181-562: Brest , formerly Brest-Litovsk and Brest-on-the-Bug, Berestia , is a city in Belarus at the border with Poland opposite the Polish town of Terespol , where the Bug and Mukhavets rivers meet, making it a border town . It serves as the administrative center of Brest Region and Brest District , though it is administratively separated from the district. As of 2024, it has a population of 344,470. Brest
362-530: A catafalque and remained at the nearby Tykocin Castle until 10 September 1573 when it was transported back to Kraków through Warsaw . After transporting the remains of Barbara Radziwiłł from Kraków to Vilnius , Sigismund was building a church in the Vilnius Castle Complex which should have served as his family's mausoleum, however it was still uncompleted in 1572. Consequently, he was laid to rest at
543-610: A Lasco (Jan Łaski) and Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł . Throughout the 16th century, Frycz Modrzewski advocated for renouncing Rome 's authority and establishing a separate and independent Polish Church. His initiative was chiefly inspired by the creation of the Anglican Church by Henry VIII in 1534. Sigismund Augustus was lenient towards the idea, particularly due to the sudden spread of Protestantism among courtiers, advisors, nobles and peasants. Calvinism became especially popular among
724-518: A branch of Belarusian National Technical University . Among the secondary specialized educational institutions of the city: Being situated on the main railway line connecting Berlin and Moscow, and a transcontinental highway (the M1 highway is part of the European route E30 running from Cork to Omsk , where it links with Asian Highway 6 leading to Busan ), Brest became a principal border crossing out of
905-470: A breach with Rome at the very crisis of the religious struggle in Poland. He was not free to remarry until Catherine's death on 28 February 1572, but he followed her to the grave less than six months later. Unlike his father, Sigismund Augustus was frail and sickly. Shortly before turning 50, his health rapidly declined. Being involved in many affairs and holding a large number of mistresses, historians agree that
1086-640: A ceremony marking the park's centennial. In July 2009, the Millennium Monument of Brest was unveiled. Sovetskaya Street is a popular tourist destination in Brest; it was dramatically reconstructed in 2007–2009. Other important landmarks include the Brest Railway Museum . Brest is home to two Universities: A.S. Pushkin Brest State University and Brest State Technical University . There is also
1267-401: A common religion. Sigismund agreed to the postulates, however, under the condition that Pope Paul IV will be in favour. Instead, Paul IV was enraged that such a proposition emerged for him to accept; he declined and refused to grant consent. Facing potential excommunication , the assembly were forced to abandon their plans. Nevertheless, Protestantism continued to flourish and spread. In 1565,
1448-597: A core part of the Belarusian national identity, with Belarus continuing to refer to itself as the "partisan republic" since the 1970s. Following the war, many former Soviet partisans entered positions of government, among them Pyotr Masherov and Kirill Mazurov , both of whom were First Secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia. Until the late 1970s, the Belarusian government was almost entirely composed of former partisans. Numerous pieces of media have been made about
1629-523: A disputed election took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland. Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of the Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of Marshal Józef Piłsudski 's confederation plans by Polish ally. In January 1919, a part of Belarus under Bolshevik Russian control
1810-539: A joint Nazi-Soviet military parade took place on 22 September 1939. While Belarusians consider it a reunification of the Belarusian nation under one constituency (the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic at that time), Poles consider it the date when the city was lost. During the Soviet control (1939–41), the Polish population was subject to arrests, executions and mass deportations to Siberia and
1991-645: A mass grave containing the remains of 1,214 people were found in the Brest Ghetto area during a construction project. Most are believed to have been Jews murdered by Nazis. Brest lies astride the Mukhavets River which flows west through the city, dividing it into north and south, and meets the Bug River in the Brest Fortress. The river flows slowly and gently. Today the river looks quite broad in Brest. The terrain
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#17328690873672172-436: A pompous wedding ceremony on 30 July 1553. On the other hand, Catherine showed resentment towards Sigismund because of how he treated her sister, Queen Elizabeth. She accused him of negligence and indifference during her sudden illness, which caused premature death. The correspondence between the two remained purely formal and political for the remainder of their lives. Since her coronation, Catherine acted as Austria's puppet at
2353-463: A population of 9.1 million. The country has a hemiboreal climate and is administratively divided into six regions . Minsk is the capital and largest city ; it is administered separately as a city with special status. Between the medieval period and the 20th century, different states at various times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including Kievan Rus' , the Principality of Polotsk ,
