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105-561: Born in Amorium , Michael was a soldier, rising to high rank along with his colleague Leo V the Armenian ( r.   813–820). He helped Leo overthrow and take the place of Emperor Michael I Rangabe . However, after they fell out Leo sentenced Michael to death. Michael then masterminded a conspiracy which resulted in Leo's assassination at Christmas in 820. Immediately he faced the long revolt of Thomas

210-733: A benevolent policy, hoping he would be able to convert iconodules through dialogue. He wrote to the Carolingian Emperor , Louis the Pious ( r.  814–840 ), defending the iconoclast position as represented in the synod of 815, and affirming belief in the veneration of relics . He gave an account of Thomas the Slav's revolt and appealed to Louis to suppress eastern monks who were spreading anti-Byzantine propaganda in Rome . He also expressed his disapproval of certain practices associated with iconodules including

315-703: A few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: Both sides agree that this canonical taxis was recognised by all in the era of the undivided Church. Further, they agree that Rome, as the Church that "presides in love" according to

420-479: A fleet to raid the Syrian coast and sack Sozopetra . Caliph al-Ma'mun mounted a combined land and naval raid in 825, but it did not cause much long-term damage and Michael did not retaliate, leaving the eastern frontier in a hostile stalemate. Michael inherited a seriously weakened military and was unable to prevent the conquest of Crete in 826 by 10,000 Arab pirates from al-Andalus (who had 40 ships), or to recover

525-492: A fleet. In June 827, a predominantly Arab force landed on the west of the island at Mazara , beginning an invasion. The Byzantines fared poorly at first, retaining control only of a few strongholds and Syracuse. With the death of Euphemios and the arrival of a new stratēgos in 829 came a series of successes which secured imperial authority by the end of Michael's reign. Michael maintained his policy of compromise and neutrality between iconoclasm and iconodulia until his death, and

630-503: A frequent target of Muslim raids ( razzias ) into Asia Minor, especially during the great sieges of 716 and 796. It became capital of the thema of Anatolikon soon after. In 742-743, it was the main base of Emperor Constantine V against the usurper Artabasdos , and in 820, an Amorian, Michael II , ascended the Byzantine throne, establishing the Amorian dynasty . This began the period of

735-526: A geographical enclave within the conurbation of Rome , established by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 between Fascist Italy and the Holy See to ensure its temporal and spiritual independence. The Holy See is recognized by its adherence at various levels to international organizations and by means of its diplomatic relations and political accords with many independent states. According to Catholic tradition ,

840-622: A layman as Pope Leo VIII . John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX travelled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage . With his long journey, he restored

945-473: A passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile! According to the same book, Clement of Rome was ordained by Saint Peter as the bishop of Rome. For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp

1050-514: A postponement of the execution until after Christmas. This allowed Michael to rally undetected plotters to assassinate Leo on Christmas morning in the palace chapel and castrate his sons to prevent the continuation of his dynasty. Michael was immediately proclaimed emperor, while still wearing prison chains on his legs. Later the same day, he was crowned by Patriarch Theodotus I of Constantinople . In his internal policy, Michael II supported iconoclasm , but he tacitly encouraged reconciliation with

1155-432: A settlement and military importance during the pre-Byzantine period. Amorium then must have been prestigious and prosperous. But early historical records that mention the city are strictly limited to a reference by Strabo , although it is expected that new discoveries will shed light on the city's Roman period and before. The city was fortified by the emperor Zeno in the 5th century, but did not rise to prominence until

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1260-585: A structure before Rome. In Rome, there were over time at various junctures rival claimants to be the rightful bishop, though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary Pope Victor I and listed them. Some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, but not necessarily monarchical bishops. Documents of

1365-465: Is addressed to Pope Cornelius , and affirmed his unique authority in the early Christian Church. Cornelius [the Bishop of Rome] was made bishop by the choice of God and of His Christ, by the favorable witness of almost all the clergy, by the votes of the people who were present, and by the assembly of ancient priests and good men. And he was made bishop when no one else had been made bishop before him when

