A dowry is a payment, such as land property, monetary, cattle or any commercial asset that is paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage.
101-440: A bulak or bulaki is an ornament or jewellery item that is a part of traditional attire of women ni Northern India and Nepal. Bulak is a type of nose ring worn at the nasal septum. It is usually worn by married women and is generally made out of 10-12 gram pure gold. It is peculiarly designed by the skillful goldsmiths who carve intricate motif designs on it. The average length of a bulak can be up to 4–5 cm along with
202-463: A reverse auction was needed to determine the dowry to be paid to a swain. In case of divorce without reason, a man was required to give his wife the dowry she brought as well as the bride price the husband gave. The return of dowry could be disputed, if the divorce was for a reason allowed under Babylonian law. A wife's dowry was administered by her husband as part of the family assets. He had no say, however, in its ultimate disposal; and legally,
303-433: A Russian advice book of the 16th century for upper classes, includes advice to set aside property for purposes of a dowry, and use it to accumulate linens, clothing, and other things for it, rather than have to suddenly buy it all for the wedding; if the daughter should happen to die, the dowry should be used to give alms and for prayers for her soul, although some might be set aside for other daughters. In late Tsarist Russia
404-492: A bride they care nothing whether she has a dowry and a handsome fortune, but look only to her beauty and other advantages of the outward person. Arrian , The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great , 3rd century BC Arrian's second book similarly notes, They (Indians) marry without either giving or taking dowries, but the women as soon as they are marriageable are brought forward by their fathers in public, to be selected by
505-625: A clear indicator of Greek influence in Etruscan jewellery. The modelling of heads, which was a typical practice from the Greek severe period, was a technique that spread throughout the Etruscan territory. An even clearer evidence of new influences is the shape introduced in the Orientalizing era: The Bullae. A pear-shaped vessel used to hold perfume. Its surface was usually decorated with repoussé and engraved symbolic figures. Dowry Dowry contrasts with
606-591: A different instrument than on the Continent. The Salic law , which required females to be disinherited and disenfranchised from land ownership, did not apply in England. Single women held many rights men did. The most famous example of this English female inheritance and agency right is perhaps Elizabeth I of England , who held all rights a male monarch did. While single women held rights to hold property equivalent to those of men, marriage and married women were affected by
707-412: A dowry. Gioachino Rossini 's opera La Cenerentola makes this economic basis explicit: Don Magnifico wishes to make his own daughters' dowries larger, to attract a grander match, which is impossible if he must provide a third dowry. One common penalty for the kidnapping and rape of an unmarried woman was that the abductor or rapist had to provide the woman's dowry. Until the late 20th century this
808-445: A fourth of the remaining wealth to her upkeep till she is ready to marry, and then give the rest to her to take with her into her married life. Dowry was common in different historic periods of China and continued through the modern history. Locally called " 嫁妝 ( Jiàzhuāng ), the dowry ranged from land, jewelry, money to a collection of clothing, sewing equipment and collection of household items. Mann and others find that dowry
909-482: A historical correlation between the practices of "diverging devolution" (dowry) and the development of intensive plough agriculture on the one hand, and homogeneous inheritance (brideprice) and extensive hoe agriculture on the other. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup , Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place, most of
1010-517: A hook-like end, so that it could be worn easily. The bottom part of a bulak has intricate carving on it and the pearls are in a conical shape giving it an elegant look. The hook at which the bulaq is worn, resembles the inverted 'U' of the English alphabet. Bulaks previously on display at the V&;A museum. In former years, it was adorned by the women of Garhwal , Kumaon and of Jaunsar belt. But nowadays
1111-602: A joint family. She would often sell this property for cash to overcome hard economic times or needs of her children and husband. In a few cases, she may transfer the property she brought as dowry to her daughter or daughter-in-law. Dowry assets once transferred in turn constituted separate wealth of the woman who received it ( sifang qian , etc.). Often a woman who brought a large dowry was considered more virtuous in Chinese culture than one who didn't. In parts of China, both dowry and brideprice ( pinjin ) were practiced from ancient eras to
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#17328873908921212-451: A money dowry. In Romania in the late 18th and early 19th centuries (1750–1830s) the exclusion of dowered girls from the family inheritance led to increased cohesion within the nuclear family. The wife's male relatives controlled the dowry but she retained sole ownership of the dowry and wedding gifts. Her relatives could prosecute the husband for squandering a dowry; wives gained some ability to leave an abusive marriage. The long-term result