2534-497: A rich collection of tapestries (360 pieces), commissioned by him in Brussels in the years 1550–1560. The king enjoyed reading, especially short stories, poems and satires . Under the influence of bishop Piotr Myszkowski , Poland's then greatest writer and poet Jan Kochanowski joined the royal court in 1563. It is uncertain whether Sigismund and Kochanowski were friends, however, Kochanowski's correspondence clearly highlights that
2715-489: A seat of the starost in the newly created Trakai Voivodeship . Under Władysław II and Vytautas the city was significantly developed and granted privileges similar to those of the Polish city of Lublin . In 1425, the city hosted a congress attended by Władysław II, Vytautas, dukes of Masovia and Polish and Lithuanian nobles. In 1440, a Sejm of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was held in the city, at which Casimir IV Jagiellon
2896-549: A small garrison of four infantry battalions under General Konstanty Plisowski against General Heinz Guderian 's XIX Panzer Corps . After four days of heavy fighting , the Polish forces withdrew southwards on 17 September. The Soviet invasion of Poland began on the same day. As a result, the Soviet Red Army entered the city at the end of September 1939 following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 's Secret Protocol, and
3077-561: A staggering quarter of the prewar population . In the 1990s some raised the estimate even higher, to 2.7 million. The Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered. The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971. Belarus was also hit hard economically, losing around half of its economic resources. The borders of the Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn, in accord with
3258-472: A third, purely political union with his first cousin, the Austrian archduchess Catherine , to avoid an Austro-Russian alliance. She was also the sister of his first wife, Elizabeth, who had died within a year of her marriage to him, before his accession. Catherine, unlike previous queens, was considered dull and obese. Sigismund Augustus found her immensely unattractive despite accepting the marriage and organizing
3439-619: A town, Brest – Berestij in Kievan Rus – was first mentioned in the Primary Chronicle in 1019 when the Kievan Rus' took the stronghold from the Poles. It is one of the oldest cities in Belarus. It was hotly contested between the Polish rulers (kings, principal dukes and dukes of Masovia ) and Kievan Rus princes. It was recaptured by Poland in 1020, and unsuccessfully besieged by Prince Yaroslav
3620-552: Is landlocked , relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land. About 40% of Belarus is covered by forests. The country lies within two ecoregions: Sarmatic mixed forests and Central European mixed forests . Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus. Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman , the Pripyat , and the Dnieper . The Neman flows westward towards
3801-542: Is debatable. Her opponents and family members suggested sexually transmitted diseases due to a number of affairs she had before marrying Sigismund. There were also persistent rumors that she was poisoned by Queen Bona Sforza, who had a long history of eliminating her rivals or enemies quickly and efficiently. However, contemporary historians and experts agree on cervical or ovarian cancer . The death of Queen Barbara Radziwiłł, five months after her coronation and under distressing circumstances, compelled Sigismund to contract
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#17328690873673982-411: Is fairly flat around Brest. The river has an extremely broad floodplain , that is about 2 to 3 kilometres (1 to 2 miles) across. Brest was subject to flooding in the past. One of the worst floods in recorded history occurred in 1974. Part of the floodplain was reclaimed with hydraulic mining . In the 1980s, big cutter-suction dredgers mined sand and clay from the riverbed to build up the banks. In
4163-437: Is in the transitional zone between continental climates and maritime climates . Natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite , dolomite ( limestone ), marl , chalk, sand, gravel, and clay. About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in
4344-661: Is one of the oldest cities in Belarus and a historical site for many cultures, as it hosted important historical events, such as the Union of Brest and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk . Furthermore, the Brest Fortress was recognized by the Soviet Union as a Hero Fortress in honour of the defense of Brest Fortress in June 1941. In the High Middle Ages , the city often passed between Poland,
4525-685: Is widely considered as the apex of the Polish Golden Age ; he established the first regular Polish navy and the first regular postal service in Poland, known today as Poczta Polska . In 1569, he oversaw the signing of the Union of Lublin between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and introduced an elective monarchy . Sigismund Augustus married three times; his first wife, Elizabeth of Austria , died in 1545 at just eighteen. He
4706-609: The Reichskommissariat Ostland in 1941, but in 1943 the German authorities allowed local collaborators to set up a client state, the Belarusian Central Council . During World War II, Belarus was home to a variety of guerrilla movements , including Jewish, Polish, and Soviet partisans. Belarusian partisan formations formed a large part of the Soviet partisans , and in the modern day these partisans have formed
