The Byron Review , titled "Safer Children in a Digital World", was a report ordered in September 2007 by the then prime minister Gordon Brown and delivered on the 27 March 2008 to the UK Department for Children, Schools and Families . It was authored and overseen by Tanya Byron . The report focussed on the use of video games and the Internet (particularly social networking websites) by children, and discussed the use of classification and the role of parenting in policing these.
72-449: Key points of the review included: The report was generally well received by parenting groups, the government and the media industry. The video games industry, however, raised concerns over how increased classification would be funded, with some concerned that the BBFC did not have the capacity for such an increased workload. On the day following publication of the report, most UK newspapers had
144-519: A 'mixed' or hybrid constitution , partly formally codified and partly uncodified. The codified part originally made no reference whatsoever to a prime minister and still gives no parameters of the office. Instead, their powers, duties, appointment and termination follow uncodified conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 only establishes the Queen's Privy Council for Canada , to which all federal ministers (among others) are appointed and with Members of which
216-783: A Digital World?", The Byron Progress Review was published in March 2010. In May 2008 the Culture, Media and Sport Select Committee held an inquiry into harmful content in video games and on the Internet. On 14 May 2008 Minister Vernon Coaker gave oral evidence to the committee explaining that the Prime Minister's Internet Taskforce would be concerned not just with illegal content on the Internet, but also with "harmful and inappropriate content as well ... which may not be illegal but which cause all of us concern". The Culture, Media and Sport Committee's report
288-562: A Socialist premier. But while the president's term of office was for seven years, the National Assembly only served for five. When, in the 1986 legislative election , the French people elected a right-of-centre assembly, Socialist president François Mitterrand was forced into cohabitation with right-wing premier Jacques Chirac . However, in 2000, amendments to the French constitution reduced
360-449: A codified constitution, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office of the parliament. Hence, for example, Latvian prime minister Krišjānis Kariņš , who was first appointed in 2018 , had to be reappointed as head of a new government following the 2022 Latvian parliamentary election . The position of prime minister is usually chosen from the political party that commands - whether by itself or as
432-510: A presidency), regardless of the correct title of the head of government as applied in his or her respective country. The few exceptions to the rule are Germany and Austria, whose head of government's title is Federal Chancellor ; Monaco, whose head of government is referred to as the Minister of State; and Vatican City, for which the head of government is titled the Secretary of State. A stand-out case
504-465: A prime minister, even if the label is different. The term goes back to ancient Roman times as head of the chancellery . This title as head of government or the administration existed in ancient China as Grand Chancellor (Chinese: 宰相; pinyin: Zǎixiàng ), sometimes translated as "prime minister", existed since 685 BCE and ancient Japan Chancellor of the Realm (太政大臣 Daijō-daijin ) since the 7th century CE. In
576-420: A specific term in office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments. For example, Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion, in 1979. She remained continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet . Newer parliamentary systems that operate based on
648-573: A speech at the Royal Television Society conference in London, in which he said that the government planned to crack down on the Internet to "even up" the regulatory imbalance with television, saying that "a fear of the internet" had caused a loss of confidence that had robbed the TV industry of "innovation, risk-taking and talent sourcing" in programming. He enlarged on his remarks in an interview published
720-509: A story on their front page outlining the classification system proposed. In June 2008 the government published "The Byron Review Action Plan". This document set out how the recommendations of the Byron Review would be implemented across government. In December 2009 the prime minister and the Children's Minister asked Tanya Byron to provide a progress review. Titled "Do we have Safer Children in
792-423: Is a republic in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet , with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the state . It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has an executive president independent of the legislature ; and from the presidential system in that the cabinet , although named by the president, is responsible to the legislature, which may force
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#1732873496070864-462: Is called " cohabitation ", a term which originated in France after the situation first arose in the 1980s. Cohabitation can create either an effective system of checks and balances , or a period of bitter and tense stonewalling, depending on the attitudes of the two leaders, the ideologies of themselves/their parties, and the demands of their supporters. The distribution of power between the president and
936-467: Is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature . In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise executive powers (known as the royal prerogative ) without the approval of parliament. As well as being head of government, being prime minister may require holding other roles or posts—the prime minister of the United Kingdom , for example, is also First Lord of