1470-602: Is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan , the date of the Jewish Passover , a tradition handed down by John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy ). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus ). The Edict of Milan in 313 granted freedom to all religions in

1575-799: Is sponsored by the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara and funded by grants from various institutions in the United States including the Adelaide and Milton De Groot Fund at The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Friends of Amorium. After more than 20 years of British led excavation at Amorium, fieldwork restarted in 2014 with a new Turkish team under the direction of Doçent Doktor Zeliha Demirel Gökalp of Anadolu University , based at Eskisehir. Amorium Excavations Project retains its character of international collaboration with foreign institutions, like

1680-597: The Acts of the 815 Council of Constantinople. Michael denied that the pope had any authority to intervene in the Eastern Church, so when the abbot Methodios , later Patriarch of Constantinople, arrived in Constantinople with a definition of orthodoxy from Pope Paschal I , he was considered a traitor and imprisoned. This was the only case of oppression of iconodules by Michael recorded in primary sources, and he generally pursued

1785-575: The Edict of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity to be the state religion of the empire, with the name "Catholic Christians" reserved for those who accepted that faith. While the civil power in the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church, and the patriarch of Constantinople , the capital, wielded much power, in the Western Roman Empire , the bishops of Rome were able to consolidate

1890-496: The Keys of Heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing", naming him as the "rock" upon which the Church would be built. While his office is called the papacy , the jurisdiction of the episcopal see is called the Holy See . It is the Holy See that is the sovereign entity under international law headquartered in the distinctively independent Vatican City, a city-state which forms

1995-626: The Middle Ages , popes struggled with monarchs over power. From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon . The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of the Kingdom of France , alienating France's enemies, such as the Kingdom of England . The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the Treasury of Merit built up by

2100-540: The Tusculan Papacy . The papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII , held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran Palace . Emperor Otto I had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected

2205-547: The apostolic see of Rome was founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the first century. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in human history . In ancient times, the popes helped spread Christianity and intervened to find resolutions in various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages , they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs. In addition to

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2310-703: The approaching end of the world . Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the exarch of Ravenna , the Byzantine emperor 's representative in the Italian Peninsula . These humiliations, the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the face of the Muslim conquests , and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the Lombards , made Pope Stephen II turn from Emperor Constantine V . He appealed to

2415-492: The bishop of Rome and recognise him as the head of all churches and therefore arbiter of disputes. Michael allowed iconodules to follow their conscience outside of Constantinople but did not make any further concessions, refusing to change imperial policy and banning discussion of the Council of Hieria (754), Second Council of Nicaea (787) and Council of Constantinople (815). When Patriarch Theodotos died in 821, Michael appointed

2520-420: The cardinals , who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of Catholic Ecumenical Councils over the pope's. Conciliarism holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century with Jean Gerson as its leading spokesman. The failure of Conciliarism to gain broad acceptance after

2625-551: The iconodules , whom he generally stopped persecuting, allowing those exiled by Emperor Leo V the Armenian to return. These included the former patriarch Nikephoros , Anthony the Confessor , and Theodore the Stoudite , who failed, however, to persuade the emperor to abandon iconoclasm. Michael also did not restore the exiled iconodules to their previous positions. Theodore also requested permission to restore icons, resume relations with

2730-489: The tourmarchēs of Sicily, Euphemios , who had led successful raids in North Africa . In 827, the stratēgos Constantine tried to arrest him, although his motive was unclear. It was likely in response to Euphemios' disloyalty, but later legends report that he wanted to punish Euphemios for abducting his niece from a nunnery and forcing her into marriage. In any event, word of Constantine's intention reached Euphemios when he

2835-467: The unification of Italy . In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city-state , guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule. In 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared. The Primacy of St. Peter ,

2940-458: The "42 Martyrs of Amorium". Amorium's site was long unknown, though its name appears on many maps of the 18th and 19th centuries. It was rediscovered by Richard Pococke in 1739, but the first visit by a western scholar was by the English geologist William Hamilton in 1836; subsequently, maps placed it more accurately. In 1987, R.M. Harrison of Oxford University conducted a preliminary survey of