4887-777: The Belarusian Byzantine Catholic Church was formed by the Poles to bring Orthodox Christians into the See of Rome . The Belarusian church entered into a full communion with the Latin Church through the Union of Brest in 1595, while keeping its Byzantine liturgy in the Church Slavonic language. The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the Third Partition of Poland by Imperial Russia, Prussia , and Austria . The Belarusian territories acquired by
5068-608: The Belarusian Men's Handball Championship , as well as the current (2018–19) champions. Also, there is a Women's handball club in Brest – HC Victoria-Berestie . HK Brest of the Belarusian Extraleague are the local pro hockey team. Another popular sport in Brest is football. FC Dynamo Brest is a local club playing in Belarusian Premier League . The sports venues are located on the northern riverside on
5249-641: The Belarusian People's Republic . Immediately afterwards, the Polish–Soviet War ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia. The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as a government in exile ever since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile. The Belarusian People's Republic was the first attempt to create an independent Belarusian state under
5430-527: The Belarusian Popular Front campaigned for early elections later in the year, two years before they were scheduled. By May of that year, about 383,000 signatures had been collected for a petition to hold the referendum, which was 23,000 more than legally required to be put to a referendum at the time. Despite this, the meeting of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus to ultimately decide
5611-623: The Belarusian minority was no exception. The polonization drive was inspired and influenced by the Polish National Democracy , led by Roman Dmowski , who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right for a free national development. A Belarusian organization, the Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union , was banned in 1927, and opposition to Polish government was met with state repressions. Nonetheless, compared to
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5792-570: The Belarusians . During this time, the duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the duchy to control the northwestern borderlands of Eastern Europe . The Muscovites , led by Ivan III of Russia , began military campaigns in 1486 in an attempt to incorporate
5973-494: The Duchy of Milan until Sforza's suspicious death in 1494. Throughout his youth, Sigismund Augustus was under the careful watch of his mother, Bona. Being the only legitimate male heir to the Polish throne throughout his father's reign, he was well educated and taught by the most renowned scholars in the country. It was also his mother's wish to name her only son Augustus, after the first Roman Emperor Augustus . However, this decision
6154-742: The Duchy of Prussia in 1525, but under Polish suzerainty . However, his efforts to introduce Protestantism to the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the northernmost part of the region was met with fierce resistance and divided the Livonian Confederation . When Albert's brother Wilhelm and Archbishop of Riga attempted to implement a Lutheran church order in his diocese , the Catholic estates rebelled and arrested both Wilhelm and his bishop coadjutor , Christopher, Duke of Mecklenburg . As Prussia
6335-647: The European Union but maintains a bilateral relationship with the bloc , and also participates in the Baku Initiative . The name Belarus is closely related with the term Belaya Rus' , i.e., White Rus' . There are several claims to the origin of the name White Rus' . An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had been populated mostly by Slavs who had been Christianized early, as opposed to Black Ruthenia , which
6516-816: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , and the Russian Empire . In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917, different states arose competing for legitimacy amid the Civil War , ultimately ending in the rise of the Byelorussian SSR , which became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922. After the Polish-Soviet War (1918–1921), Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland. Much of
6697-427: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania . There are no sources of military seizure, but the annals affirm the alliance and united foreign policy of Polotsk and Lithuania for decades. Incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic, political, and ethno-cultural unification of Belarusian lands. Of the principalities held by the duchy, nine of them were settled by a population that would eventually become
6878-713: The Jagiellonian dynasty . The death of his childless sister, Anna, in 1596 marked the end of the dynasty. In addition to his family connections, Sigismund II Augustus was allied to the Habsburgs as member of the Order of the Golden Fleece . Sigismund's reign was marked by a period of temporary stability and external expansion. He witnessed the bloodless introduction of the Protestant Reformation into Poland and Lithuania, and