1313-567: A natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will give a British Assay office (the body which gives U.K. jewellery its stamp of approval, the Hallmark ) the right to destroy the piece, however, it is very rare for the assay office to do so. Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass, gemstones, metal, wood , shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces , bracelets , earrings , belts and rings . Beads may be large or small;
1414-1172: A negligent husband, and may eventually go to provide for her children. Dowries may also go toward establishing a marital household, and therefore might include furnishings such as linens and furniture. Locally, dowry or trousseau is called jahez in Urdu , jahizie in Persian and Arabic ; dahej in Hindi , dāj in Punjabi , daijo in Nepali , çeyiz in Turkish , joutuk in Bengali , jiazhuang in Mandarin , varadhachanai in Tamil , khatnam in Telugu , streedhanam in Malayalam , miraz in Serbo-Croatian and in various parts of Africa
1515-416: A new household. Dos was given for the purpose of enabling the husband to sustain the charges of the marriage state (onera matrimonii). All the property of the wife which was not dowry, or was not a donatio propter nuptias, continued to be her own property, and was called Parapherna . The dowry could include any form of property, given or promised at the time of marriage, but only what remained after deducting
1616-938: A responsible and modern alternative to mined diamonds. Retailers are responding to this trend by expanding their offerings of lab-grown diamond jewellery, further solidifying their place in the market. Many precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are: Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meaning that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic, meaning that they are generally composed of and arise from minerals. Some gems, for example, amethyst , have become less valued as methods of extracting and importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, such as cubic zirconia , which can be used in place of diamonds. For platinum , gold , and silver jewellery, there are many techniques to create finishes. The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed , and hammered. High-polished jewellery
1717-448: A ring can be classified: prong, bezel and tension setting. Synthetic diamonds, also referred to as lab-grown diamonds, are created using advanced technological processes such as High-Pressure High-Temperature (HPHT) and Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) . These methods result in diamonds that are chemically and physically identical to natural diamonds , offering the same brilliance and durability. The popularity of synthetic diamonds in
1818-602: A rounded steel hammer and hammering the jewellery to give it a wavy texture . Some jewellery is plated to give it a shiny, reflective look or to achieve a desired colour. Sterling silver jewellery may be plated with a thin layer of 0.999 fine silver (a process known as flashing) or plated with rhodium or gold. Base metal costume jewellery may also be plated with silver, gold, or rhodium for a more attractive finish. Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, only certain ranks could wear rings and later, sumptuary laws dictated who could wear what type of jewellery. This
1919-470: A status symbol, for its material properties, its patterns, or for meaningful symbols. Jewellery has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings , and even genital jewellery . In modern European culture the amount worn by adult males is relatively low compared with other cultures and other periods in European culture. The word jewellery itself is derived from the word jewel , which
2020-560: A stone bracelet and marble ring are attributed to a similar age. Later, the European early modern humans had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth, berries, and stone hung on pieces of string or animal sinew , or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. A decorated engraved pendant (the Star Carr Pendant ) dating to around 11,000 BC, and thought to be
2121-461: A two-to-one margin. In French and a few other European languages the equivalent term, joaillerie , may also cover decorated metalwork in precious metal such as objets d'art and church items, not just objects worn on the person. Humans have used jewellery for a number of different reasons: Most cultures at some point have had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures store wedding dowries in
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#17328873908922222-548: A war zone and sold to finance an insurgency . The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond , part of the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats (621.35 g). Now popular in engagement rings , this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477. A popular style is the diamond solitaire, which features a single large diamond mounted prominently. Within solitaire, there are three categories in which
2323-400: A woman's death it was sold at the souk and recycled or sold to passers-by. Islamic jewellery from before the 19th century is thus exceedingly rare. The history of jewellery is long and goes back many years, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked. The earliest known Jewellery