3045-580: The "Old St. Peter's Basilica" on the location of St. Peter's tomb, as held and given to him by Rome's Christian community, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero , although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. Although open to historical debate, first-century Christian communities may have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as guides of their local churches. Gradually, episcopal sees were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such

3150-560: The 11th century. Following the Battle of Manzikert , it was devastated by the Seljuks and a large proportion of its inhabitants were killed. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos defeated the Seljuks at Amorium in 1116. It remained an important place in the 12th–14th centuries according to al-Idrisi and Hamdallah Mustawfi . Amorium was a bishopric at latest by 431, when its bishop, Abraham or Ablabius,

3255-654: The 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation . Various Antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378–1417). It came to a close when the Council of Constance , at the high point of Concilliarism, decided among the papal claimants. The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern emperor tried to force

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3360-420: The 1st century and early second century indicate that the bishop of Rome had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, as even a letter from the bishop, or patriarch, of Antioch acknowledged the bishop of Rome as "a first among equals", though the detail of what this meant is unclear. Sources suggest that at first, the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, with

3465-533: The 7th century. Its strategic location in central Asia Minor made the city a vital stronghold against the armies of the Umayyad Caliphate following the Muslim conquest of the Levant . The city was first attacked by Muawiyah I in 646. It capitulated to ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Khalid in 666 and was occupied by Yazid I in 669, then retaken by Constans II 's general Andreas. Over the next two centuries, it remained

3570-511: The Anatolian themes, he secured the support of the naval theme and their ships, allowing him to intensify his siege of Constantinople . At this point, Michael's usurpation was prevented only by the Walls of Constantinople . In summer 822, the imperial fleet was able to destroy the rebel fleet with Greek fire . The primary sources disagree over whether a large Bulgar force under Khan Omurtag of Bulgaria

3675-574: The Bulgarians. Under Leo V, Michael was appointed to command the elite tagma of the Excubitors . Thekla and Michael had only one known son, Theophilos (813 – 20 January 842). The existence of a daughter called Helena is possible but there is a contradiction between different sources. Helena is known as the wife of Theophobos , a patrician executed in 842 for conspiring to gain the throne for himself. George Hamartolos and Theophanes report him marrying

3780-461: The Catholic faith, and because he heads the world's largest non-government provider of education and health care , with a vast network of charities. The word pope derives from Ancient Greek πάππας (páppas)  'father'. In the early centuries of Christianity, this title was applied, especially in the East, to all bishops and other senior clergy, and later became reserved in

3885-460: The Christian community, the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles ( apostolic succession ) and the bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter. Scriptural texts proposed in support of Peter's special position in relation to the church include: I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you

3990-672: The Church between the years 900 and 1050, centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform, the most important being the Abbey of Cluny , which spread its ideals throughout Europe. This reform movement gained strength with the election of Pope Gregory VII in 1073, who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the Gregorian Reform , in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline, including clerical celibacy . This conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as

4095-454: The Church's ordination. Irenaeus of Lyons ( c.  130 – c. 202 AD), a prominent Christian theologian of the second century, provided a list of early popes in his work Against Heresies III . The list covers the period from Saint Peter to Pope Eleutherius who served from 174 to 189 AD. The blessed apostles [Peter and Paul], then, having founded and built up the Church [in Rome], committed into

4200-511: The Donatists (367 A.D) . In the book, Optatus wrote about the position of the bishop of Rome in maintaining the unity of the Church. You cannot deny that you are aware that in the city of Rome the episcopal chair was given first to Peter; the chair in which Peter sat, the same who was head—that is why he is also called Cephas [‘Rock’]—of all the apostles; the one chair in which unity is maintained by all. The Catholic Church teaches that, within

4305-639: The Eastern Church to reunify with the West. First in the Second Council of Lyon (1272–1274) and secondly in the Council of Florence (1431–1449). Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire. Protestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized

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4410-456: The Empire by pardoning many of Thomas' supporters and marrying the daughter of Constantine VI and Maria of Amnia , Euphrosyne , of the illustrious iconoclast Isaurian dynasty , although she herself was an iconodule. The marriage thus gave Michael's rule a degree of legitimacy, but it caused some outrage since his first wife, Thekla had only recently died, and Euphrosyne was a nun . Nevertheless,

4515-522: The Empire under his grandson Michael III to gain ascendancy in their struggles with the Abbasids and to withstand all the vicissitudes of Byzantine palace life. Michael II's direct descendants, the Amorian dynasty followed by the so-called Macedonian dynasty , ruled the Empire for more than two centuries, inaugurating the Byzantine Renaissance of the 9th and 10th centuries. Although he arranged

4620-652: The Franks to protect his lands. Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800) as emperor, he established the precedent that, in Western Europe, no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope. The low point of the papacy was 867–1049. This period includes the Saeculum obscurum , the Crescentii era, and

4725-575: The Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and King Henry I of England , known as the Investiture controversy , was only resolved in 1122, by the Concordat of Worms , in which Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders, and temporal rulers by lay investiture. Soon after, Pope Alexander III began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law . Since

4830-487: The Institute of Mediterranean Studies of Foundation for Research & Technology – Hellas . Bishop of Rome The pope ( Latin : papa , from Ancient Greek : πάππας , romanized :  páppas , lit.   'father') is the bishop of Rome and the visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church . He is also known as the supreme pontiff , Roman pontiff , or sovereign pontiff . From

4935-659: The Roman Empire, beginning the Peace of the Church . In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism , declaring trinitarianism dogmatic, and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the Sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Great defenders of Trinitarian faith included the popes, especially Liberius , who was exiled to Berea by Constantius II for his Trinitarian faith, Damasus I , and several other bishops. In 380,

5040-545: The Romans , and according to tradition Paul was martyred there. During the 1st century of the Church ( c.  30–130 ), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. The church there, at the end of the century, wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier. There are

5145-425: The Slav , which almost cost him his throne and was not completely quelled until spring 824. The later years of his reign were marked by two major military disasters that had long-term effects: the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily , and the loss of Crete to Andalusian Arab pirates . Domestically, he supported and strengthened the resumption of official iconoclasm , which had begun again under Leo V. Michael

5250-466: The Slav . He married Bardanes' daughter Thekla , while Leo married another daughter. Michael and Leo abandoned Bardanes shortly after he rebelled against Emperor Nikephoros I in 803, and they were rewarded with higher military commands: Michael was named the Emperor's Count of the Tent . Michael was instrumental in Leo's overthrow of Michael I Rhangabe in 813, after Rangabe's repeated military defeats against

5355-560: The West to the bishop of Rome during the reign of Pope Leo I (440–461), a reservation made official only in the 11th century. The earliest record of the use of the title of 'pope' was in regard to the by-then-deceased patriarch of Alexandria , Heraclas (232–248). The earliest recorded use of the title "pope" in English dates to the mid-10th century, when it was used in reference to the 7th century Roman Pope Vitalian in an Old English translation of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . The Catholic Church teaches that

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5460-458: The acknowledgement of the bishop of Rome as an influential figure within the Church, with some emphasizing the importance of adherence to Rome's teachings and decisions. Such references served to establish the concept of papal primacy and have continued to inform Catholic theology and practice. In his letters, Cyprian of Carthage ( c. 210 – 258 AD) recognized the bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter in his Letter 55 (c. 251 AD), which

5565-470: The assassination of Leo V, Michael continued with his form of iconoclasm in what came to be known as the "second" Byzantine iconoclasm . This iconoclasm was less intransigent than the first; iconodules were not accused of idolatry and images that were suspended high up (and thus unable to be venerated) were permitted to remain in churches. Nevertheless, many iconodule clergymen remained staunchly opposed, especially Patriarch Nikephoros I of Constantinople who

