68-573: [REDACTED] This article contains Burmese script . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Burmese script . Burma Economic Development Corporation Corporation overview Formed May 1961 ( 1961-05 ) Preceding corporation Defence Services Institute Dissolved 20 October 1963 Jurisdiction Burma Headquarters Rangoon The Burma Economic Development Corporation (BEDC), formerly
136-661: A comma and a full stop . There is a Shan exclamation mark ႟. Other abbreviations used in literary Burmese are: -possessive particle( 's, of) Myanmar script was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. The Unicode block for Myanmar is U+1000–U+109F: Abugida An abugida ( / ˌ ɑː b uː ˈ ɡ iː d ə , ˌ æ b -/ ; from Ge'ez : አቡጊዳ , 'äbugīda ) – sometimes also called alphasyllabary , neosyllabary , or pseudo-alphabet – is
204-648: A South Indian script, either the Kadamba or Pallava alphabet . The earliest evidence of the Burmese alphabet is dated to 1035, while a casting made in the 18th century of an old stone inscription points to 984. Burmese calligraphy originally followed a square format but the cursive format took hold from the 17th century when popular writing led to the wider use of palm leaves and folded paper known as parabaiks . A stylus would rip these leaves when making straight lines. The alphabet has undergone considerable modification to suit
272-413: A change to writing the two consonants side by side. In the latter case, this combination may be indicated by a diacritic on one of the consonants or a change in the form of one of the consonants, e.g. the half forms of Devanagari. Generally, the reading order of stacked consonants is top to bottom, or the general reading order of the script, but sometimes the reading order can be reversed. The division of
340-453: A conjunct. This expedient is used by ISCII and South Asian scripts of Unicode .) Thus a closed syllable such as phaṣ requires two aksharas to write: फष् phaṣ . The Róng script used for the Lepcha language goes further than other Indic abugidas, in that a single akshara can represent a closed syllable: Not only the vowel, but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic. For example,
408-473: A default vowel consonant such as फ does not take on a final consonant sound. Instead, it keeps its vowel. For writing two consonants without a vowel in between, instead of using diacritics on the first consonant to remove its vowel, another popular method of special conjunct forms is used in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster, such as Devanagari, as in अप्फ appha. (Some fonts display this as प् followed by फ, rather than forming
476-515: A diacritic, but writes all other vowels as full letters (similarly to Kurdish and Uyghur). This means that when no vowel diacritics are present (most of the time), it technically has an inherent vowel. However, like the Phagspa and Meroitic scripts whose status as abugidas is controversial (see below), all other vowels are written in-line. Additionally, the practice of explicitly writing all-but-one vowel does not apply to loanwords from Arabic and Persian, so
544-436: A letter modified to indicate the vowel. Letters can be modified either by means of diacritics or by changes in the form of the letter itself. If all modifications are by diacritics and all diacritics follow the direction of the writing of the letters, then the abugida is not an alphasyllabary. However, most languages have words that are more complicated than a sequence of CV syllables, even ignoring tone. The first complication
612-465: A letter representing just a consonant (C). This final consonant may be represented with: In a true abugida, the lack of distinctive vowel marking of the letter may result from the diachronic loss of the inherent vowel, e.g. by syncope and apocope in Hindi . When not separating syllables containing consonant clusters (CCV) into C + CV, these syllables are often written by combining the two consonants. In
680-413: A particular vowel, and in which diacritics denote other vowels". (This 'particular vowel' is referred to as the inherent or implicit vowel, as opposed to the explicit vowels marked by the 'diacritics'.) An alphasyllabary is defined as "a type of writing system in which the vowels are denoted by subsidiary symbols, not all of which occur in a linear order (with relation to the consonant symbols) that