2424-523: A woman's dowry was often returned to her family. Coverture never applied universally in Britain and was repealed in the 1800s. This effectively ended the concept of dowry as the property of a single woman was either retained by her after marriage or its income became marital property under joint control with a husband (not under his sole control as in coverture). In some parts of Europe, especially Eastern Europe, land dowries were common. The Domostroy ,
2525-456: Is also very popular in many African and indigenous North American cultures. Silversmiths , goldsmiths , and lapidaries use methods including forging , casting , soldering or welding , cutting, carving and "cold-joining" (using adhesives , staples and rivets to assemble parts). Diamonds were first mined in India . Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some debate as to
2626-558: Is an ancient custom that is mentioned in some of the earliest writings, and its existence may well predate records of it. Dowries continue to be expected and demanded as a condition to accept a marriage proposal in some parts of the world, mainly in parts of Asia . The custom of dowry is most common in strongly patrilineal cultures that expect women to reside with or near their husband's family ( patrilocality ). Dowries have long histories in Europe , South Asia , Africa , and other parts of
2727-533: Is an evolutionary model in which these historical variables may not be the decisive factors today. Susan Mann argues, in contrast, with examples where even in late Imperial China, dowry was a form of female inheritance. Stanley J. Tambiah later argued that Goody's overall thesis remained pertinent in North India , although it required modification to meet local circumstances. He points out that dowry in North India
2828-465: Is based on interpreting verses of ancient Sanskrit scriptures from India, not eyewitness accounts. Available eyewitness observations from ancient India give a different picture. One of these are the eyewitness records from Alexander the Great 's conquest ( ca . 300 BC), as recorded by Arrian and Megasthenes. Arrian's first book mentions a lack of dowry, They (these ancient Indian people) make their marriages accordance with this principle, for in selecting
2929-489: Is known as serotwana , idana , saduquat or mugtaf . Anthropologist Jack Goody 's comparative study of dowry systems around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated that dowry is a form of inheritance found in the broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland that practice "diverging devolution", i.e., that transmit property to children regardless of sex. This practice differs from
3030-458: Is only partially used as a bride's conjugal fund, and that a large part goes directly to the groom's joint family. This would initially seem to discount Goody's model, except that in North India, the joint family is composed of the groom's parents, his married brothers and unmarried sisters, and their third generation children. This joint family controlled this part of the dowry, which they used to help fund their own daughter/sister's dowries. But when
3131-648: Is the 'Gold Olive Wreath' (4th century BC), which is modeled on the type of wreath given as a prize for winners in athletic competitions like the Olympic Games. Jewellery dating from 600 to 475 BC is not well represented in the archaeological record, but after the Persian wars the quantity of jewellery again became more plentiful. One particularly popular type of design at this time was a bracelet decorated with snake and animal-heads Because these bracelets used considerably more metal, many examples were made from bronze. By 300 BC,
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3232-419: Is the most common and gives the metal a highly reflective, shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of the jewellery, and this is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds . Brushed finishes give the jewellery a textured look and are created by brushing a material (similar to sandpaper) against the metal, leaving "brush strokes". Hammered finishes are typically created using
3333-436: Is the type of property controlled by the household. Bridewealth circulates property and women, and is typical of societies where property is limited. Dowry concentrates property and is found in property owning classes or commercial or landed pastoral peoples. When families give dowry, they not only ensure their daughter's economic security, they also "buy" the best possible husband for her, and son-in-law for themselves. Even in
3434-423: Is usually sterling silver , or 92.5% fine silver. In costume jewellery , stainless steel findings are sometimes used. Other commonly used materials include glass , such as fused-glass or enamel ; wood , often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory ; natural clay ; polymer clay ; Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of
3535-457: The Norman Conquest changes to the law in the 12th century. Coverture was introduced to the common law in some jurisdictions, requiring property of a wife to be held in the husband's name, custody and control. The Normans also introduced the dowry in England replacing the earlier custom of the new husband giving a morning gift to his bride. At first the husband publicly gave the dowry at
3636-664: The Royal Cemetery of Ur , where hundreds of burials dating 2900–2300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that of Puabi contained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria , men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including amulets , ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and cylinder seals . Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and