5670-486: The authority of the church in Rome. In this work, Tertullian said that the Church in Rome has the authority of the Apostles because of its apostolic foundation. Since, moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have Rome, from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures

5775-407: The beginning of the 7th century, Islamic conquests had succeeded in controlling much of the southern Mediterranean , and represented a threat to Christianity. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos , asked for military aid from Pope Urban II in the ongoing Byzantine–Seljuq wars . Urban, at the council of Clermont , called the First Crusade to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain

5880-434: The beginning of the century-long struggle over Sicily with the Aghlabids and the loss of Crete to Arab pirates from al-Andalus . Both islands became bases for future raids of the coasts of southern Italy and in the Aegean , as well as the conquest of Bari in 842. However, by the end of Michael's reign he had begun a restoration of the Byzantine military. The system of government and military built by Michael enabled

5985-461: The city's greatest prosperity, when it became the largest city in Asia Minor. Its status however as the native city of the reigning dynasty also spelled its doom: in 838, the Caliph Al-Mu'tasim launched a campaign specifically against the city, which was captured and razed , an episode recounted in a poem of Abu Tammam . The town was rebuilt, but was burned by Thamal al-Dulafi in 931. Nonetheless, it remained an active Byzantine city at least into

6090-428: The consensus among scholars being that by the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters, whose duties of office overlapped or were indistinguishable from one another. Some say that there was probably "no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later." In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on

6195-418: The controversial doctrinal basis of the pope's authority, continues to divide the eastern and western churches and to separate Protestants from Rome. The writings of several Early Church fathers contain references to the authority and unique position held by the bishops of Rome, providing valuable insight into the recognition and significance of the papacy during the early Christian era. These sources attest to

6300-558: The early 10th-century Notitiae Episcopatuum of Leo VI the Wise , five suffragan sees: Philomelium , Claneus , Docimium , Polybotus . and Pissia . There is no longer any mention of the see in the 14th-century Notitiae Episcopatuum . No longer a residential bishopric, Amorium is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see . Following the 838 sack, 42 officers and notables of Amorium were taken as hostages to Samarra (today in Iraq ). Refusing to convert to Islam , they were executed there in 845, and became canonized as

6405-429: The eighth century until 1870, the pope was the sovereign or head of state of the Papal States , and since 1929 of the much smaller Vatican City state. The reigning pope is Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 . From a Catholic viewpoint, the primacy of the bishop of Rome is largely derived from his role as the apostolic successor to Saint Peter , to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus, who gave Peter

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6510-455: The episcopal see in Rome can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century. The writings of Irenaeus , a Church Father who wrote around 180 AD, reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organized" the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. The Church of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians (which is traditionally attributed to Clement of Rome c.  96 ) about

6615-520: The established church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. Pope Gregory I ( c.  540–604 ) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook; his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles , potent relics , demons , angels , ghosts, and

6720-549: The expansion of Christian faith and doctrine , modern popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue , charitable work , and the defence of human rights. Over time, the papacy accrued broad secular and political influence , eventually rivalling those of territorial rulers. In recent centuries, the temporal authority of the papacy has declined and the office is now largely focused on religious matters. By contrast, papal claims of spiritual authority have been increasingly firmly expressed over time, culminating in 1870 with

6825-425: The gates of hell shall not prevail against it! Matthew 16:18. The successor of Peter was Linus, and his successors in unbroken continuity were these:— Clement, Anacletus, Evaristus... Eusebius ( c. 260/265 – 339) mentions Linus as Saint Peter's successor and Clement as the third bishop of Rome in his book Church History . As recorded by Eusebius, Clement worked with Saint Paul as his "co-laborer". As to

6930-405: The hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus ; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric.   ... To this Clement there succeeded Eviristus . Alexander followed Evaristus; then, sixth from the apostles, Sixtus was appointed; after him, Telephorus , who

7035-475: The iconoclast Antony , bishop of Syllaion , against the aspirations of the iconodules. Michael's accession prompted his former comrade-in-arms Thomas the Slav to set himself up as rival emperor in Anatolia to avenge Leo V. He had been made the tourmarchēs of the Foederati (a command in the Anatolic Theme ) by Leo, and so bore at least nominal allegiance to him. The stratēgos of Sicily , Gregory, also proclaimed allegiance to Leo against Michael but