748-416: A result of the spread of writing systems, independent vowels may be used to represent syllables beginning with a glottal stop , even for non-initial syllables. The next two complications are consonant clusters before a vowel (CCV) and syllables ending in a consonant (CVC). The simplest solution, which is not always available, is to break with the principle of writing words as a sequence of syllables and use
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#1733085107746816-409: A segmental writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written as units; each unit is based on a consonant letter, and vowel notation is secondary, similar to a diacritical mark . This contrasts with a full alphabet , in which vowels have status equal to consonants, and with an abjad , in which vowel marking is absent, partial , or optional – in less formal contexts, all three types of
884-497: A syllable with the default vowel, in this case ka ( [kə] ). In some languages, including Hindi, it becomes a final closing consonant at the end of a word, in this case k . The inherent vowel may be changed by adding vowel mark ( diacritics ), producing syllables such as कि ki, कु ku, के ke, को ko. In many of the Brahmic scripts, a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking, so
952-439: A term in linguistics was proposed by Peter T. Daniels in his 1990 typology of writing systems . As Daniels used the word, an abugida is in contrast with a syllabary , where letters with shared consonant or vowel sounds show no particular resemblance to one another. Furthermore, an abugida is also in contrast with an alphabet proper, where independent letters are used to denote consonants and vowels. The term alphasyllabary
1020-420: A vowel can be written before, below or above a consonant letter, while the syllable is still pronounced in the order of a consonant-vowel combination (CV). The fundamental principles of an abugida apply to words made up of consonant-vowel (CV) syllables. The syllables are written as letters in a straight line, where each syllable is either a letter that represents the sound of a consonant and its inherent vowel or
1088-645: A vowel is pronounced between. Similarly, လက်ဖက် "tea" is commonly abbreviated to လ္ဘက် . Also, ss is written ဿ , not သ္သ . A decimal numbering system is used, and numbers are written in the same order as Hindu–Arabic numerals . The digits from zero to nine are: ၀၁၂၃၄၅၆၇၈၉ ( Unicode 1040 to 1049). The number 1945 would be written as ၁၉၄၅. Separators, such as commas, are not used to group numbers. There are two primary break characters in Burmese, drawn as one or two downward strokes: ၊ (called ပုဒ်ဖြတ်, ပုဒ်ကလေး, ပုဒ်ထီး, or တစ်ချောင်းပုဒ်) and ။ (called ပုဒ်ကြီး, ပုဒ်မ, or နှစ်ချောင်းပုဒ်), which respectively act as
1156-466: A vowel marker like ि -i, falling before the character it modifies, may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced. For example, the game cricket in Hindi is क्रिकेट krikeṭ ; the diacritic for /i/ appears before the consonant cluster /kr/ , not before the /r/ . A more unusual example is seen in the Batak alphabet : Here the syllable bim is written ba-ma-i-(virama) . That is,
1224-403: A word into syllables for the purposes of writing does not always accord with the natural phonetics of the language. For example, Brahmic scripts commonly handle a phonetic sequence CVC-CV as CV-CCV or CV-C-CV. However, sometimes phonetic CVC syllables are handled as single units, and the final consonant may be represented: More complicated unit structures (e.g. CC or CCVC) are handled by combining
1292-455: Is မ ( m ) and the second consonant is ဘ ( bh ). No vowel is pronounced between m and bh . When stacked, the first consonant is written normally (i.e., not super- or subscripted). It has an implied virama ◌် and is the final of the preceding syllable. In the case of ကမ္ဘာ , an implied virama is applied to the first consonant ( မ် ), which is the final of the preceding syllable က , producing ကမ် ( kam ). The second consonant
1360-469: Is a consonant or consonant cluster that occurs before the vowel of a syllable . The Burmese alphabet has 33 letters to indicate the initial consonant of a syllable and four diacritics to indicate additional consonants in the onset. Like other abugidas , including the other members of the Brahmic family , vowels are indicated in Burmese alphabet by diacritics, which are placed above, below, before or after
