69-406: Bulverhythe , also known as West St Leonards and Bo Peep , is a suburb of Hastings , East Sussex , England with its Esplanade and 15 ft thick sea wall. Bulverhythe is translated as "Burghers' landing place". It used to be under a small headland called Gallows Head, which was washed away by flooding. The suburbs of Filsham , West Marina and Harley Shute are nearby. Bulverhythe village
138-457: A "bailiff, jurats, and commonalty". Its importance was such that it also gave its name to one of the six Rapes or administrative districts of Sussex. By a Charter of Elizabeth I in 1589 the bailiff was replaced by a mayor, by which time the town's importance was dwindling. In the Georgian era , patronage of such seaside places (such as nearby Brighton ) gave it a new lease of life so that, when
207-404: A decline. As a seaport, Hastings' days were finished. Hastings had suffered over the years from the lack of a natural harbour, and there have been attempts to create a sheltered harbour. Attempts were made to build a stone harbour during the reign of Elizabeth I , but the sea destroyed the foundations in terrible storms. The fishing boats are still stored on and launched from the beach. Hastings
276-514: A different settlement, most likely that based on the Roman remains at Pevensey . Evidence of prehistoric settlements have been found at the town site: flint arrowheads and Bronze Age artefacts have been found. Iron Age forts have been excavated on both the East and West Hills. This suggests that the inhabitants moved early to the safety of the valley in between the forts. The settlement was already based on
345-518: A large transient workforce. Many of the people coming into Hastings at this time settled on some waste-ground to the west of the main town called the America Ground . This land, originally a shingle spit created by the great storm of 1287, was declared to be Crown Property after an inquiry held at Battle during 1827 and the land was cleared in preparation for the development of this area of land by Patrick Francis Robertson . Like many coastal towns,
414-544: A possible iron-working site near Blacklands Church in the town – the old name of 'Ponbay Bridge' for a bridge that used to exist in the area is a corruption of 'Pond Bay' as suggested by Thomas Ross (Mayor of Hastings and author of an 1835 guide book). With the departure of the Romans, the town suffered setbacks. The Beauport site was abandoned, and the town suffered from problems from nature and man-made attacks. The Sussex coast has always suffered from occasional violent storms; with
483-450: Is " Cfb " (Marine West Coast Climate/ Oceanic climate ). Some of the areas and suburbs of Hastings are Ore , St Leonards , Silverhill , West St Leonards , and Hollington . Ore, Silverhill and Hollington were once villages that have since become part of the Hastings conurbation area during rapid growth. The original part of St Leonards was bought by James Burton and laid out by his son,
552-517: Is a seaside town and borough in East Sussex on the south coast of England, 24 mi (39 km) east of Lewes and 53 mi (85 km) south east of London. The town gives its name to the Battle of Hastings , which took place 8 mi (13 km) to the north-west at Senlac Hill in 1066. It later became one of the medieval Cinque Ports . In the 19th century, it was a popular seaside resort , as
621-505: Is another site of biological interest, with alluvial meadows, and the largest reed bed in the county, providing habitat for breeding birds. It is in the West St Leonards ward, stretching into the parish of Crowhurst . The final SSSI, Hastings Cliffs to Pett Beach, is within the Ore ward of Hastings, extending into the neighbouring Fairlight and Pett parishes. The site runs along the coast and
690-553: Is located to the southwest of the area. The ancient village had a small harbour and pier, and is where the remains of the Amsterdam can be seen. The village was once in the confederation of the Cinque Ports , under the 'Limb' of Hastings . It helped supply one ship together with Petit Ihamme (originally Pyppels Ham and now the village of Pebsham). Filsham Manor was a house on Harley Shute Road dating back to Saxon times. The house
759-461: Is of both biological and geological interest. The cliffs hold many fossils and the site has many habitats, including ancient woodland and shingle beaches. As with the rest of the British Isles and Southern England, Hastings experiences a maritime climate with mild summers and mild winters. In terms of the local climate, Hastings is on the eastern edge of what is, on average, the sunniest part of
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#1733084846799828-557: Is probable that he ceded the overlordship of Haestingas to Ine as part of the treaty. In 771 King Offa of Mercia invaded Southern England, and over the next decade gradually seized control of Sussex and Kent. Symeon of Durham records a battle fought at an unidentified location near Hastings in 771, at which Offa defeated the Haestingas tribe , effectively ending its existence as a separate kingdom. By 790, Offa controlled Hastings effectively enough to confirm grants of land in Hastings to