7059-720: The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic . Many Poles were imprisoned in the local prison, and then moved to a prison in Minsk . It is suspected that they were murdered by the Soviets in the Katyn massacre in 1940. On 22 June 1941, Brest Fortress and the city were attacked by Nazi Germany on the first day of Operation Barbarossa , Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union . The fortress held out for six days . Nearly all its Soviet army defenders perished. The Germans placed Brest under
7240-732: The Kievan Rus' , were disputed between Lithuania and Russia. However, the Ruthenian nobles were eager to capitalise on the political or economic potential offered by the Polish sphere and agreed to the terms. Previously, the Kingdom of Ruthenia or "Ukraine" was abolished in 1349, after Poland and Lithuania split modern-day Ukraine in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars . Now, under the Union of Lublin, all Ukrainian and Ruthenian territories which were alien in culture, customs, religion and language to
7421-547: The Polish Brethren came into existence as a Nontrinitarian sect of Calvinism. One year after Sigismund's death the Warsaw Confederation was adopted as the first European act granting religious freedoms . Despite this, Protestantism in Poland ultimately declined during the fierce Counter-Reformation measures under the despotic and arch-Catholic Sigismund III Vasa , who ruled for nearly 45 years. For instance,
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7602-570: The Polish census of 1931 . In early September 1939, the Polish government evacuated a portion of the Polish gold reserve from Warsaw to Brześć, and then further southeast to Śniatyn at the Poland- Romania border, from where it was transported via Romania and Turkey to territory controlled by Polish-allied France . During the German Invasion of Poland in 1939, the city was defended by
7783-433: The Polish–Lithuanian union , thus hoping to leave his throne to his heirs. When Sigismund Augustus was co-crowned, Chancellor Krzysztof Szydłowiecki organized a preliminary marriage treaty between the young king and Elizabeth of Austria , daughter of King Ferdinand of Bohemia and Hungary . The marriage was signed on 10–11 November 1530 in Poznań , however, the arrangement was delayed by Queen Bona Sforza , who detested
7964-586: The Polish–Soviet War it was occupied by the Soviet Russians on 1 August 1920, and recaptured by the Poles on 20 August, with borders formally recognized by the Treaty of Riga of 1921. In 1921, it became the temporary capital of the Polesie Voivodeship instead of Pińsk . It was renamed Brześć nad Bugiem ( Brest on the Bug ) on 20 March 1923. The city was developed significantly and a number of representative public buildings were erected in Neoclassical and Modernist styles, especially at Ulica Unii Lubelskiej ( Union of Lublin Street, now Lenin Street), including
8145-411: The Roman-Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church . The 1596 council established the Uniate Church (also known as the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church in Belarus and Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in Ukraine ). A Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was held in the city in 1653. A royal mint was founded in the city by King John II Casimir Vasa in 1665. In 1657, and again in 1706,
8326-669: The Royal Castle in Vilnius with the nearby Radziwiłł Palace so that the couple could meet frequently and discreetly. Due to her unpopularity in Poland, Barbara often expressed her wish to reside permanently in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. To ease the situation, Sigismund Augustus provided a luxurious lifestyle and expensive gifts for his wife at Wawel Castle since her arrival in Kraków on 13 February 1549. The monarch also granted Barbara several provinces to administer and provide income. Although ambitious and bright, she showed lack of interest in political life, but had some influence over decisions made by Sigismund. This also caused an uproar among
8507-446: The Russian Empire under the name Brest-Litovsk or Brest-Litovskii ( Russian : Брест-Литовск , Брест-Литовский , literally "Lithuanian Brest") in the course of the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. After World War I, and the rebirth of Poland in 1918, the government of the Second Polish Republic renamed the city as Brześć nad Bugiem ("Brest on the Bug") on 20 March 1923. After World War II,
8688-602: The Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, including collectivization and five-year plans for the national economy , led to famine and political repression. The western part of modern Belarus remained part of the Second Polish Republic . After an early period of liberalization, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and
8869-405: The UN Security Council statement condemning "the apparent terrorist attack" intimating the possibility that the Belarusian government itself was behind the bombing. Mass protests erupted across the country following the disputed 2020 Belarusian presidential election , in which Lukashenko sought a sixth term in office. Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania do not recognize Lukashenko as
9050-442: The Union of Lublin , which united Poland and Lithuania into one state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , jointly with German-speaking Royal Prussia and Prussian cities. This achievement might well have been impossible without the monarch's personal approach to politics and ability to mediate. At first, the treaty was perceived as a threat to Lithuanian sovereignty. Lithuanian magnates were afraid of losing their powers, since
