very fast, active labor), malposition of
11125-524: The genetic disorder is inherited from one or both parents, it is also classified as a hereditary disease . Some disorders are caused by a mutation on the X chromosome and have X-linked inheritance. Very few disorders are inherited on the Y chromosome or mitochondrial DNA (due to their size). There are well over 6,000 known genetic disorders, and new genetic disorders are constantly being described in medical literature. More than 600 genetic disorders are treatable. Around 1 in 50 people are affected by
11250-746: The heterosexual women in the sample. Postpartum depression is more common among lesbian women than heterosexual women, which can be attributed to lesbian women's higher depression prevalence. Lesbian women have a higher risk of depression because they are more likely to have been treated for depression and to have attempted or contemplated suicide than heterosexual women. These higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers may reflect less social support, particularly from their families of origin, and additional stress due to homophobic discrimination in society. Different risk variables linked to postpartum depression (PPD) among Arabic women emphasize regional influences. Risk factors that have been identified include
11375-457: The hypermobile type (which affects the vast majority of people with EDS) can be positively tied to specific genetic variation. Variations in these genes can cause EDS: Genetic disorders A genetic disorder is a health problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome . It can be caused by a mutation in a single gene (monogenic) or multiple genes (polygenic) or by a chromosome abnormality . Although polygenic disorders are
11500-503: The incidence of postpartum depression. About one-third of women throughout the world will experience physical or sexual violence at some point in their lives. Violence against women occurs in conflict, post-conflict, and non-conflict areas. The research reviewed only looked at violence experienced by women from male perpetrators. Studies from the Middle East suggest that individuals who have experienced family violence are 2.5 times more likely to develop PPD. Further, violence against women
11625-707: The instability at the juncture between skull and spine. This causes herniation of the posterior fossa below the foramen magnum . Increased pressure created by the malformation can lead to a flattened pituitary gland , hormone changes, sudden severe headaches, ataxia , and poor proprioception . Ophthalmological manifestations include nearsightedness , retinal tearing and retinal detachment , keratoconus , blue sclera, dry eye, Sjogren's syndrome , lens subluxation, angioid streaks, epicanthal folds , strabismus , corneal scarring, brittle cornea syndrome, cataracts , carotid-cavernous sinus fistulas , and macular degeneration . Otological complications may also occur. Hearing loss
11750-409: The joints. Molluscoid pseudotumors (calcified hematomas that occur over pressure points) and spheroids (cysts that contain fat occurring over forearms and shins) are also often seen. A side complication of the hyperelasticity presented in many EDS cases makes wounds closing on their own more difficult. Sometimes, motor development is delayed and hypotonia occurs. The variation causing this type of EDS
11875-494: The knee, hip, and elbow, and hypermobility of distal joints (ankles, wrists, feet, and hands). Four minor criteria may also contribute to a diagnosis of mEDS. This disorder can be inherited through either an autosomal dominant or an autosomal recessive pattern. Molecular testing must be completed to verify that mutations in the COL12A1 gene are present; if not, other collagen-type myopathies should be considered. Periodontal EDS (pEDS)
12000-490: The levels of serotonin decline as well. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood. Low serotonin levels cause feelings of depression and anxiety. Thus, when estradiol levels are low, serotonin can be low, suggesting that estradiol plays a role in the development of PPD. Fathers, who are not undergoing profound hormonal changes, can also have postpartum depression. The cause may be distinct in males. Profound lifestyle changes that are brought about by caring for
12125-460: The lowest at 11.5%, after controlling for social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby's health. The PPD rates for First Nations, Caucasian, and Hispanic women fell in between. Migration away from a cultural community of support can be a factor in PPD. Traditional cultures around the world prioritize organized support during postpartum care to ensure the mother's mental and physical health, well-being, and recovery. One of