1008-477: Is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government , often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system . A prime minister is not the head of state , but rather the head of government , serving as the chief of the executive under either a monarch or a president in a republican form of government . In parliamentary systems of government (be they constitutional monarchies or parliamentary republics ),
1080-534: Is the president of Iran, who is not actually a head of state, but the head of the government of Iran. He is referred to as "president" in both the Persian and English languages. In non-Commonwealth countries, the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a president. In some Commonwealth countries, prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled Honourable or Right Honourable associated with their position (the prime minister of Australia or
1152-712: Is titled Chairman of the government . The Irish prime minister is called the Taoiseach (which is rendered into English as prime minister ), in Israel the prime minister is Rosh HaMemshalah, meaning "head of the government", and the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government ( Presidente del Gobierno ). The head of government of the People's Republic of China is referred to as
1224-612: Is used in: Guinea-Bissau , Mozambique , Russia , and Taiwan . It was also used in Ukraine (first between 1996 and 2005; then from 2010 to 2014), Georgia (from 2004 to 2013), South Korea under the Fourth and Fifth republics, and in Germany during the Weimar Republic . In a semi-presidential system, the president and the prime minister may sometimes be from different political parties. This
1296-575: Is usually called the Office of the Prime Minister or Cabinet Office . The U.K.’s Cabinet Office includes the Prime Minister’s Office. Conversely, some Prime Minister's Offices incorporate the role of Cabinet, while Australia’s Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet joins them at par. In Israel, the prime minister's executive office is officially titled the "Prime Minister's Office" in English, but
1368-612: The Abbasid caliphate and the Ottoman Empire . They both had an official title of Grand Vizier simply the Head of the Government which is called Prime Minister nowadays. Grand Vizier was the most powerful person after sultan but sometimes the Grand Vizier of Ottoman Empire was more powerful than sultan himself. The position of Chancellor is the same or comparable in some countries as
1440-492: The Constitution , Poland is a parliamentary republic ), Portugal , Romania , São Tomé and Príncipe , Sri Lanka , Turkey ( de facto between 2014 and 2018, until the constitutional amendment to switch the government to presidential from parliamentary ), and Ukraine (since 2014; previously, between 2006 and 2010). Under the president-parliamentary system, the prime minister and cabinet are dually accountable to
1512-594: The French Fifth Republic (established in 1958). Maurice Duverger 's original definition of semi-presidentialism stated that the president had to be elected, possess significant power, and serve for a fixed term. Modern definitions merely declare that the head of state has to be elected, and that a separate prime minister that is dependent on parliamentary confidence has to lead the legislative. There are two distinct subtypes of semi-presidentialism: premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism. Under
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#17328734960701584-463: The Holy Roman Empire the position of Archchancellor was the highest dignitary and traces to 860 CE, out of which later derived the positions of head of government such as the modern Chancellor of Germany , who is head of the federal government and an executive prime minister. The power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament
1656-798: The Netherlands , Norway , Malaysia , Morocco , Spain , Sweden , Thailand , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom ) and in parliamentary republics , in which the head of state is an elected official (such as Bangladesh , Finland , the Czech Republic , France , Greece , Hungary , India , Indonesia (1945–66) , Ireland , Nigeria (1960–66) , Pakistan , Montenegro , Croatia , Bulgaria , Romania , Serbia , Turkey (1923–2018) and Italy ). See also " First Minister ", " Premier ", " Chief Minister ", " Chancellor ", " Taoiseach ", "Minister of State ( Statsminister )", "President of
1728-669: The Premier of the State Council . Other common forms include president of the council of ministers (for example in Italy, Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri ), President of the Executive Council, or Minister-President . In the Nordic countries the prime minister is called Statsminister , meaning "Minister of State". In federations , the head of government of a federated entity (such as
1800-544: The Scottish , Northern Irish and Welsh Governments are styled First Minister . Between 1921 and 1972, when Northern Ireland had a majority rule Parliament , the head of government was the prime minister of Northern Ireland . In Bangladesh , the prime minister is called Prodhan Montri , literally meaning "the head of ministers" or "prime minister". In India, the prime minister is called Pradhān Mantrī , literally meaning "the head of ministers" or "prime minister". In Pakistan,
1872-620: The Tory ministers Harley and Viscount Bolingbroke shared power. In the mid 17th century, after the English Civil War (1642–1651), Parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689. The monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus
1944-523: The premier-presidential system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president may choose the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may approve them and remove them from office with a vote of no confidence . This system is much closer to pure parliamentarism. This subtype is used in: Burkina Faso , Cape Verde , East Timor , France , Lithuania , Madagascar , Mali , Mongolia , Niger , Georgia (2013–2018), Poland ( de facto , however, according to
2016-437: The presidential system , in which the president (or equivalent) is both the head of state and the head of the government. In some presidential and all semi-presidential systems, such as those of Algeria , Argentina , China , France , Poland , Russia , South Korea or Ukraine , the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the president but usually approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out