897-532: Is the classical style church of St Mary in the Castle (its name recalling the old chapel in the castle above) now in use as an arts centre. Building the crescent and church necessitated further cutting away of the castle hill cliffs. Once that move away from the Old Town had begun, it led to the further expansion along the coast, eventually linking up with the new settlement of St Leonards . Such extensive development needed
966-657: Is the venue of the yearly pantomime and throughout the year hosts comedy, dance and music acts. The Stables stages more local productions and acts as an arts exhibition centre. An additional theatre is located in Cambridge Road, the Henry Ward Hall in a space shared with the His Place church in what used to be the Robertson Street United Reformed Church . There is a small four screen Odeon cinema in
1035-659: The Abbey of St Denis, in Paris. But, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 1011 relates that Vikings overran "all Kent, Sussex, Surrey and Haestingas", indicating the town was still considered a separate 'county' or province to its neighbours 240 years after Offa's conquest. During his reign, Athelstan established a royal mint in Hastings in AD 928. The start of the Norman Conquest was
1104-451: The Battle of Hastings , fought on 14 October 1066, although the battle itself took place 6 mi (9.7 km) to the northwest at Senlac Hill. William had landed on the coast between Hastings and Eastbourne at Pevensey. It is thought that the Norman encampment was on the town's outskirts, where there was open ground; a new town was already being built in the valley to the east. That "New Burgh"
1173-492: The Rape of Hastings , one of the six administrative divisions of Sussex. As a borough, Hastings had a corporation consisting of a "bailiff, jurats, and commonalty". By a charter of Elizabeth I in 1589, the bailiff was replaced by a mayor. Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Idrisi , writing c.1153, described Hastings as "a town of large extent and many inhabitants, flourishing and handsome, having markets, workpeople and rich merchants". By
1242-618: The parliamentary constituency of Hastings and Rye ; the current MP, since July 2024 , is Helena Dollimore of the Labour and Co-operative Party . Prior to 1983, the town formed the Hastings parliamentary constituency by itself. Hastings, it is thought, was a Saxon town before the arrival of the Normans: the Domesday Book refers to a new Borough : as a borough, Hastings had a corporation consisting of
1311-619: The sandstone beds, at the heart of the Weald , known geologically as the Hastings Sands, meet the English Channel , forming tall cliffs to the east of the town. Hastings Old Town is in a sheltered valley between the East Hill and West Hill (on which the remains of the Castle stand). In Victorian times and later the town has spread westwards and northwards, and now forms a single urban centre with
1380-717: The Cinema de Luxe in Hastings, and the Elite Cinema in St. Leonards, featured in a 1942 legal case, Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver , a leading case heard in the High Court and the Appeal Court , and ultimately resolved in the House of Lords , on the issue of company directors ' duty of loyalty to the company they direct. Senlac Hill Senlac Hill or Senlac Ridge is generally accepted as
1449-500: The Freeman analysis. John Horace Round published his "Feudal England: Historical Studies on the XIth and XIIth Centuries" in 1895 in which he strongly criticised the Freeman view. He pointed out that Senlac was not an English word and was simply a fad , if not an invention of Orderic Vitalis. The Norman chroniclers William of Jumièges and William of Poitiers , who were contemporary with
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#17330848467991518-634: The Hastings Bonfire Society stages a traditional Sussex Bonfire which includes a torchlight procession through the streets, a beach bonfire and firework display. Hastings Pirate Day takes place in July every year. Hastings, as of November 2017, still holds the Guinness World Record for the most pirates in one place. Other events include the Hastings Beer and Music Festival , held every July on
1587-592: The Norman powers. Whose name and honours now are denizened for ours. That boding, ominous brook !" From Michael Drayton 's Poly-Olbion 1612 Freeman suggested that Senlac meant Sand Lake in Old English , with the Norman conquerors calling it in French Sanguelac . Freeman regarded that use as a pun because the English translation of Sanguelac is "Blood Lake". Several historians disagreed with
1656-809: The Oval (Previously Alexandra Park), the Hastings Musical Festival held every March in the White Rock Theatre , the International Composers Festival split between Hastings and Bexhill during August and the Hastings International Chess Congress . There is also a small Wildman event in late January. There are two main theatres in the town, the White Rock Theatre and the Stables Theatre. The White Rock theatre