1428-463: Is a non-segmental script that indicates syllable onsets and rimes , such as consonant clusters and vowels with final consonants. Thus it is not segmental and cannot be considered an abugida. However, it superficially resembles an abugida with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. Most syllables are written with two letters in the order rime–onset (typically vowel-consonant), even though they are pronounced as onset-rime (consonant-vowel), rather like
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#17330851077461496-432: Is an abugida used for writing Burmese . It is ultimately adapted from a Brahmic script , either the Kadamba or Pallava alphabet of South India . The Burmese alphabet is also used for the liturgical languages of Pali and Sanskrit . In recent decades, other, related alphabets, such as Shan and modern Mon , have been restructured according to the standard of the Burmese alphabet (see Mon–Burmese script .) Burmese
1564-499: Is congruent with their temporal order in speech". Bright did not require that an alphabet explicitly represent all vowels. ʼPhags-pa is an example of an abugida because it has an inherent vowel , but it is not an alphasyllabary because its vowels are written in linear order. Modern Lao is an example of an alphasyllabary that is not an abugida, for there is no inherent vowel and its vowels are always written explicitly and not in accordance to their temporal order in speech, meaning that
1632-490: Is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other segmental scripts. For example, the Meroitic script of ancient Sudan did not indicate an inherent a (one symbol stood for both m and ma, for example), and is thus similar to Brahmic family of abugidas. However, the other vowels were indicated with full letters, not diacritics or modification, so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write
1700-399: Is subscripted beneath the first consonant and is the onset of the following syllable. In the case of ကမ္ဘာ , ဘ is the second consonant and is the onset of ◌ာ (the following syllable), producing ဘာ ( bha ). The equivalent form of ကမ္ဘာ is thus read * ကမ်ဘာ ( kambha ). If the မ ( m ) and ဘ ( bh ) were not stacked (i.e., ကမဘာ ), the pronunciation would be different as
1768-476: Is syllables that consist of just a vowel (V). For some languages, a zero consonant letter is used as though every syllable began with a consonant. For other languages, each vowel has a separate letter that is used for each syllable consisting of just the vowel. These letters are known as independent vowels , and are found in most Indic scripts. These letters may be quite different from the corresponding diacritics, which by contrast are known as dependent vowels . As
1836-481: Is the case for syllabaries, the units of the writing system may consist of the representations both of syllables and of consonants. For scripts of the Brahmic family, the term akshara is used for the units. In several languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea, abugida traditionally meant letters of the Ethiopic or Ge‘ez script in which many of these languages are written. Ge'ez is one of several segmental writing systems in
1904-495: Is true of the first twenty-five letters in the Burmese alphabet, which are called grouped together as wek byi (ဝဂ်ဗျည်း, from Pali vagga byañjana ). The remaining eight letters ( ⟨ယ⟩ , ⟨ရ⟩ , ⟨လ⟩ , ⟨ဝ⟩ , ⟨သ⟩ , ⟨ဟ⟩ , ⟨ဠ⟩ , ⟨အ⟩ ) are grouped together as a wek (အဝဂ်, lit. ' without group ' ), as they are not arranged in any particular pattern. A letter
1972-657: Is with North Indic scripts, used in Northern India, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, and Russia; and Southern Indic scripts, used in South India , Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia . South Indic letter forms are more rounded than North Indic forms, though Odia , Golmol and Litumol of Nepal script are rounded. Most North Indic scripts' full letters incorporate a horizontal line at the top, with Gujarati and Odia as exceptions; South Indic scripts do not. Indic scripts indicate vowels through dependent vowel signs (diacritics) around
2040-625: Is written from left to right and requires no spaces between words, although modern writing usually contains spaces after each clause to enhance readability and to avoid grammar complications. There are several systems of transliteration into the Latin alphabet; for this article, the MLC Transcription System is used. The Burmese alphabet was derived from the Pyu script , the Old Mon script , or directly from