2088-412: The prime minister and minister of Communications , Foreign Affairs , Regional Cooperation , Economy , Defense and Interior . The term "prime minister" was used as (vazîr-i aʾzam) or the Grand Vizier in 8th century by the Abbasid caliphate . in 17th century sources referring to Cardinal Richelieu , after he was named premier ministre to head the French royal council in 1624. The title
2160-407: The prime minister and the president is not explicitly stated in the constitution, but has evolved as a political convention based on the constitutional principle that the prime minister is appointed (with the subsequent approval of a parliament majority) and dismissed by the president. On the other hand, whenever the president and the prime minister represent the same political party, which leads
2232-444: The prime minister of Canada , for example). In the United Kingdom, the prime minister and former prime ministers are also often styled Honourable or Right Honourable ; however, this is not due to their position as head of government, but a privilege of being current members of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council . In the UK, where devolved government is in place, the leaders of
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2304-584: The prime minister of the Czech Republic , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal. France's constitution (1958) lists the powers, functions and duties of the prime minister of France . Germany's Basic Law (1949) lists the powers, functions and duties of the federal chancellor . Greece's constitution (1975) lists the powers, functions and duties of the prime minister of Greece . Semi-presidential system A semi-presidential republic , or dual executive republic ,
2376-432: The province or territory of Canada , the province of Argentina or the state of Brazil ) is most commonly known as the premier , chief minister , governor or minister-president . It is convention in the English language to call nearly all national heads of government "prime minister" (or sometimes the equivalent term "premier"), except in cases where the head of state and head of government are one position (usually
2448-466: The 21st century. The position of a head of government separate from the head of state, or as the most important government administrator or minister after the monarch in rank developed in multiple countries separate from each other. The names given could be "prime minister", although other terms were also used such as "chief minister", "grand chancellor", "chancellor", "grand vizier", "counselor", and others. The literal title itself can be traced back to
2520-607: The British model. Bangladesh's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the prime minister , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal. The People's Republic of China constitution set a premier just one place below the National People's Congress in China. Premier read as ( Simplified Chinese : 总理; pinyin : Zŏnglĭ) in Chinese. Canada has
2592-625: The Government", "President of the Council of Ministers" and " Secretary of State ": alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to, or translated as, "prime minister". Both Indonesia and Nigeria lost their positions as prime ministers in 1966. Brazil , Iran , the Philippines and Turkey also lost their positions as prime ministers. Chile , Mexico , Switzerland and the United States never had positions as prime ministers. This contrasts with
2664-554: The House of Commons became a part of the government. It is at this point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714 and the accession of George I to the throne. George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover , and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of British government. In these circumstances it
2736-511: The Internet is both undesirable and unworkable, as the Internet is a network rather than a medium. On 29 September 2008 the launch of the UK Council for Child Internet Safety was announced. Its initial brief included organising methods for the removal of inappropriate content on user-generated websites and developing measures to take down Internet sites promoting harmful behaviour. Prime minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet
2808-456: The Monarch or their Governor General normally performs executive government (as King- or Governor-in-Council ). The Constitution Act, 1982 , adds passing reference to the " Prime Minister of Canada " [French: premier ministre du Canada ] but as detail of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers .) Czech Republic's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of
2880-515: The Prime Minister (or occasionally a similar post with a different title, such as the Chancellor of Germany ) is the most powerful politician and the functional leader of the state, by virtue of commanding the confidence of the legislature . The head of state is typically a ceremonial officer, though they may exercise reserve powers to check the Prime Minister in unusual situations. Under some presidential systems , such as South Korea and Peru ,
2952-728: The Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service . In some cases, prime ministers may choose to hold additional ministerial posts (e.g. when the portfolio is critical to that government's mandate): during the Second World War, Winston Churchill was also Minister of Defence (although there was then no Ministry of Defence ). Another example is the Thirty-fourth government of Israel (2015–2019) , when Benjamin Netanyahu at one point served as
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3024-483: The U.S. system in which the president directly exercises executive authority. Bahrain 's former prime minister, Sheikh Khalifah bin Sulman Al Khalifah , occupied the post for about 50 years, from 1970 to November 2020, making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister. The post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies (such as Belgium , Denmark , Japan , Luxembourg ,