3737-678: The (proposed) wife may give it back to him of her own will (if she does not want to marry). Al-Biruni , Chapter on Matrimony in India , about 1035 AD Al-Biruni further claims that a daughter, in 11th-century India, had legal right to inherit from her father, but only a fourth part of her brother. The daughter took this inheritance amount with her when she married, claimed Al-Biruni, and she had no rights to income from her parents after her marriage or to any additional inheritance after her father's death. If her father died before her marriage, her guardian would first pay off her father's debt, then allocate
3838-467: The 20th century. Though throughout the history of China, the practice of using a brideprice has largely been used instead of dowries, but has slowly diminished in modern times. Dowry was widely practiced in Europe until the early modern era. Folklorists often interpret the folk tale Cinderella as the competition between the stepmother and the stepdaughter for resources, which may include the need to provide
3939-718: The Archconfraternity of the Annunciation, a Roman charity dedicated to providing dowries, received the entire estate of Pope Urban VII . In 1425, the Republic of Florence created a public fund, called the Monte delle doti , to provide dowries to Florentine brides. Vast inheritances were standard as dowries for aristocratic and royal brides in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Portuguese crown gave two cities in India and Morocco as dowry to
4040-705: The Berber cultures is a style of traditional jewellery worn by women and girls in the rural areas of the Maghreb region in North Africa inhabited by indigenous Berber people (in Berber language : Amazigh, Imazighen , pl). Following long social and cultural traditions, the silversmiths of different ethnic Berber groups of Morocco, Algeria and neighbouring countries created intricate jewellery to adorn their women and that formed part of their ethnic identity . Traditional Berber jewellery
4141-514: The British Crown in 1661 when King Charles II of England married Catherine of Braganza , a princess of Portugal. In some cases, nuns were required to bring a dowry when joining a convent . At some times, such as Ancien Régime France, convents were also used by some parents to put less attractive daughters, so that the more marriageable daughters could have larger dowries. Ancien Régime families that could not provide proper dowries also used
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4242-511: The English aristocracy sent few of their eligible daughters to convents. Failure to provide a customary, or agreed-upon, dowry could cause a marriage to be called off. William Shakespeare made use of such an event in King Lear : one of Cordelia's suitors gives up his suit upon hearing that King Lear will give her no dowry. In Measure for Measure , Claudio and Juliet's premarital sex was brought about by their families' wrangling over dowry after
4343-453: The Gods. They worked two styles of pieces: cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered. It was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. The two-halves were then joined, and wax , followed by molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age . The more common form of jewellery
4444-599: The Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive. Numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia , with only one example ever found anywhere else. Gorgons, pomegranates, acorns, lotus flowers and palms were
4545-558: The Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts , pearl , and emeralds . Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx , a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed, the designs grew in complexity and different materials were soon used. Jewellery in Greece
4646-517: The Kurgan settlement of Yunatsite near Pazardzhik , the golden treasure Sakar, as well as beads and gold jewellery found in the Kurgan settlement of Provadia – Solnitsata ("salt pit"). However, Varna gold is most often called the oldest since this treasure is the largest and most diverse. By approximately 5,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities of Mesopotamia . The most significant archaeological evidence comes from
4747-562: The Museum of Ancient History in Lower Austria revealed that they had found a grave of a female jewellery worker – forcing archaeologists to take a fresh look at prehistoric gender roles after it appeared to be that of a female fine metal worker – a profession that was previously thought to have been carried out exclusively by men. The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt
4848-599: The Mycenaean period, but unfortunately this skill was lost at the end of the Bronze Age. The forms and shapes of jewellery in ancient Greece such as the armring (13th century BC), brooch (10th century BC) and pins (7th century BC), have varied widely since the Bronze Age as well. Other forms of jewellery include wreaths, earrings, necklace and bracelets. A good example of the high quality that gold working techniques could achieve in Greece
4949-448: The U.S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s. Some religions have specific rules or traditions surrounding jewellery (or even prohibiting it) and many religions have edicts against excessive display. Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as Haraam . The majority of Islamic jewellery was in the form of bridal dowries , and traditionally was not handed down from generation to generation; instead, on