7140-401: The iconodule Greek Patriarch of Antioch , Job , in the Church of Cassian , then in Abbasid territory, taking the imperial name Constantine . Having amassed a large army, perhaps of 80,000 men as some sources report, Thomas marched into Thrace , winning the support of the theme as well as the Armeniacs and Chaldians. He besieged the capital in December 821. Although Thomas did not win over all

7245-411: The increasingly assertive European nation states , the popes focused on spiritual issues. In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for the most solemn occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a definition of faith or morals. Later the same year, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed

7350-417: The influence and power they already possessed. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Nicene Christianity; Clovis I , king of the Franks , was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church rather than Arianism, allying himself with the papacy. Other tribes, such as the Visigoths , later abandoned Arianism in favour of

7455-406: The island with an expedition. The pirates had been exiled by the Umayyad emir of al-Andalus and captured Alexandria in 825 but were driven out. Crete was only recovered in 961, and until then remained a base for raiding parties into the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean . In 828, the Cibyrrhaeot navy and army achieved some successes, but was destroyed in a surprise attack and the stratēgos of

7560-651: The leadership of worldwide Church. James the Just , known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honoured as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his Epistle to

7665-426: The marriage helped to stabilise his authority and position. Michael attempted a reconciliation of the iconoclast controversy with Theodore and Nikephoros but they remained determined in their rejection of any compromise between iconoclasm and iconodulia. Theodore insisted that the matter should be resolved by a council presided over by Nikephoros or by the pope as a final arbiter. Nikephoros wrote his Refutation of

7770-481: The mission that Photius sent to Rome about 20 years earlier. In the Notitiae Episcopatuum of Pseudo-Epiphanius (c. 640), Amorium appears as a suffragan of Pessinus , capital of Galatia Salutaris . It appears with the same rank in another of the end of the 8th century. Soon afterwards, presumably as a result of citizens of Amorium taking the imperial throne, it became a metropolitan see with, as shown by

7875-657: The mixing of fragments of icons with the Eucharist , the use of icons as altar tables and as sponsors in baptism or tonsuring . This is corroborated by other reports of the extensive cult of images which had developed by the ninth century. Another case of Byzantine diplomacy with the Franks was the gift of the manuscript of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite to Louis' court in 827, which was purposefully chosen because Louis' adviser Hilduin , abbot of Saint-Denis, chose Pseudo-Dionysius as his abbey's patron saint . In 824, Michael sent

7980-428: The modern village of Hisarköy , 13 kilometers east of the district center, Emirdağ , Afyonkarahisar Province , Turkey . Arab / Islamic sources refer to the city as ʿAmmūriye . Under Ottoman rule the site, which never regained importance, was called Hergen Kale or Hergen Kaleh . The city minted its own coins beginning between 133 BC to 27 BC until the 3rd century AD, indicating its maturity as

8085-575: The name of Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father: to those who are united, both according to the flesh and spirit, to every one of His commandments; Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD), in his Letter 53, wrote a list of 38 popes from Saint Peter to Siricius. The order of this list differs from the lists of Irenaeus and the Annuario Pontificio . Augustine's list claims that Linus was succeeded by Clement and Clement

8190-676: The old Christian territories, especially Jerusalem. With the East–West Schism , the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed . Popes had galled the Byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the Exarchate of Ravenna , and driving into Greek Italy. In

8295-400: The pastoral office, the office of shepherding the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or "college" with Saint Peter as their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) as their head. Thus is derived another title by which the pope is known, that of "supreme pontiff". The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as

8400-484: The persecution of Christians in Rome as the "struggles in our time" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, "first, the greatest and most just columns", the "good apostles" Peter and Paul. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement; in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans, he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, such as Emperor Constantine's erection of

8505-440: The phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium. In AD 195, Pope Victor I, in what