3096-408: The cabinet to resign through a motion of no confidence . While the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and Finland (from 1919 to 2000) exemplified early semi-presidential systems, the term "semi-presidential" was first introduced in 1959 in an article by journalist Hubert Beuve-Méry , and popularized by a 1978 work written by political scientist Maurice Duverger , both of whom intended to describe
3168-430: The cabinet, they tend to exercise de facto control over all fields of policy via the prime minister. However, it is up to the president to decide how much autonomy is left to said prime minister. In most cases, cohabitation results from a system in which the two executives are not elected at the same time or for the same term. For example, in 1981, France elected both a Socialist president and legislature, which yielded
3240-438: The confusion produced by mixed authority patterns. It can be argued that a semi-presidential republic is more likely to engage in democratic backsliding and power struggles , especially ones with a president-parliamentary system. Advantages Disadvantages In a premier-presidential system, the prime minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to the legislature. Non-UN members or observers are in italics. In
3312-561: The council" or "chancellor" were adopted, but the essentials of the office were the same. In the late 20th century, many of the world's countries had prime ministers or equivalent ministers, holding office under either constitutional monarchies or ceremonial presidents. The main exceptions to this system include Switzerland and the United States, as well as the presidential republics in Latin America, such as Chile and Mexico, modelled on
3384-458: The directives of the president and managing the civil service. The premier of the Republic of China (Taiwan) is also appointed by the president but does not require any approval by the legislature. Appointment of the prime minister of France does not require any approval by the parliament either, but the parliament may force the resignation of the government. In these systems, it is possible for
3456-470: The following day in The Daily Telegraph , in which he said: "If you look back at the people who created the Internet they talked very deliberately about it being a space that governments couldn't reach. I think we are having to revisit that stuff seriously now ... There is content that should just not be available to be viewed. That is my view. Absolutely categorical." The article suggested that Burnham
3528-402: The government. In most systems, the prime minister is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in semi-presidential systems , a prime minister is the official appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of the head of state . Today, the prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the legislature or its lower house, and
3600-423: The internet". He referred to the Byron Review, saying that he thought people felt a "sense of risk and uncertainty about this world they are roaming". Burnham told journalists that he had an "open mind" about whether there was a need for a new Communications Act before the next General Election, indicating that his own preference was for smaller pieces of legislation as needed. On 26 September 2008, Burnham delivered
3672-408: The king, and also that when the cabinet had agreed on a policy, all ministers must defend it in public, or resign. As a later prime minister, Lord Melbourne , said, "It matters not what we say, gentlemen, so long as we all say the same thing." Walpole always denied that he was "prime minister", and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position
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#17328734960703744-536: The largest member of a coalition - the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament, though this is not a requirement either; for example, following the 2018 Latvian parliamentary election , after two failed attempts by larger parties to form a coalition headed by them, the leader of the smallest party in parliament - Krišjānis Kariņš - was eventually appointed as a compromise candidate. Italy has seen several emergency technocratic governments , such as Carlo Azeglio Ciampi 's and Mario Draghi 's governments, where
3816-410: The length of the French president's term to five years. This has significantly lowered the chances of cohabitation occurring, as parliamentary and presidential elections may now be conducted within a shorter span of each other. The incorporation of elements from both presidential and parliamentary republics can bring certain advantageous elements; however, it also creates disadvantages, often related to
3888-551: The name of an alternative prime minister; if the motion of no confidence is successful, the alternative prime minister automatically takes office in place of the incumbent government, which cannot appeal this replacement to the electorate. In Australia , the prime minister is expected to step down if they lose the majority support of their party under a spill motion as have many such as Tony Abbott , Julia Gillard , Kevin Rudd and Malcolm Turnbull . The prime minister's executive office
3960-451: The original Hebrew term can also be translated as the Prime Minister's Ministry. The Prime Minister's Department is also used, as is Cabinet Department. Wilfried Martens , who served as Prime Minister of Belgium, described his role as follows: In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister" is not the official title of the office-holder. In the Russian constitution , the prime minister
4032-731: The power of the post. The title "prime minister" was first referred to on government documents during the administration of Benjamin Disraeli but did not appear in the formal British Order of precedence until 1905. The prestige of British institutions in the 19th century and the growth of the British Empire saw the British model of cabinet government, headed by a prime minister, widely copied, both in other European countries and in British colonial territories as they developed self-government. In some places alternative titles such as "premier", "chief minister", "first minister of state", "president of