5050-810: The Western practice of married people wearing wedding rings). Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or to ward off evil is common in some cultures. These may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh ), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa ), or glyphs (such as stylised versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art ). In creating jewellery, gemstones , coins , or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals . Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95% pure). The silver used in jewellery
5151-558: The beginning of 20th century, bridewealth , rather than dowry was the common custom, which often resulted in poor boys remaining unmarried. Stanley J. Tambiah claims the ancient Code of Manu sanctioned dowry and bridewealth in ancient India (typically in Rohtak) and especially in Kadia families, but dowry was the more prestigious form and associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) caste. Bridewealth
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#17328873908925252-423: The betrothal. Angelo's motive for forswearing his betrothal with Mariana was the loss of her dowry at sea. In Victorian England , dowries were viewed by some members of the upper class as an early payment of the daughter's inheritance . In some instances, daughters who had not received their dowries were the only female heirs entitled to part of the estate when their parents died. If a couple died without children,
5353-469: The body or the clothes. From a western perspective, the term is restricted to durable ornaments , excluding flowers for example. For many centuries metal such as gold often combined with gemstones , has been the normal material for jewellery, but other materials such as glass, shells and other plant materials may be used. Jewellery is one of the oldest types of archaeological artefact – with 100,000-year-old beads made from Nassarius shells thought to be
5454-653: The church door at the wedding. If the husband died first, which was frequent, there was a Widows dowry of one third of the husband's lands at the time of his marriage; the income, and in some cases, the management, of the lands, was assigned to her for the rest of her life. This concept is included in the Great Charter , and along with the recognition of female inheritance and absence of the Salic law , and women, particularly single women, holding many rights equivalent to those men held, manifests English law differing fundamentally from
5555-548: The convents as places to put their daughters. In the County of Bentheim in Lower Saxony , for instance, parents who had no sons might give a land dowry to their new son-in-law. It was commonly given with the condition that he take the surname of his bride, in order to continue the family name. Dowry was used in England. However, the right of daughters to inherit and of women to hold property and other rights in their own name made it
5656-403: The debts. Not only the bride's family, any person could donate his property as dowry for the woman. Two types of dowry were known— dos profectitia and dos adventitia . That dos is profectitia which was given by the father or father's father of the bride. All other dos is adventitia. Roman law also allowed for a species of dowry, called dos receptitia , which was given by some other person than
5757-439: The dowry had to be kept separate for it was expected to support the wife and her children. The wife was entitled to her dowry at her husband's death. If she died childless, her dowry reverted to her family, that is her father if he was alive, otherwise her brothers. If she had sons, they would share it equally. Her dowry was inheritable only by her own children, not by her husband's children or by other women. In archaic Greece ,
5858-463: The dowry in one lump sum. The practice of dowry in the Indian subcontinent is a controversial subject. Some scholars believe dowry was practiced in antiquity, but some do not. Historical eyewitness reports (discussed below) suggest dowry in ancient India was insignificant, and daughters had inheritance rights, which by custom were exercised at the time of her marriage. Documentary evidence suggests that at
5959-423: The dowry originally consisted of clothing for the bride, linen, and bedding. Linen became less common, a fact blamed on poor flax harvest and girls being poor spinners, but emphasis was added to the finest of the clothing, and a money dowry was sometimes added, particularly if the bride was regarded as having some fault. Prospective in-laws, usually concerned mostly with her working ability, grew more concerned about
6060-430: The dowry. According to Herodotus , auctions of maidens were held annually. The auctions began with the woman the auctioneer considered to be the most beautiful and progressed to the least. It was considered illegal to allow a daughter to be sold outside of the auction method. Attractive maidens were offered in an auction to determine the bride price to be paid by a swain, while in the case of maidens lacking attractivity
6161-466: The exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas . In 2005, Australia , Botswana , Russia and Canada ranked among the primary sources of gemstone diamond production. There are negative consequences of the diamond trade in certain areas. Diamonds mined during the recent civil wars in Angola , Ivory Coast , Sierra Leone , and other nations have been labeled as blood diamonds when they are mined in