9231-452: The United Nations and the Soviet Union. The republic was home to a widespread and diverse anti-Nazi insurgent movement which dominated politics until well into the 1970s, overseeing Belarus' transformation from an agrarian to an industrial economy. The parliament of the republic proclaimed the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and during the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Belarus gained independence on 25 August 1991. Following
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#17328690873679412-415: The Wawel Cathedral on 10 February 1574. The stately funeral ceremony, attended by his sister Anna Jagiellon , was the last spectacle of its kind in the Kingdom of Poland. No other Polish monarch was buried with such pomp and splendour. His death introduced an elective monarchy in Poland which lasted until the final partition at the end of the 18th century. Sigismund Augustus was the last male member of
9593-461: The Związek Obrońców Wolności ("Freedom Defenders Association") Polish resistance organization was founded in the city, with its activities including secret Polish schooling, rescuing historical Polish monuments from devastation and organising aid for repressed people and those in a difficult material situation. The organization was crushed by the NKVD in 1948, and its members were deported to Gulag forced labour camps for 25 years. In early 2019,
9774-399: The economy . Belarus is the only European country that continues to use capital punishment . In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming the Union State . The country has been a member of the United Nations since its founding and has joined the CIS , the CSTO , the EAEU , the OSCE , and the Non-Aligned Movement . It has shown no aspirations of joining
9955-450: The hydraulic fill , consisting of an indoor track-and-field centre, the Brest Ice Rink , and Belarus' first outdoor baseball stadium. On the opposite riverside is a large rowing course opened in 2007, home of the National Center for Olympic Training in Rowing. It meets international requirements and can host international competitions. Moreover, it has accommodation and training facilities, favourable location, 3 kilometres (2 miles) away from
10136-440: The peero-cratic upheaval that placed most political power in the hands of the Polish nobility ; he saw the collapse of the Knights of the Sword in the north, which led to the Commonwealth's acquisition of Livonia as a Lutheran duchy and the consolidation of Ottoman power in the southeast. A less imposing figure than his father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II Augustus was nevertheless an even more effective statesman than
10317-429: The state-owned enterprise industrial sector. Norway and Japan have joined the sanctions regime which aims to isolate Belarus from the international supply chain. Most major Belarusian banks are also under restrictions. Belarus lies between latitudes 51° and 57° N , and longitudes 23° and 33° E . Its extension from north to south is 560 km (350 mi), from west to east is 650 km (400 mi). It
10498-451: The (larger) Ukrainian minority , Belarusians were much less politically aware and active, and thus suffered fewer repressions than the Ukrainians. In 1935, after the death of Piłsudski, a new wave of repressions was released upon the minorities, with many Orthodox churches and Belarusian schools being closed. Use of the Belarusian language was discouraged. Belarusian leadership was sent to Bereza Kartuska prison . In September 1939,
10679-454: The 1919-proposed Curzon Line . Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences . This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. After Stalin died in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev continued his predecessor's cultural hegemony program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian,
10860-445: The 2000s, two new residential areas were developed in the southwest of Brest. To the east of Brest, the Dnieper–Bug Canal was built in the mid-nineteenth century to join the river to Pina , a tributary of the Pripyat River which in turn drains into the Dnieper . Thus Brest has a shipping route all the way to the Black Sea . If not for a dam and neglected weirs west of Brest, north-western European shipping would be connected with
11041-426: The AGSSt 3 prisoner-of-war assembly center, the Dulag 314 transit POW camp for Italians , the Stalag 397 POW camp for Soviet POWs and a subcamp of the Stalag 360 POW camp in the city. The Polish resistance movement , including the Polesie District of the Home Army , was active in the city. The city was re-occupied by the Red Army on 28 July 1944, and eventually annexed from Poland the following year. In 1945,
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#173286908736711222-745: The Baltic Sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnieper; the Dnieper flows southward towards the Black Sea . The highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,132 ft), and the lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 m (295 ft). The average elevation of Belarus is 160 m (525 ft) above sea level . The climate features mild to cold winters, with January minimum temperatures ranging from −4 °C (24.8 °F ) in southwest ( Brest ) to −8 °C (17.6 °F) in northeast ( Vitebsk ), and cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F). Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm (21.7 to 27.6 in). The country