1725-493: The Priory Quarter, which still remains unfinished but now houses Saga offices, bringing 800 new jobs to the area. Hastings has an Army Cadet Force (ACF) detachment which is part of Sussex ACF . This detachment is based in the old Territorial Army Unit Building on Cinque Ports Way, and is affiliated to PWRR . Hastings also has a Royal Air Force Air Cadet Squadron, 304 (Hastings) Squadron of Sussex Wing RAFAC, based in
1794-704: The Priory Quarter. In 2002 the Hastings and Bexhill task force, set up by the South East England Development Agency , was founded to regenerate the local economy, a 10-year programme being set up to tackle the local reliance on public sector employment. The regeneration scheme saw the construction of the University Centre Hastings , (now known as the University of Brighton in Hastings) the new Sussex Coast College campus and construction of
1863-671: The UK, the stretch of coast from the Isle of Wight southeastern coast Sandown Bay to the Hastings area. Hastings, tied with Eastbourne, recorded the highest duration of sunshine of any month anywhere in the United Kingdom – 384 hours – in July 1911. Temperature extremes since 1960 at Hastings have ranged from 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) in July 2022, down to −9.8 °C (14.4 °F) in January 1987. The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate
1932-421: The additional hazard of longshore drift (the eastward movement of shingle along the coast), the coastline has frequently changed. The original Roman port is probably now under the sea. Bulverhythe was probably a harbour used by Danish invaders, which suggests that -hythe or hithe means a port or small haven. From the 6th century AD until 771, the people of the area around modern-day Hastings, identified
2001-422: The architect Decimus Burton , in the early 19th century as a new town: a place of elegant houses designed for the well-off. It also included a central public garden, a hotel, an archery, assembly rooms and a church . Today's St Leonards has extended well beyond that original design, although the original town still exists within it. The population of the town in 2001 was 85,029, by 2009 the estimated population
2070-546: The area Blood lake as a pun on the English Sand lake . It is probable that Orderic would have known the English name for Senlac , as he spent his early life in England since he had been born to an English mother. His education, towards the end of his time in England, was from an English monk. However, Freeman's hypothesis has been criticised by other historians since it relies purely on the evidence from Orderic Vitalis. Orderic
2139-450: The available funds. Today a fractured seawall is all that remains of what might have become a magnificent harbour. In 1897, the foundation stone was laid on a large concrete structure, but there was insufficient money to complete the work and the "Harbour Arm" remains uncompleted. In fact, during World War II, it was partly blown up to discourage possible use by German invasion forces. Between 1903 and 1919 Fred Judge FRPS photographed many of
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2208-549: The battle, did not record the site of the battle as Senlac , and the Chronicle of Battle Abbey simply recorded the location in Latin as Bellum ( Battle ). Later documents, however, indicate that the abbey had a tract of land known as Santlache (Sandlake) with the name Sandlake continuing for several centuries as a tithing in Battle. Freeman considered what Orderic Vitalis called
2277-493: The battlefield, Senlac , may have been a corruption of the original Anglo-Saxon name. Other scholars have suggested that the Anglo-Saxon form would have been scen-leag meaning "beautiful meadow". A further possibility of Senlac comes from the iron rich sandstone deposits within the local area and the local Wealden iron industry that started before the Roman invasion and carried until the late 1700s. Some have posited that
2346-525: The beach at Hastings in Sussex at approximately 00:45, directly in front of the Queens Hotel. The wreck was an attraction until it was dismantled in 1921. In the 1930s, the town underwent some rejuvenation. Seaside resorts were starting to go out of fashion, Hastings perhaps more than most. The town council set about a huge rebuilding project, among which the promenade was rebuilt, and an Olympic-size bathing pool
2415-545: The course of the battle (some sources say after the battle ) in which many soldiers of both sides fell and were trampled to death, the result being "rivulets of blood as far as one could see". In fact, there was a local legend that was maintained for centuries after the battle that the soil in the area turned red after a heavy rainfall. .." Asten once distained with native English blood; Whose soil, when yet but wet with any little rain, Doth blush, as put in mind of those there sadly slain, When Hastings' harbour gave unto