8610-535: The pope as the antichrist . Popes instituted a Catholic Reformation (1560–1648), which addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III initiated the Council of Trent (1545–1563), whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims. Gradually forced to give up secular power to

8715-412: The position of Fabian , that is to say, the position of Peter and the office of the bishop's chair, was vacant. But the position once has been filled by the will of God and that appointment has been ratified by the consent of us all, if anyone wants to be made bishop after that, it has to be done outside the church; if a man does not uphold the unity of the Church's unity, it is not possible for him to have

8820-531: The prestige of the papacy in Northern Europe. From the 7th century, it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms, their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy. This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life. To combat this and other practices that had been seen as corrupting

8925-414: The proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for rare occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra —literally "from the chair (of Saint Peter) "—to issue a formal definition of faith or morals. The pope is considered one of the world's most powerful people due to the extensive diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual influence of his position on both 1.3   billion Catholics and those outside

9030-540: The rest of his followers, Paul testifies that Crescens was sent to Gaul; but Linus, whom he mentions in the Second Epistle to Timothy as his companion at Rome, was Peter’s successor in the episcopate of the church there, as has already been shown. Clement also, who was appointed third bishop of the church at Rome, was, as Paul testifies, his co-laborer and fellow-soldier. Tertullian ( c. 155 – c. 220 AD) wrote in his work " The Prescription Against Heretics " about

9135-456: The saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences , reducing one's time in purgatory . The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences. Popes also contended with

9240-656: The sister of the Empress Theodora . Joseph Genesius records Theophobos marrying the sister of the Emperor Theophilos. Whether Helena was sister or sister-in-law to Theophilos is thus unclear. Michael became disgruntled with Leo V when he divorced Michael's sister-in-law. In late 820, agents of the Postal Logothete uncovered a plot led by Michael to overthrow Leo, who then imprisoned Michael and sentenced him to death by burning . Empress consort Theodosia secured

9345-509: The site, with excavations being started in 1988. From its inception the Amorium Excavations Project has been principally concerned with investigating post-classical, Byzantine Amorium. During 1989 and 1990, an intensive surface survey was conducted of the man-made mound in the upper city. In 2001, Ali Kaya made a geophysical survey of the church found in the upper city, although a full excavation has yet to be undertaken. The Project

9450-477: The support of iconodules by stopping persecution, recalling exiled bishops and offering to reinstate Patriarch Nikephoros I of Constantinople if he ignored the iconoclast controversy , which he refused to do. In his quest for support, Thomas presented himself as a champion of the poor, reduced taxation, and concluded an alliance with al-Ma'mun of the Abbasid Caliphate , having himself crowned as emperor by

9555-549: The theme was killed. However in 829, the imperial fleet succeeded in driving the pirates out of the Cyclades . Sicily lacked both a dominant political and culture centre, like Ravenna , Rome or Naples , and an autonomous local military elite, so its population were either divided or reacted passively during the crises of the 820s. Discontent began with the revolt of Thomas the Slav , and developed with Michael's attempt to raise taxation in 826. An anti-imperial faction arose, led by

9660-413: The visible head of the Church, and the Catholic Church's dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter, in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles. Some historians argue against the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, noting that

9765-452: The will of Him that wills all things which are according to the love of Jesus Christ our God, which also presides in the place of the region of the Romans, worthy of God, worthy of honour, worthy of the highest happiness, worthy of praise, worthy of obtaining her every desire, worthy of being deemed holy, and which presides over love, is named from Christ, and from the Father, which I also salute in

9870-458: Was a competent statesman and administrator. Empress Theodora ( r.  842–856 ) defended her husband Theophilos , which mitigated the damnatio memoriae against him and his father Michael, nevertheless the later iconodule sources were highly critical of them. The civil war, which was the most ferocious since the Heraclian revolt (608–610), gravely weakened the imperial government, which saw