2108-469: Is written with two strokes coming from opposite directions. The ten following letters are exceptions to the clockwise rule: ပ, ဖ, ဗ, မ, ယ, လ, ဟ, ဃ, ဎ, ဏ. Some versions of stroke order may be slightly different. The Burmese stroke order can be learned from ပထမတန်း မြန်မာဖတ်စာ ၂၀၁၇-၂၀၁၈ ( Burmese Grade 1, 2017-2018 ), a textbook published by the Burmese Ministry of Education . The book is available under
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2176-641: The Brahmi alphabet . Today they are used in most languages of South Asia (although replaced by Perso-Arabic in Urdu , Kashmiri and some other languages of Pakistan and India ), mainland Southeast Asia ( Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia , and Vietnam ), Tibet ( Tibetan ), Indonesian archipelago ( Javanese , Balinese , Sundanese , Batak , Lontara , Rejang , Rencong , Makasar , etc.), Philippines ( Baybayin , Buhid , Hanunuo , Kulitan , and Aborlan Tagbanwa ), Malaysia ( Rencong ). The primary division
2244-572: The Defence Services Institute (DSI), was Burma's largest economic enterprise in the late 1950s. A state-run enterprise, it was established in May 1961, under the 1961 Burma Economic Development Corporation Act with the resumption of civilian rule, although it remained under military control. BEDC was nationalized on 20 October 1963, as part of the implementation of the Burmese Way to Socialism . At
2312-487: The Ge'ez abugida (or fidel ), the base form of the letter (also known as fidel ) may be altered. For example, ሀ hä [hə] (base form), ሁ hu (with a right-side diacritic that does not alter the letter), ሂ hi (with a subdiacritic that compresses the consonant, so it is the same height), ህ hə [hɨ] or [h] (where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm). In the family known as Canadian Aboriginal syllabics , which
2380-574: The Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī scripts ; the abjad in question is usually considered to be the Aramaic one, but while the link between Aramaic and Kharosthi is more or less undisputed, this is not the case with Brahmi. The Kharosthi family does not survive today, but Brahmi's descendants include most of the modern scripts of South and Southeast Asia . Ge'ez derived from a different abjad, the Sabean script of Yemen ;
2448-527: The aksharas ; there is no vowel-killer mark. Abjads are typically written without indication of many vowels. However, in some contexts like teaching materials or scriptures , Arabic and Hebrew are written with full indication of vowels via diacritic marks ( harakat , niqqud ) making them effectively alphasyllabaries. The Arabic scripts used for Kurdish in Iraq and for Uyghur in Xinjiang , China, as well as
2516-468: The virama character ် which suppresses the inherent vowel of the consonant letter. This mark is called asat in Burmese ( Burmese : အသတ် ; MLCTS : a.sat , [ʔa̰θaʔ] ), which means "nonexistence" (see Sat (Sanskrit) ). It is also used as a marginal tone marker, creating low-tone variants of the two inherently high-tone vowel symbols: ယ် which is the low tone variant /ɛ̀/ of ယ (by default /ɛ́/ ), and ◌ော် and ◌ေါ် both of which are
2584-425: The ◌ို combination, introduced in 1638. The standard tone markings found in modern Burmese can be traced to the 19th century. Certain sequences of consonants are written one atop the other, or stacked . A pair of stacked consonants indicates that no vowel is pronounced between them. For example, the word ကမ္ဘာ ( kambha ), which means "world", contains the stacked consonant မ္ဘ ( m-bh ). The first consonant
2652-507: The Bagan to Innwa periods (12th century – 16th century), and could be combined with other diacritics ( ya pin , ha hto and wa hswe ) to form ◌္လျ ◌္လွ ◌္လှ . Similarly, until the Innwa period, ya pin was also combined with ya yit to form ◌ျြ . From the early Bagan period to the 19th century, ဝ် was used instead of ◌ော် for the rhyme /ɔ̀/ . Early Burmese writing also used ဟ် , not
2720-407: The Burmese word for "self" (via Pali atta ) is spelt အတ္တ , not * အတ်တ , although both would be read the same. Stacked consonants are generally not found in native Burmese words, with a major exception being abbreviations. For example, the Burmese word သမီး "daughter" is sometimes abbreviated to သ္မီး , even though the stacked consonants do not belong to the same row in the ဝဂ် and