2484-554: The culmination of the Maydayrun —tens of thousands of motorcyclists having ridden the A21 to Hastings. The yearly carnival during Old Town Week takes place every August, which includes a week of events around Hastings Old Town , including a Seaboot race, bike race, street party and pram race . In September, there is a month-long arts festival 'Coastal Currents' and a Seafood and Wine Festival. During Hastings Week held each year around 14 October
2553-452: The designated boundaries of Hastings, and development on the outskirts is resisted by Rother council whose administrative area surrounds Hastings. Rother has a policy of urban expansion in the area immediately north of Bexhill, but this requires infrastructure improvements by central Governments which have been under discussion for decades. This situation has now become the subject of parliamentary consideration. Ethnicity in 2001 Until
2622-528: The development of tourism, fishing was Hastings' major industry. The fishing fleet, based at the Stade , remains Europe's largest beach-launched fishing fleet and has recently won accreditation for its sustainable methods. The fleet has been based on the same beach, below the cliffs at Hastings, for at least 400, possibly 600, years. Its longevity is attributed to the prolific fishing ground of Rye Bay nearby. Hastings fishing vessels are registered at Rye , and thus bear
2691-711: The end of the Saxon period, the port of Hastings had moved eastward near the present town centre in the Priory Stream valley, whose entrance was protected by the White Rock headland (since demolished). It was to be a short stay: Danish attacks and huge floods in 1011 and 1014 motivated the townspeople to relocate to the New Burgh. In the Middle Ages Hastings became one of the Cinque Ports ; Sandwich , Dover and New Romney were
2760-518: The first, followed by Hastings and Hythe then Rye and Winchelsea . At one point 42 towns were directly or indirectly affiliated with the group. In the 13th century, much of the town and part of Hastings Castle was washed away in the South England flood of February 1287 . During a naval campaign of 1339 , and again in 1377, the town was raided and burnt by the French, and seems then to have gone into
2829-582: The footbridge over the railway line at Bulverhythe. Bulverhythe was only served by a temporary station until the line extended to West Marina . The line was constructed by the Brighton, Lewes and Hastings Railway and when the South Eastern Railway line came from London and tunnelled through to St Leonards , Hastings and the Marshlink Line , a feud started between the companies. The junction for
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2898-574: The frontline garden displays. Decorative lighting has recently been installed. The Bulverhythe Salts was a site of a racecourse that was moved to the Saxon shoreway. In January 1921 a British tug was towing a German submarine in the English Channel when it broke adrift in a gale and was washed ashore at Bulverhythe. The U-boat was of a smaller type than the other that came ashore at Hastings in April 1919. The event
2967-452: The letters "RX" ( R ye, Susse X ). There are now various industrial estates that lie around the town, mostly on the outskirts, which include engineering, catering, motoring and construction; however, most of the jobs within the Borough are concentrated on health, public services, retail and education. 85% of the firms (in 2005) employed fewer than 10 people; as a consequence the unemployment rate
3036-556: The location in which Harold Godwinson deployed his army for the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. It is located near what is now the town of Battle, East Sussex . The name Senlac was popularised by the Victorian historian E. A. Freeman , based solely on a description of the battle by the Anglo-Norman chronicler Orderic Vitalis . Freeman went on to suggest that the Normans nicknamed
3105-447: The more suburban area of St Leonards-on-Sea to the west. Roads from the Old Town valley lead towards the Victorian area of Clive Vale and the former village of Ore , from which "The Ridge", marking the effective boundary of Hastings, extends north-westwards towards Battle . Beyond Bulverhythe , the western end of Hastings is marked by low-lying land known as Glyne Gap, separating it from Bexhill-on-Sea . The sandstone cliffs have been
3174-477: The name of Siward, who kept a school in the Abbey of SS Peter and Paul , at Shrewsbury . Although Orderic moved to a monastery in Normandy at the age of ten, he seems to have maintained his links with England. Freeman concluded that it was perfectly possible for Orderic to have known the English name of the ridge. The Chronicle of Battle Abbey described what it called Malfosse , a large ditch that opened up during
3243-466: The population of Hastings grew significantly as a result of the construction of railway links and the fashionable growth of seaside holidays during the Victorian era . In 1801, its population was a mere 3,175; by 1831, it had reached over ten thousand; by 1891, it was almost sixty thousand. The last harbour project began in 1896, but this also failed when structural problems and rising costs exhausted all