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#17328873908926262-434: The father or father of the bride's father, in consideration of marriage, but on the condition that it should be restored back to the dowry giver, on the death of the wife. The bride's family were expected to give a dowry when a girl married, and in proportion to their means. It was customary for the bride's family and friends to pay promised dowries in installments over three years, and some Romans won great praise by delivering
6363-557: The five fingers of the hand and is traditionally believed both by Muslims as well as Jewish people to protect against the evil eye . The oldest gold jewellery in the world is dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC and was discovered in Europe, at the site of Varna Necropolis , near the Black Sea coast in Bulgaria . Several prehistoric Bulgarian finds are considered no less old – the golden treasures of Hotnitsa, Durankulak , artifacts from
6464-439: The form of jewellery or make jewellery as a means to store or display coins. Alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good to buy and sell. an example being the use of slave beads . Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles , originated as purely functional items, but evolved into decorative items as their functional requirement diminished. Similarly, Tiffany & Co . produced inkwells in
6565-587: The groom's family gave the bridewealth, it tended to be given back as dowry to the bride as part of her conjugal estate. Michael Witzel , in contrast, claims the ancient Indian literature suggests dowry practices were not significant during the Vedic period. Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had property inheritance rights either by appointment or when they had no brothers. The findings of MacDonell and Keith are similar to Witzel, and differ from Tambiah; they cite ancient Indian literature suggesting bridewealth
6666-548: The jewellery had significance. Green, for example, symbolised fertility. Lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the country's borders. Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies. Jewellery of
6767-465: The jewellery market has increased significantly due to several factors. Their typically lower price compared to natural diamonds makes them an appealing choice for many consumers. Additionally, the ethical implications of synthetic diamonds have garnered attention, particularly their potential to eliminate the risks associated with conflict diamonds , which are mined in war zones and often used to finance armed conflict. From an environmental perspective,
6868-519: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, skillfully combining materials like enamel and fine metals, reflecting the same craftsmanship seen in their jewellery collections. These inkwells were not only practical but also artistic in design. Jewellery can symbolise group membership (as in the case, of the Christian crucifix or the Jewish Star of David ) or status (as in the case of chains of office , or
6969-458: The law of the Continent, especially the law of the Holy Roman Empire . Thirteenth-century court records are filled with disputes over dowries, and the law became increasingly complex. The English dowry system permitted most noble families to marry off their daughters and thereby gain extended kin and patronage ties. Marriageable daughters were a valuable commodity to ambitious fathers, and
7070-410: The majority of Sub-Saharan African societies that practice "homogenous inheritance" in which property is transmitted only to children of the same sex as the property holder. These latter African societies are characterized by the transmission of the " bride price ", the money, goods or property given by the groom or his family to the parents of the bride (not the bride herself). Goody has demonstrated
7171-460: The oldest Mesolithic art in Britain, was found at the site of Star Carr in North Yorkshire in 2015. In southern Russia , carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant . Around seven thousand years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen. In October 2012,
7272-519: The oldest available records, such as the Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon , the dowry is described as an already-existing custom. Daughters did not normally inherit any of her father's estate. Instead, with marriage, the bride got a dowry from her parents, which was intended to offer her as much lifetime security as her family could afford. In Babylonia, both bride price and dowry auctions were practiced. However, bride price almost always became part of
7373-602: The oldest known jewellery. The basic forms of jewellery vary between cultures but are often extremely long-lived; in European cultures the most common forms of jewellery listed above have persisted since ancient times, while other forms such as adornments for the nose or ankle, important in other cultures, are much less common. Jewellery may be made from a wide range of materials. Gemstones and similar materials such as amber and coral , precious metals , beads , and shells have been widely used, and enamel has often been important. In most cultures jewellery can be understood as
7474-485: The parents die, and the joint family partitions, this jointly held wealth was then divided among the married sons, such that ultimately, the bride's dowry given to the joint family returned to her and her husband as their "conjugal fund." Schlegel and Eloul expanded on Goody's model through further statistical analysis of the Ethnographic atlas. They argue that a major factor in determining the type of marriage transaction