4104-410: The power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a vote of confidence , have a motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose supply, most constitutional systems require either: The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate . However, in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring
4176-428: The president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president. When it arises, such a state of affairs is usually referred to as (political) cohabitation . In parliamentary systems a prime minister may enter into office by several means. In older, convention-based parliamentary systems , prime ministers are not appointed for
4248-420: The president and to the parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet, but must have the support of a parliamentary majority for his choice. In order to remove a prime minister, or the whole cabinet, from power, the president can either dismiss them, or the parliament can remove them through a vote of no confidence . This form of semi-presidentialism is much closer to pure presidentialism. It
4320-399: The prime minister can vary greatly between countries. In France , for example, in the case of cohabitation, the president oversees foreign policy and defense policy (these are generally called les prérogatives présidentielles , presidential prerogatives) and the prime minister is in charge of domestic policy and economic policy . In this case, the division of responsibilities between
4392-422: The prime minister is referred to as Wazir-e-Azam , meaning "grand vizier". The position, power and status of prime ministers differ depending on the age of the constitution. Algeria's constitution (1962) lists the powers, functions and duties of the prime minister of Algeria . Australia's constitution makes no mention of a prime minister of Australia and the office only exists by convention, based on
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#17328734960704464-468: The prime minister is the leader or the most senior member of the cabinet, but not the head of government. As such, in South Korea, the prime minister is equivalent to that of a vice president which is the second in-command and assumes the presidency in the absence of the president. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within
4536-456: The prime minister was a non-partisan expert backed by the confidence and supply of a broad cross-section of the parliament . In parliamentary systems, governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block supply to upper houses , in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they have
4608-416: The resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution. Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet . In the United Kingdom, for example, the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it
4680-430: Was First Lord of the Treasury ). During the whole of the 18th century, Britain was involved in a prolonged conflict with France, periodically bursting into all-out war, and Britons took outspoken pride in their "Liberty" as contrasted to the "Tyranny" of French Absolute Monarchy; therefore, being implicitly compared with Richelieu was no compliment to Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in
4752-588: Was among the necessary skills of holding high office, they did not depend on a parliamentary majority for their power. Although there was a cabinet , it was appointed entirely by the monarch, and the monarch usually presided over its meetings. The monarch could dismiss the minister at any time, or worse: Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful. Late in Anne's reign, for example,
4824-585: Was inevitable that the king's first minister would become the de facto head of the government. From 1721, this was the Whig politician Robert Walpole , who held office for twenty-one years. Walpole chaired cabinet meetings, appointed all the other ministers, dispensed the royal patronage and packed the House of Commons with his supporters. Under Walpole, the doctrine of cabinet solidarity developed. Walpole required that no minister other than himself have private dealings with
4896-581: Was known to the Constitution. George II and George III made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the monarch, but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the Commons was increasingly necessary. The long tenure of the wartime prime minister William Pitt the Younger (1783–1801), combined with the mental illness of George III, consolidated
4968-484: Was planning to negotiate with the Barack Obama administration "to draw up new international rules for English language websites" and that another idea being considered was "giving film-style ratings to individual websites". Burnham's words were criticized by technology journalist Bill Thompson , who pointed out that it was hard to reconcile his comments with the views of media regulator Ofcom that TV-style regulation of
5040-449: Was published on 31 July 2008 and contained various recommendations among which were: In June 2008 Culture Secretary Andy Burnham suggested the government should have a role in ensuring that content on the Internet met the same standards as that on television as "the boundaries between the two media blur". Burnham also raised the idea of warnings being applied to certain content on websites such as YouTube to help people "better navigate
5112-576: Was the entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council (the then name for the Irish cabinet). Some systems, such as Germany and Spain , require motions of no confidence to be constructive : i.e., they must include
5184-423: Was used alongside the principal ministre d'État ("chief minister of the state") more as a job description. After 1661, Louis XIV and his descendants refused to allow one of their Ministers to be more important than the others, so the term was no longer in use. In the 18th century in the United Kingdom, members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole (whose official title
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