3312-559: The port when the Romans arrived in Britain for the first time in 55 BC. At this time, they began to exploit the iron (Wealden rocks provide a plentiful supply of the ore), and shipped it out by boat. Iron was worked locally at Beauport Park , to the north of the town. It employed up to one thousand men and is considered to have been the third-largest mine in the Roman Empire . There was also
3381-512: The railway allowed tourists and visitors to reach the town. Today, Hastings is a popular seaside resort and is still a fishing port with the UK's largest beach-based fishing fleet. Its estimated population was 91,100 in 2021. The first mention of Hastings is found in the late 8th century in the form Hastingas . This is derived from the Old English tribal name Hæstingas , meaning 'the constituency (followers) of Hæsta'. Symeon of Durham records
3450-450: The river valley further to the north. There are three Sites of Special Scientific Interest within the borough; Marline Valley Woods , Combe Haven and Hastings Cliffs To Pett Beach . Marline Valley Woods lies within the Ashdown ward of Hastings. It is an ancient woodland of Pedunculate oak — hornbeam which is uncommon nationally. Sussex Wildlife Trust own part of the site. Combe Haven
3519-449: The same building. The town also has a Sea Cadet squadron, T.S. Hastings . This sits adjacent to the Army and Air Cadet building on the seafront. The site features a climbing wall and other training facilities. Throughout the year many annual events take place in Hastings, the largest of which being the May Day bank holiday weekend, which features a Jack-in-the-Green festival (revived since 1983) and usually falls around 1–3 May, and
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#17330848467993588-499: The subject of considerable erosion in relatively recent times: much of the Castle was lost to the sea before the present sea defences and promenade were built, and a number of cliff-top houses are in danger of disappearing around the nearby village of Fairlight . The beach is mainly shingle , although wide areas of sand are uncovered at low tide. The town is generally built upon a series of low hills rising to 500 ft (150 m) above sea level at "The Ridge" before falling back in
3657-450: The territory as that of the Haestingas tribe and a kingdom separate from the surrounding kingdoms of Suth Saxe ("South Saxons", i.e. Sussex) and Kent . It worked to retain its separate cultural identity until the 11th century. The kingdom was probably a sub-kingdom, the object of a disputed overlordship by the two powerful neighbouring kingdoms: when King Wihtred of Kent settled a dispute with King Ine of Sussex & Wessex in 694, it
3726-415: The time came with the reform of English local government in 1888, Hastings became a County Borough , responsible for all its local services, independent of the surrounding county, then Sussex (East); less than one hundred years later, in 1974 , that status was abolished. Hastings Borough Council is now in the second tier of local government, below East Sussex County Council . Hastings is situated where
3795-445: The town became one of the most fashionable resorts in Britain, brought about by the assumed health-giving properties of seawater, as well as the local springs and Roman baths. Once this came about, the town expanded, westwards only as there was little space left in the valley. It was at this time that the elegant Pelham Crescent and Wellington Square were built; other building followed. In the Crescent (designed by architect Joseph Kay )
3864-406: The town centre include Queens Road, Wellington Place and Robertson Street. There are plans to expand the retail area in Hastings, which includes expanding Priory Meadow and creating more retail space as part of the Priory Quarter development. Priory was intended to have a second floor added to part of the retail area, which has not happened yet and so far only office space has been created as part of
3933-412: The town's events and disasters. These included storms, the first tram, visit of the Lord Mayor of London, Hastings Marathon Race and the pier fire of 1917. Many of these images were produced as picture postcards by the British Postcard manufacturer he founded now known as Judges Postcards . The German submarine U-118 was towed loose in a storm in the early morning of 15 April 1919 and ran aground on
4002-424: The town, located opposite the town hall; however, there are plans to build a new multiplex cinema as part of the Priory Quarter development in the town centre. The town has an independent cinema called the Electric Palace located in the Old Town and a restored cinema in St Leonards called the Kino Teatr. The new luxury 'Sussex Exchange' Cinema, bar and conference venue is situated in St. Leonards. The Regal cinema and