7575-505: The production of synthetic diamonds generally has a smaller ecological footprint than traditional diamond mining , which can result in extensive land degradation and habitat destruction. While lab-grown diamonds do require energy for their production, many companies are actively adopting renewable energy sources to mitigate their environmental impact. As consumer preferences evolve, particularly among younger generations who prioritize sustainability, synthetic diamonds are increasingly seen as
7676-425: The property within the nuclear family. Close family are the preferred marriage partners so as to keep property within the group. There is a scholarly debate on Goody's theory. Sylvia Yanagisko argues, for example, that there are a number of societies including parts of Japan, Southern Italy, and China, that do not support Goody's claim that dowry is a form of female inheritance of male property. She notes that Goody's
7777-431: The related concepts of bride price and dower . While bride price or bride service is a payment by the groom , or his family, to the bride, or her family, dowry is the wealth transferred from the bride, or her family, to the groom, or his family. Similarly, dower is the property settled on the bride herself, by the groom at the time of marriage, and which remains under her ownership and control. Traditionalist dowry
7878-458: The root of paraphernalia ) and is referred to as paraphernal property or extra-dotal property . A dowry may also have served as a form of protection for the wife against the possibility of ill treatment by her husband and his family, providing an incentive for the husband not to harm his wife. This would apply in cultures where a dowry was expected to be returned to the bride's family if she died soon after marrying. In contemporary Greece, dowry
7979-417: The slang term bling-bling , which refers to the ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women. Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularise wedding rings for men, which caught on, as well as engagement rings for men, which did not, go so far as to create a false history and claim that the practice had medieval roots. By the mid-1940s, 85% of weddings in
8080-477: The smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads , these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewellery. Seed beads are also used in an embroidery technique where they are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of handwork during the Victorian era , is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery making. Beading, or beadwork,
8181-580: The trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery: The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1600 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. Around 1500 BC, the main techniques of working gold in Greece included casting, twisting bars, and making wire. Many of these sophisticated techniques were popular in
8282-516: The trend for bulak is diminishing and considered an old fashion. Apart from Uttarakhand, it is also worn in the state of Himachal Pradesh and in Nepal . Jewellery Jewellery (or jewelry in American English ) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment such as brooches , rings , necklaces , earrings , pendants , bracelets , and cufflinks . Jewellery may be attached to
8383-426: The usual practice was to give a bride price ( hédnon ( ἕδνον )). Dowries ( pherné ( φερνή )) were exchanged by the later classical period (5th century B.C). A husband had certain property rights in his wife's dowry. In addition, the wife might bring to the marriage property of her own, which was not included in the dowry and which was, as a result, hers alone. This property was "beyond the dowry" (Greek parapherna ,
8484-523: The victor in wrestling or boxing or running or someone who excels in any other manly exercise. Arrian, Indika in Megasthenes and Arrian, 3rd century BC The two sources suggest dowry was absent, or infrequent enough to be noticed by Arrian. About 1200 years after Arrian's visit, another eyewitness scholar visited India named Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī , also known as Al-Biruni, or Alberonius in Latin. Al-Biruni
8585-444: The work is done by women. These are the societies that give brideprice . Boserup further associates shifting horticulture with the practice of polygamy , and hence bridewealth is paid as a compensation to her family for the loss of her labour. In plough agriculture farming is largely men's work; this is where dowry is given. In contrast, plough agriculture is associated with private property and marriage tends to be monogamous, to keep
8686-487: The world. A dowry is the transfer of parental property to a daughter at her marriage (i.e. "inter vivos") rather than at the owner's death ( mortis causa ). (This is a completely different definition of dowry to that given at the top of the article, which demonstrates how the term ‘dowry’ causes confusion.) A dowry (or dower ) establishes a type of conjugal fund, the nature of which may vary widely. This fund may provide an element of financial security in widowhood or against
8787-572: Was anglicised from the Old French " jouel ", and beyond that, to the Latin word " jocale ", meaning plaything. In British English , Indian English , New Zealand English , Hiberno-English , Australian English , and South African English it is spelled jewellery. At the same time, the spelling is jewelry in American English . Both are used in Canadian English . However, jewellery prevails by