2788-508: The Hebrew script of Yiddish , are fully vowelled, but because the vowels are written with full letters rather than diacritics (with the exception of distinguishing between /a/ and /o/ in the latter) and there are no inherent vowels, these are considered alphabets, not abugidas. The Arabic script used for South Azerbaijani generally writes the vowel /æ/ (written as ə in North Azerbaijani) as
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2856-672: The Indic scripts, the earliest method was simply to arrange them vertically, writing the second consonant of the cluster below the first one. The two consonants may also merge as conjunct consonant letters, where two or more letters are graphically joined in a ligature , or otherwise change their shapes. Rarely, one of the consonants may be replaced by a gemination mark, e.g. the Gurmukhi addak . When they are arranged vertically, as in Burmese or Khmer , they are said to be 'stacked'. Often there has been
2924-558: The LearnBig project of UNESCO . Other resources include the Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University and an online learning resource published by the Ministry of Education, Taiwan. Syllable rhymes (i.e. vowels and any consonants that may follow them within the same syllable) are indicated in Burmese by a combination of diacritic marks and consonant letters marked with
2992-802: The Tatmadaw: Myanmar Armed Forces Since 1948 . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 9789812308481 . Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burma_Economic_Development_Corporation&oldid=1072066935 " Categories : Financial services companies of Myanmar Economic history of Myanmar Financial services companies established in 1961 Government agencies established in 1961 1961 establishments in Burma Economic development organizations Burmese alphabet The Burmese alphabet ( Burmese : မြန်မာအက္ခရာ myanma akkha.ya , pronounced [mjəmà ʔɛʔkʰəjà] )
3060-416: The combinations ◌ွိုင် and ◌ွိုက် to transcribe the /ɔɪ/ vowel of English. Combined to form ◌ုံ့ ◌ုံ ◌ုံး , which changes rhyme to /o̰ʊɰ̃ òʊɰ̃ óʊɰ̃/ One or more of these accents can be added to a consonant to change its sound. In addition, other modifying symbols are used to differentiate tone and sound, but are not considered diacritics. La hswe ( လဆွဲ ) was used in old Burmese from
3128-575: The consonant character. A consonant character with no vowel diacritic has the inherent vowel [a̰] (often reduced to [ə] when another syllable follows in the same word). The following table provides the letter, the syllable onset in IPA and the way the letter is referred to in Burmese, which may be either a descriptive name or just the sound of the letter, arranged in the traditional order: Consonant letters may be modified by one or more medial diacritics (three at most), indicating an additional consonant before
3196-463: The consonants to the point that they must be considered modifications of the form of the letters. Children learn each modification separately, as in a syllabary; nonetheless, the graphic similarities between syllables with the same consonant are readily apparent, unlike the case in a true syllabary . Though now an abugida, the Ge'ez script , until the advent of Christianity ( ca. AD 350 ), had originally been what would now be termed an abjad . In
3264-476: The consonants, often including a sign that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel. If a consonant has no vowel sign, this indicates a default vowel. Vowel diacritics may appear above, below, to the left, to the right, or around the consonant. The most widely used Indic script is Devanagari , shared by Hindi , Bihari , Marathi , Konkani , Nepali , and often Sanskrit . A basic letter such as क in Hindi represents
3332-423: The evolving phonology of the Burmese language. As with other Brahmic scripts , the Burmese alphabet is arranged into groups of five letters for stop consonants called wek (ဝဂ်, from Pali vagga ) based on articulation. Within each group, the first letter is tenuis ("plain"), the second is the aspirated homologue , the third and fourth are the voiced homologues and the fifth is the nasal homologue . This
3400-457: The examples above to sets of syllables in the Japanese hiragana syllabary: か ka , き ki , く ku , け ke , こ ko have nothing in common to indicate k; while ら ra , り ri , る ru , れ re , ろ ro have neither anything in common for r , nor anything to indicate that they have the same vowels as the k set. Most Indian and Indochinese abugidas appear to have first been developed from abjads with