4071-561: The two routes, called Bo-Peep junction , was named after a nearby public house , which in turn came from the activities of smugglers and excise men. West Marina is now closed and, although both platforms and lights still remain, West St Leonards station is the only remaining station in this area. [REDACTED] Media related to Bulverhythe at Wikimedia Commons 50°51′00″N 0°31′23″E / 50.850°N 0.523°E / 50.850; 0.523 Hastings Hastings ( / ˈ h eɪ s t ɪ ŋ z / HAY -stingz )
4140-442: The victory of Offa in 771 over the Hestingorum gens , that is, "the people of the Hastings tribe." Hastingleigh in Kent was named after that tribe. The place name Hæstingaceaster is found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 1050, and may be an alternative name for Hastings. However, the absence of any archaeological remains of or documentary evidence for a Roman fort at Hastings suggest that Hæstingaceaster may refer to
4209-627: Was 3.3% ( cf. East Sussex 1.7%). However, qualification levels are similar to the national average: 8.2% of the working-age population have no qualifications while 28% hold degree-level qualifications or higher, compared with 11% and 31% respectively across England. Hastings main shopping centre is Priory Meadow Shopping Centre , which was built on the site of the old Central Recreation Ground which played host to some Sussex CCC first-class fixtures, and cricketing royalty such as Dr. W. G. Grace and Sir Don Bradman . The centre houses 56 stores and covers around 420,000 ft . Further retail areas in
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#17330848467994278-460: Was 86,900. Hastings suffers at a disadvantage insofar as growth is concerned because of its restricted situation, lying as it does with the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty to the north. Redevelopment of the area is partly hampered by the split administration of the combined Hastings and Bexhill economic region between Hastings and Rother District councils. There is little space for further large-scale housing and employment growth within
4347-403: Was born nine years after the Battle of Hastings, and earlier chroniclers did not use the name Senlac . The name Senlac was introduced into English history by the Victorian historian E.A. Freeman, whose only source for it was the Anglo-Norman chronicler Orderic Vitalis. Freeman suggested that Senlac was the correct name of the Battle of Hastings site since the name of the hill was Senlac and
4416-449: Was erected. The latter, regarded in its day as one of the best open-air swimming and diving complexes in Europe, later became a holiday camp before closing in 1986. It was demolished, but the area is still known by locals as "the Old Bathing Pool". The 2021 census reported 91,497 inhabitants. Hastings returned two Members of Parliament (MPs) from the 14th century until 1885, since when it has returned one. Since 1983, it has been part of
4485-437: Was founded in 1069 and is mentioned in the Domesday Book as such. William defeated and killed Harold Godwinson , the last Saxon King of England, and destroyed his army, opening England to the Norman conquest. William ordered a castle to be built at Hastings, probably using the earthworks of the existing Saxon castle. Hastings was shown as a borough by the time of the Domesday Book (1086); it had also given its name to
4554-416: Was near a stream that was called Santlache. Orderic described Harold's forces as assembling for the battle ad locum, qui Senlac antiquitus vocabatur and the battle itself as being fought in campo Senlac . Orderic was born in Atcham , Shropshire , England , the eldest son of a French priest, Odeler of Orléans and an English mother. When Orderic was five, his parents sent him to an English monk with
4623-410: Was rebuilt in 1682, and part of this remains today. In the east of the area lie West Marina Gardens which were designed by James Burton and are in between the West St Leonards and Burton's town of St Leonards . The land was purchased in 1886 and laid out as a pleasure garden by 1891. The site is well-used and includes a bowls green, putting course and formal gardens. It is at the western extreme of
4692-442: Was reported in the Hastings Observer with the headline: "Another Submarine Visitor!" Three tugs tried to refloat the submarine without success and after the hull was badly damaged by stormy seas, it was eventually dismantled. Another boat that washed up was the Dutch ship Amsterdam that set sail to Java but ended up running aground on the sandy strip in 1749. The remains can still be seen today at very low tide, just opposite
4761-420: Was then just a small fishing settlement, but it was soon discovered that the new taxes on luxury goods could be avoided by smuggling; the town was ideally located for that purpose. Near the castle ruins, on the West Hill, are " St Clement's Caves ", partly natural but mainly excavated by hand by smugglers from the soft sandstone. Their trade was to come to an end with the period following the Napoleonic Wars , for
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