12250-669: The lungs. Other cases can be caused by the SLC39A13 gene. Those with variations in this gene have protuberant eyes, wrinkled palms of the hands, tapering fingers, and distal joint hypermobility. Musculocontractural EDS is characterized by congenital multiple contractures, characteristically adduction-flexion contractures and/or talipes equinovarus ( clubfoot ), characteristic craniofacial features, which are evident at birth or in early infancy, and skin features such as skin hyperextensibility, bruising, skin fragility with atrophic scars, and increased palmar wrinkling. It can be caused by variations in
12375-462: The majority of experts continue to diagnose postpartum depression as depression with onset anytime within the first year after delivery. The criteria required for the diagnosis of postpartum depression are the same as those required to make a diagnosis of non-childbirth-related major depression or minor depression . The criteria include at least five of the following nine symptoms, within two weeks: Postpartum blues, commonly known as "baby blues,"
12500-804: The medical community as to whether childbirth should be considered a traumatic event, the current consensus is childbirth can be a traumatic event. The DSM-IV and DSM-5 (standard classifications of mental disorders used by medical professionals) do not explicitly recognize childbirth-related PTSD, but both allow childbirth to be considered as a potential cause of PTSD. Childbirth-related PTSD is closely related to postpartum depression. Research indicates mothers who have childbirth-related PTSD also commonly have postpartum depression. Childbirth-related PTSD and postpartum depression have some common symptoms. Although both diagnoses overlap in their signs and symptoms, some symptoms specific to postpartum PTSD include being easily startled, recurring nightmares and flashbacks, avoiding
12625-423: The most common, the term is mostly used when discussing disorders with a single genetic cause, either in a gene or chromosome . The mutation responsible can occur spontaneously before embryonic development (a de novo mutation), or it can be inherited from two parents who are carriers of a faulty gene ( autosomal recessive inheritance) or from a parent with the disorder ( autosomal dominant inheritance). When
12750-564: The musculature in the intestine such as increased elastin, can lead to increased frequency of herniation. Laxity of the phreno-esophageal and gastro-hepatic ligaments can lead to hiatal hernia , which in turn can lead to commonly reported symptoms such as acid reflux , abdominal pain, early satiety , and bloating. Internal organ prolapses and intestinal intussusceptions occur with greater frequency in patients with weakened connective tissues. Although neurogastroenterological manifestations in connective tissue disorders are common, their root cause
12875-643: The mutated gene. A woman who is a carrier of an X-linked recessive disorder (X X ) has a 50% chance of having sons who are affected and a 50% chance of having daughters who are carriers of one copy of the mutated gene. X-linked recessive conditions include the serious diseases hemophilia A , Duchenne muscular dystrophy , and Lesch–Nyhan syndrome , as well as common and less serious conditions such as male pattern baldness and red–green color blindness . X-linked recessive conditions can sometimes manifest in females due to skewed X-inactivation or monosomy X ( Turner syndrome ). Y-linked disorders are caused by mutations on
13000-429: The newborn child. While the exact cause of PPD is unclear, the cause is believed to be a combination of physical, emotional, genetic, and social factors. These may include factors such as hormonal changes and sleep deprivation . Risk factors include prior episodes of postpartum depression, bipolar disorder , a family history of depression , psychological stress , complications of childbirth , lack of support, or
13125-1003: The past, carrying one of the faulty genes led to a slight protection against an infectious disease or toxin such as tuberculosis or malaria . Such disorders include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, phenylketonuria and thalassaemia . X-linked dominant disorders are caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome . Only a few disorders have this inheritance pattern, with a prime example being X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets . Males and females are both affected in these disorders, with males typically being more severely affected than females. Some X-linked dominant conditions, such as Rett syndrome , incontinentia pigmenti type 2, and Aicardi syndrome , are usually fatal in males either in utero or shortly after birth, and are therefore predominantly seen in females. Exceptions to this finding are extremely rare cases in which boys with Klinefelter syndrome (44+xxy) also inherit an X-linked dominant condition and exhibit symptoms more similar to those of
13250-402: The postpartum period have childbirth-related PTSD. The percentage of individuals with childbirth-related PTSD is approximately 15-18% in high-risk samples (women who experience severe birth complications, have a history of sexual/physical violence, or have other risk factors). Research has identified several factors that increase the chance of developing childbirth-related PTSD. These include