3468-449: The high tone marker ◌း , which came into being in the 16th century. Moreover, အ် , which disappeared by the 16th century, was subscripted to represent creaky tone (now indicated with ◌့ ). During the early Bagan period, the rhyme /ɛ́/ (now represented with the diacritic ◌ဲ ) was represented with ◌ါယ် ). The diacritic combination ◌ိုဝ် disappeared in the mid-1750s (typically designated as Middle Burmese), having been replaced with
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#17330851077463536-572: The inherent vowel " a " would apply to the မ (i.e., * က မ ဘာ ka ma bha ). Stacked consonants are always homorganic (pronounced in the same place in the mouth), which is indicated by the traditional arrangement of the Burmese alphabet into the seven five-letter rows of letters (called ဝဂ် ). Consonants not found in the rows beginning with က, စ, ဋ, တ, or ပ can only be doubled — that is, stacked with themselves. Stacked consonants are largely confined to loan words from languages like Pali, Sanskrit, and occasionally English. For instance,
3604-778: The low tone variants /ɔ̀/ of ◌ော and ◌ေါ (by default /ɔ́/ ). In this context the ◌် symbol is called ရှေ့ထိုး /ʃḛtʰó/ . Generically referred to as ရေးချ /jéːtʃʰa̰/ this diacritic takes two distinct forms. By default it is written ◌ာ which is called ဝိုက်ချ /waɪʔtʃʰa̰/ for specificity, but to avoid ambiguity when following the consonants ခ ဂ င ဒ ပ ဝ , it is written tall as ◌ါ and called မောက်ချ /maʊʔtʃʰa̰/. Although typically not permissible in closed syllables, solitary ◌ာ or ◌ါ can be found in some words of Pali origin such as ဓာတ် (essence, element) or မာန် (pride). Generally only permissible in open syllables, but occasionally found in closed syllables in loan words such as မေတ္တာ (metta) Rarely found in
3672-405: The most common vowel. Several systems of shorthand use diacritics for vowels, but they do not have an inherent vowel, and are thus more similar to Thaana and Kurdish script than to the Brahmic scripts. The Gabelsberger shorthand system and its derivatives modify the following consonant to represent vowels. The Pollard script , which was based on shorthand, also uses diacritics for vowels;
3740-423: The placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates tone . Pitman shorthand uses straight strokes and quarter-circle marks in different orientations as the principal "alphabet" of consonants; vowels are shown as light and heavy dots, dashes and other marks in one of 3 possible positions to indicate the various vowel-sounds. However, to increase writing speed, Pitman has rules for "vowel indication" using
3808-454: The position of the /i/ vowel in Devanagari, which is written before the consonant. Pahawh is also unusual in that, while an inherent rime /āu/ (with mid tone) is unwritten, it also has an inherent onset /k/ . For the syllable /kau/ , which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt, it is /au/ that is written. Thus it is the rime (vowel) that is basic to the system. It
3876-553: The positioning or choice of consonant signs so that writing vowel-marks can be dispensed with. As the term alphasyllabary suggests, abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between alphabets and syllabaries . Historically, abugidas appear to have evolved from abjads (vowelless alphabets). They contrast with syllabaries, where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant-vowel combination, and where these have no systematic similarity to each other, and typically develop directly from logographic scripts . Compare
3944-467: The script does not have an inherent vowel for Arabic and Persian words. The inconsistency of its vowel notation makes it difficult to categorize. The imperial Mongol script called Phagspa was derived from the Tibetan abugida, but all vowels are written in-line rather than as diacritics. However, it retains the features of having an inherent vowel /a/ and having distinct initial vowel letters. Pahawh Hmong
4012-503: The script may be termed "alphabets". The terms also contrast them with a syllabary , in which a single symbol denotes the combination of one consonant and one vowel. Related concepts were introduced independently in 1948 by James Germain Février (using the term néosyllabisme ) and David Diringer (using the term semisyllabary ), then in 1959 by Fred Householder (introducing the term pseudo-alphabet ). The Ethiopic term "abugida"