8888-439: Was a form of inheritance to daughters. In traditional China, the property owned by a family, if any, was earmarked for equal division or inheritance by sons only. Dowry was the only way assets were transferred to a daughter. It included immovable property such as land, and movable property like jewelry and fine clothing. The dowry she brought with her was typically sequestered from the property of her husband and other male members in
8989-510: Was actually created not by modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) but by Neanderthal living in Europe. Specifically, perforated beads made from small seashells have been found dating to 115,000 years ago in the Cueva de los Aviones, a cave along the southeast coast of Spain. Later in Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto , beads made from perforated ostrich eggshells have been dated to more than 40,000 years ago. In Russia,
9090-465: Was also based on the rank of the citizens of that time. Cultural dictates have also played a significant role. For example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was considered effeminate in the 19th century and early 20th century. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings , has become a mark of acceptance or seen as a badge of courage within some groups but is completely rejected in others. Likewise, hip hop culture has popularised
9191-466: Was an Islamic era Persian scholar who went and lived in India for 16 years from 1017 CE. He translated many Indian texts into Arabic, as well as wrote a memoir on Indian culture and life he observed. Al-Biruni claimed, The implements of the wedding rejoicings are brought forward. No gift (dower or dowry) is settled between them. The man gives only a present to the wife, as he thinks fit, and a marriage gift in advance, which he has no right to claim back, but
9292-484: Was around 3,000–5,000 years ago. The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals. In Predynastic Egypt jewellery soon began to symbolise political and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods . In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass , along with semi-precious gems. The colour of
9393-486: Was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu and other ancient Indian scribes. Lochtefeld suggests that religious duties listed by Manu and others, such as 'the bride be richly adorned to celebrate marriage' were ceremonial dress and jewelry along with gifts that were her property, not property demanded by or meant for the groom; Lochtefeld further notes that bridal adornment is not currently considered as dowry in most people's mind. The above analysis by various scholars
9494-441: Was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status, and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the " evil eye " or endowed the owner with supernatural powers , while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to
9595-451: Was paid even in brahma- and daiva-types of marriage associated with the Brahmanic (priestly) upper caste. Dowry was not infrequent, when the girl suffered from some bodily defect. Property rights for women increased in ancient India, suggest MacDonell and Keith, over the Epics era (200 BC – 700 AD). Kane claims ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura-type of marriage that
9696-401: Was removed from family law through legal reforms in 1983. The Romans practiced dowry ( dos ). The dowry was property transferred by the bride, or on her behalf by anyone else, to the groom or groom's father, at their marriage. Dowry was a very common institution in Roman times, and it began out of a desire to get the bride's family to contribute a share of the costs involved in setting up
9797-405: Was restricted to the lower castes, who were not allowed to give dowry. He cites two studies from the early 20th century with data to suggest that this pattern of dowry in upper castes and bridewealth in lower castes persisted through the first half of the 20th century. However, it is more likely that marriages involved both reciprocal gifts between the two families, claims Tambiah, so that insofar as
9898-457: Was set with large numbers of brightly coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols. They employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such as cloisonné , engraving , fine granulation , and filigree . Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to
9999-443: Was sometimes called wreath money , or the breach of promise . Providing dowries for poor women was regarded as a form of charity by wealthier parishioners. The custom of Christmas stockings springs from a legend of St Nicholas , in which he threw gold in the stockings of three poor sisters, thus providing for their dowries. St. Elizabeth of Portugal and St. Martin de Porres were particularly noted for providing such dowries, and
10100-491: Was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface. The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia, when Alexander
10201-461: Was usually made of silver and includes elaborate brooches made of triangular plates and pins ( fibula ), originally used as clasps for garments, but also necklaces, bracelets, earrings and similar items. Another major type is the so-called khmissa (local pronunciation of the Arabic word "khamsa" for the number "five"), which is called afus in the Berber language ( Tamazight) . This form represents
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