11403-408: The Balts, but their gradual assimilation into Slavic culture was peaceful. Invaders from Asia , among whom were the Huns and Avars , swept through c. 400–600 AD, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence. In the 9th century, the territory of modern Belarus became part of Kievan Rus' , a vast East Slavic state ruled by the Rurikids . Upon the death of its ruler Yaroslav the Wise in 1054,
11584-415: The Bank of Poland, Tax Chamber, Regional Chamber of the State Control, Healthcare Fund and Voivodeship Office. Other notable projects include the officials' housing estate, stylistically inspired by historic manor houses of Polish nobility and the garden city movement , and the Warburg Residential Colony, dedicated to poor Jews who had lost their homes in World War I, founded by Felix M. Warburg, chairman of
11765-507: The Belarusian partisans, including the 1985 film Come and See and the works of authors Ales Adamovich and Vasil Bykaŭ . The German occupation in 1941–1944 and war on the Eastern Front devastated Belarus. During that time, 209 out of 290 towns and cities were destroyed, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings. After the war, it was estimated that 2.2 million local inhabitants had died, and of those some 810,000 were combatants—some foreign. This figure represented
11946-423: The Black Sea also. Brest has a humid continental climate but slightly leans towards oceanic due to the irregular winter temperatures that mostly hover around the freezing point. However, summers are warm and influenced by its inland position compared to areas nearer the Baltic Sea . A majestic Soviet-era war memorial was constructed on the site of the 1941 battle to commemorate the known and unknown defenders of
12127-407: The Brest Fortress at the confluence of the Bug and Mukhavets rivers on the city' western outskirts, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed, ending the war between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers and transferring the city and its surrounding region to the sphere of influence of the German Empire . This treaty was subsequently annulled by the Paris Peace Conference treaties which ended
12308-466: The Brest Fortress. This war memorial is the largest tourist attraction in the city. The Berestye Archeological Museum of the old city is located on the southern island of the Hero-Fortress . It has objects and huts dating from the 11th – 13th century that were unearthed during the 1970s. The Museum of Rescued Art Treasures has a collection of paintings and icons. Brest City Park is over 100 years old and underwent renovations from 2004 to 2006 as part of
12489-409: The Brześć population or 21,518 citizens. Some 80.3% of private enterprises were run by Jews. The Polish Army troops of the 9th Military District along with its headquarters were stationed in Brześć Fortress. The city had an overwhelmingly Jewish population in the Russian Partition : 30,000 out of 45,000 total population according to Russian 1897 census, which fell to 21,000 out of 50,000 according to
12670-417: The Byelorussian SSR took place. Though the opposition candidates, mostly associated with the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front , took only 10% of the seats, Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic . Wide-scale strikes erupted in April 1991. With the support of the Communist Party of Byelorussia ,
12851-412: The Great and Khan Jalal al-Din Khan ibn Tokhtamysh under the Polish Deputy Chancellor Mikołaj Trąba 's initiative, to prepare for war with the Teutonic Knights , which resulted in the Tatars aiding Poland and Lithuania in the Battle of Grunwald the following year. In 1410 the city mustered a cavalry banner that participated in the Polish-Lithuanian military victory at Grunwald. In 1419 it became
13032-517: The Great rebelled against Poland, but was killed in action in the Battle of Zawichost . Passing under Polish suzerainty again, in 1207, it was granted by Leszek the White as a fief to Princess Anna-Euphrosyne and her children. From 1210, it was directly part of Poland, until it passed to Galicia–Volhynia either in 1215 or 1217. In 1220, it passed to the Principality of Pinsk as a fief of Galicia–Volhynia. It
13213-506: The Habsburg envoys prior to an audience with the king. She would also dictate what and how the envoys should express their views. When Sigismund Augustus found out of Catherine's intrigues, he sent her to Radom and excluded from political life. As Sigismund lost all hope of children by his third bride, he was the last male Jagiellon in the direct line so the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to remedy this by adultery with two of
13394-632: The Joint Distribution Committee of American Funds for Jewish War Sufferers. In 1929, city limits were greatly expanded. In the twenty years of Poland's sovereignty, of the total of 36 brand new schools established in the city, there were ten public, and five private Jewish schools inaugurated, with Yiddish and Hebrew as the language of instruction. The first-ever Jewish school in Brześć history opened in 1920, almost immediately after Poland's return to independence. In 1936 Jews constituted 41.3% of
13575-495: The Just of Poland, and made the seat of his fraternal nephew Leszek, Duke of Masovia , who, however, soon lost it to the Principality of Minsk . In 1182, Casimir II the Just captured the city once again, and built a castle there, and then granted it as a fief to his sororal nephew Roman the Great the following year. From 1199 it was ruled by the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia , remaining under Polish suzerainty until 1205, when Roman