13375-414: The postpartum period, similar to biological mothers. This , may raise their chance of developing depressive symptoms and anxious tendencies. Postpartum depression presents in adoptive mothers via sleep deprivation similar to birth mothers, but adoptive parents have added risk factors such as a history of infertility. Additionally, preliminary research has shown that childbearing individuals who are part of
13500-606: The presence of characteristic abnormalities in fetal development through ultrasound , or detect the presence of characteristic substances via invasive procedures which involve inserting probes or needles into the uterus such as in amniocentesis . Not all genetic disorders directly result in death; however, there are no known cures for genetic disorders. Many genetic disorders affect stages of development, such as Down syndrome , while others result in purely physical symptoms such as muscular dystrophy . Other disorders, such as Huntington's disease , show no signs until adulthood. During
13625-540: The rest they need to fully recover from giving birth. Sleep deprivation can lead to physical discomfort and exhaustion, which can contribute to the symptoms of postpartum depression. While the causes of PPD are not understood, several factors have been suggested to increase the risk. These risks can be broken down into two categories, biological and psychosocial: The risk factors for postpartum depression can be broken down into two categories as listed above, biological and psychosocial. Certain biological risk factors include
13750-441: The risk for postpartum depression, these factors are known to correlate with PPD. This correlation does not mean these factors are causal. Cigarette smoking has been known to have additive effects. Some studies have found a link between PPD and low levels of DHA (an omega-3 fatty acid) in the mother. A correlation between postpartum thyroiditis and postpartum depression has been proposed but remains controversial. There may also be
13875-423: The significantly large number of genetic disorders, approximately 1 in 21 people are affected by a genetic disorder classified as " rare " (usually defined as affecting less than 1 in 2,000 people). Most genetic disorders are rare in themselves. There are well over 6,000 known genetic disorders, and new genetic disorders are constantly being described in medical literature. The earliest known genetic condition in
14000-1045: The skin is extremely fragile and saggy. Weakened connective tissues can lead to pelvic organ prolapse in female patients with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. Patients may also experience voiding difficulties, frequent urinary tract infections , and incontinence due to structural abnormalities. Pelvic girdle pain is also frequently reported. Menorrhagia , dysmenorrhea , and dyspareunia are common symptoms associated with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome and are often mistaken for endometriosis. Excessive menstrual bleeding can sometimes be attributed to inappropriate platelet aggregation, but faulty collagen leads to weakened capillary walls which increases likelihood of hemorrhage. In cases of pregnancy, patients with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome are more likely to experience complications during parturition . Post-partum hemorrhage and maternal injury such as sporadic pelvic displacement, hip dislocation , torn and stretched ligaments, and skin tearing can all be linked to altered structure of connective tissues. Research suggests
14125-487: The skin. It can be caused by the variations in the COL3A1 gene. Rarely, COL1A1 variations can also cause it. Kyphoscoliosis EDS (formerly categorized as type 6) is associated with severe hypotonia at birth, delayed motor development, progressive scoliosis (present from birth), and scleral fragility. People may also have easy bruising, fragile arteries that are prone to rupture, unusually small corneas, and osteopenia (low bone density). Other common features include
14250-519: The skin. Protective garments can help with this. In a wound, deep stitches are often used and left in place for longer than normal. Vascular EDS (formerly categorized as type 4) is identified by skin that is thin, translucent, extremely fragile, and bruises easily. It is also characterized by fragile blood vessels and organs that can easily rupture. Affected people are frequently short, and have thin scalp hair. It also has characteristic facial features, including large eyes, an undersized chin, sunken cheeks,