4080-435: The syllable [sok] would be written as something like s̥̽, here with an underring representing /o/ and an overcross representing the diacritic for final /k/ . Most other Indic abugidas can only indicate a very limited set of final consonants with diacritics, such as /ŋ/ or /r/ , if they can indicate any at all. In Ethiopic or Ge'ez script , fidels (individual "letters" of the script) have "diacritics" that are fused with
4148-879: The time of nationalization, BEDC consisted of 42 separate firms, including Burma Beverage Co., Mandalay Brewery and Distillery, along with various chemical and paint, pharmaceutical, polyproducts, canning, shoes, garment manufacturers, book stores, housing and construction companies, fisheries, hardwood trading, hotel operators, and coal suppliers. References [ edit ] ^ Taylor, Robert H. (2009). The State in Myanmar . NUS Press. ^ Doing Business with Burma: Report . U.S. Department of Commerce. 1962. ^ Steinberg, David I. (2001). Burma: The State of Myanmar . Georgetown University Press. ^ Tucker, Shelby (2001). Burma: Curse of Independence . Pluto Press. ISBN 9780745315416 . ^ Maung Aung Myoe (2009). Building
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#17330851077464216-620: The various techniques above. Examples using the Devanagari script There are three principal families of abugidas, depending on whether vowels are indicated by modifying consonants by diacritics, distortion, or orientation. Lao and Tāna have dependent vowels and a zero vowel sign, but no inherent vowel. Indic scripts originated in India and spread to Southeast Asia , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Bhutan , Tibet , Mongolia , and Russia . All surviving Indic scripts are descendants of
4284-475: The vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable. In many abugidas, there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel, yielding the bare consonant. In Devanagari , प् is p, and फ् is ph . This is called the virāma or halantam in Sanskrit. It may be used to form consonant clusters , or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word. Thus in Sanskrit,
4352-529: The vowel. These diacritics are: A few Burmese dialects use an extra diacritic to indicate the /l/ medial, which has merged to /j/ in standard Burmese: All the possible diacritic combinations are listed below: Letters in the Burmese alphabet are written with a specific stroke order . The letter forms of the Burmese script are based on circles. Typically, one circle should be done with one stroke, and all circles are written clockwise. Exceptions are mostly letters with an opening on top. The circle of these letters
4420-522: The world, others include Indic/Brahmic scripts and Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics . The word abugida is derived from the four letters, ' ä, bu, gi, and da , in much the same way that abecedary is derived from Latin letters a be ce de , abjad is derived from the Arabic a b j d , and alphabet is derived from the names of the two first letters in the Greek alphabet , alpha and beta . Abugida as
4488-469: Was chosen as a designation for the concept in 1990 by Peter T. Daniels . In 1992, Faber suggested "segmentally coded syllabically linear phonographic script", and in 1992 Bright used the term alphasyllabary , and Gnanadesikan and Rimzhim, Katz, & Fowler have suggested aksara or āksharik . Abugidas include the extensive Brahmic family of scripts of Tibet, South and Southeast Asia, Semitic Ethiopic scripts, and Canadian Aboriginal syllabics . As
4556-438: Was inspired by the Devanagari script of India, vowels are indicated by changing the orientation of the syllabogram . Each vowel has a consistent orientation; for example, Inuktitut ᐱ pi, ᐳ pu, ᐸ pa; ᑎ ti, ᑐ tu, ᑕ ta . Although there is a vowel inherent in each, all rotations have equal status and none can be identified as basic. Bare consonants are indicated either by separate diacritics, or by superscript versions of
4624-489: Was suggested for the Indic scripts in 1997 by William Bright , following South Asian linguistic usage, to convey the idea that, "they share features of both alphabet and syllabary." The formal definitions given by Daniels and Bright for abugida and alphasyllabary differ; some writing systems are abugidas but not alphasyllabaries, and some are alphasyllabaries but not abugidas. An abugida is defined as "a type of writing system whose basic characters denote consonants followed by
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