9975-490: Was acting on Michael's request or of its own accord, nevertheless in spring 823 it marched against Thomas, forcing fhim to lift his siege of Constantinople. The Bulgars defeated Thomas and many of his men began to desert, leading him to retreat to Arcadiopolis . Michael besieged Thomas in Arcadiopolis and starved him out, leading his supporters to hand him over to the Emperor, who put him to death. The last outbreak of resistance

10080-459: Was at the Council of Ephesus . The acts of the earlier First Council of Constantinople (381) were signed by a priest, Tyrannus, of Amorium. Other bishops were Mysterius, who took part in the Council of Chalcedon in 451, Theodorus, in the Trullan Council of 692, Theodosius, in the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, and Bessarion in the Council of Constantinople (879) . Theophilus was part of

10185-511: Was born c.  770 in Amorium , in Phrygia , into a Cappadocian family of professional peasant-soldiers who received land from the government for their military service. They may have been members of the sect of the Athinganoi . Michael first rose to prominence as a close aide ( spatharios ) of the general Bardanes Tourkos , alongside his future antagonists Leo the Armenian and Thomas

10290-605: Was deposed by Leo V but remained active in polemics against imperial authority during Michael's reign. Amorium Amorium , also known as Amorion ( Greek : Ἀμόριον ), was a city in Phrygia , Asia Minor which was founded in the Hellenistic period, flourished under the Byzantine Empire , and declined after the Arab sack of 838 . It was situated on the Byzantine military road from Constantinople to Cilicia . Its ruins and höyük ('mound, tumulus ') are located under and around

10395-426: Was gloriously martyred; then Hyginus ; after him, Pius ; then after him, Anicetus . Soter having succeeded Anicetus, Eleutherius does now, in the twelfth place from the apostles, hold the inheritance of the episcopate. Ignatius of Antioch (died c. 108/140 AD) wrote in his " Epistle to the Romans" that the church in Rome is "the church that presides over love". ...the Church which is beloved and enlightened by

10500-607: Was killed by soldiers under the tourmarchēs Euphemios which secured the loyalty of the Sicilian fleet to Michael. Thomas was supported by the Bucellarian , Paphlagonian and Cibyrrhaeot themes , while Michael held the European part of the Empire including the Opsikion (commanded by his relative Katakylas), Thracesian , Armeniac and Chaldian themes. To strengthen his position, he won

10605-503: Was placed therein by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. Optatus the bishop of Milevis in Numidia (today's Algeria) and a contemporary of the Donatist schism , presents a detailed analysis of the origins, beliefs, and practices of the Donatists, as well as the events and debates surrounding the schism, in his book The Schism of

10710-618: Was put down in Anatolia in spring 824. By the end of 823, Michael's power was firmly established and he had negotiated peace with the Bulgars despite their raiding and pillaging in Thrace during Thomas' revolt. The warfare damaged the rural economy, in particular the region around Constantinople, and many Dalmatian coastal towns cast off imperial authority, which was not reinstated until the reign of Basil I ( r.  867–886 ). Michael tried to reunite

10815-555: Was raiding on the North African shore, and caused him to initiate a rebellion, seizing Syracuse , proclaiming himself emperor and then killing the stratēgos Constantine after defeating him at Catania . Some of Euphemios' supporters deserted him for the imperial government, and he was defeated by another garrison commander, which forced him to flee to the Aghlabid emir , Ziyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya , who recognised his title and gave him

10920-411: Was succeeded by Anacletus as in the list of Eusebius , while the other two lists switch the positions of Clement and Anacletus. For if the lineal succession of bishops is to be taken into account, with how much more certainty and benefit to the Church do we reckon back till we reach Peter himself, to whom, as bearing in a figure the whole Church, the Lord said: Upon this rock will I build my Church, and

11025-450: Was supported throughout by Patriarch Antony. In October 829, Michael ordered the release of prisoners, reflecting his moderate policy. On 2 October, he died from kidney failure . He was succeeded peacefully by his son Theophilos , along with his stepmother Euphrosyne since he was only seventeen years old. Because of his iconoclasm, Michael was not popular among the clergy, who depicted him as an ignorant and poorly educated peasant, but he

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