14375-772: The specific disorder. Excess mobility was first described by Hippocrates in 400 BC. The syndromes are named after two physicians, Edvard Ehlers and Henri-Alexandre Danlos , who described them at the turn of the 20th century. In 2017, 13 subtypes of EDS were classified using specific diagnostic criteria. According to the Ehlers–Danlos Society , the syndromes can also be grouped by the symptoms determined by specific gene mutations. Group A disorders are those that affect primary collagen structure and processing. Group B disorders affect collagen folding and crosslinking. Group C are disorders of structure and function of myomatrix. Group D disorders are those that affect glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis. Group E disorders are characterized by defects in
14500-401: The specific factors that cause most of these disorders have not yet been identified. Studies that aim to identify the cause of complex disorders can use several methodological approaches to determine genotype – phenotype associations. One method, the genotype-first approach , starts by identifying genetic variants within patients and then determining the associated clinical manifestations. This
14625-685: The stopping of breastfeeding, as well as negative emotions such as withdrawal, disengagement, and even hostility. If a mother develops a hostile relationship, it can lead to extreme outcomes such as infanticide. As the child grows older, postpartum depression can lead to the child experiencing irregularities in cognitive processes, behaviors, and emotions. In addition to these abnormalities, children who grew up around postpartum depression are also susceptible to developing violent tendencies. Paternal postpartum depression has not been studied as much as its maternal counterpart. However, postpartum depression affects 8 to 10% of fathers. In men, postpartum depression
14750-510: The strongest predictors of paternal PPD is having a partner who has PPD, with fathers developing PPD 50% of the time when their female partner has PPD. Sexual orientation has also been studied as a risk factor for PPD. In a 2007 study conducted by Ross and colleagues, lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample group. It was found that lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores than
14875-424: The structure or processing of the protein collagen or tenascin . Diagnosis is often based on symptoms and confirmed by genetic testing or skin biopsy , particularly with hEDS, but people may initially be misdiagnosed with hypochondriasis , depression , or myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome . Genetic testing can be used to confirm all other types of EDS. A cure is not yet known, and treatment
15000-442: The symptoms of the disorders in an attempt to improve patient quality of life . Gene therapy refers to a form of treatment where a healthy gene is introduced to a patient. This should alleviate the defect caused by a faulty gene or slow the progression of the disease. A major obstacle has been the delivery of genes to the appropriate cell, tissue, and organ affected by the disorder. Researchers have investigated how they can introduce
15125-426: The symptoms vary and can change quickly. It is different from postpartum depression and maternity blues . It may be a form of bipolar disorder . It is important not to confuse psychosis with other symptoms that may occur after delivery, such as delirium. Delirium typically includes a loss of awareness or inability to pay attention. About half of women who experience postpartum psychosis have no risk factors; but
15250-442: The use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Postpartum depression affects roughly 8.9 to 10.1% of women in high-income countries and 17.8 to 19.7% of women in low and middle-income countries. Postpartum depression commonly affects mothers who have experienced stillbirth, live in urban areas and adolescent mothers. Moreover, this mood disorder is estimated to affect 1% to 26% of new fathers. Postpartum psychosis ,
15375-438: Was defined as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women". Psychological and cultural factors associated with increased incidence of postpartum depression include family history of depression, stressful life events during early puberty or pregnancy, anxiety or depression during pregnancy, and low social support. Violence against women
15500-503: Was last updated in 2017, when a number of rarer forms of EDS were added. EDS occurs due to variations of more than 19 genes that are present at birth. The specific gene affected determines the type of EDS, though the genetic causes of hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (hEDS) are still unknown. Some cases result from a new variation occurring during early development, while others are inherited in an autosomal dominant or recessive manner. Typically, these variations result in defects in
15625-408: Was linked to lower rates of postpartum depression. Postpartum depression is not limited to biological mothers and is not unique to them specifically. While not much research has been done regarding post-adoption depression, difficulties associated with parenting post-partum are similar between biological and adoptive parents. Women who adopt children undergo significant stress and life changes during
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