13756-524: The Old and some nobles showed compassion towards the new Queen, who was disregarded by her husband and scorned by Bona. Sigismund Augustus was indifferent to her health condition; when the seizures continued to intensify he abandoned Elizabeth and returned to Kraków to collect her dowry . He also sent for Ferdinand's doctors to travel the long distance from Vienna knowing that Elizabeth was ailing and deteriorating fast. She eventually died unattended and exhausted from
13937-704: The Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth was partitioned for the third time in 1795. During Russian rule in the 19th century, Brest Fortress was built in and around the city. The Russians demolished the Polish Royal Castle and most Old Town "to make room" for the fortress. The main Jewish synagogue in the city, the Choral Synagogue , was completed c. 1862. In 1895, a massive fire rendered 15,000 people homeless, and dozens were killed. During World War I ,
14118-648: The Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded in a revolt , led by Konstanty Kalinowski (also known as Kastus). After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use of Cyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by the Russian government until 1905. During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming
14299-726: The Polish Brethren were banned, hunted down and its leaders executed. Sigismund Augustus carried on with the development of several royal residencies including Wawel , Vilnius Castle , Niepołomice and the Royal Castle in Warsaw . In the 1560s he acquired the Tykocin Castle and rebuilt it in Renaissance style. During the reign of Sigismund Augustus the structure served as a royal residence with an impressive treasury and library as well as
14480-451: The Polish city of Lublin , were futile. The right of Poles to settle and own land in the Grand Duchy was questioned by Lithuanian envoys. Following Mikołaj Radziwiłł's departure from Lublin on 1 March 1569, Sigismund announced the incorporation of then-Lithuanian Podlachia , Volhynia , Podolia and Kiev provinces into Poland, with strong approval from the local Ruthenian (Ukrainian) gentry . Those historic regions, which once belonged to
14661-549: The Polish court; she was tasked with espionage and obtaining important information for the benefit of the Habsburgs. Sigismund Augustus was aware of the scheme, but, by marrying Catherine, he obtained a promise from Austria to stay neutral and abandon plans with Russia . This neutrality was undermined by Catherine's actions, who followed her father's policy and objected the return of John Sigismund Zápolya and Isabella Jagiellon (Sigismund's sister) to Hungary. She would conspire with
14842-619: The Polish people would be annexed by Catholic Poland. Strong westernisation and polonisation would follow, including the clandestine suppression of the Ukrainian Eastern Orthodox Church by future King Sigismund III . Ruthenia remained under Polish rule until the Cossack uprisings against Polish domination and the Partitions of Poland , when Ukraine was annexed by the Russian Empire . The Lithuanians were compelled to return to
15023-576: The Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine II were included into the Belarusian Governorate (Russian: Белорусское генерал-губернаторство ) in 1796 and held until their occupation by the German Empire during World War I . Under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed with policies of Polonization replaced by Russification which included
15204-423: The Russian form) was used officially only until 1991. Officially, the full name of the country is Republic of Belarus ( Рэспубліка Беларусь , Республика Беларусь , Respublika Belarus ). In Russia, the usage of Belorussia is still very common. In Lithuanian, besides Baltarusija (White Russia), Belarus is also called Gudija . The etymology of the word Gudija is not clear. By one hypothesis
15385-549: The Sejm negotiations under Jan Hieronim Chodkiewicz and continue negotiations. The Polish nobility once again pressed for the full incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland, however, the Lithuanians disapproved. The parties eventually agreed on a federal state on 28 June 1569 and on 1 July 1569 the Union of Lublin was signed at Lublin Castle , thus establishing the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund Augustus ratified
15566-611: The Soviet Union in 1941. The defense of Brest Fortress was the first major battle of Operation Barbarossa . The Byelorussian SSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II; it remained under German occupation until 1944. The German Generalplan Ost called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Belarusians to provide more living space in the East for Germans. Most of Western Belarus became part of
15747-605: The Soviet Union in the postwar era. Today it links the European Union and the Commonwealth of Independent States . The city of Brest is served by Brest-Tsentralny railway station . Because of the break-of-gauge at Brest, where the Russian broad gauge meets the European standard gauge , all passenger trains, coming from Poland , must have their bogies replaced here, to travel on across Belarus . The freight must be transloaded from cars of one gauge to cars of another. Some of
15928-551: The Soviet Union invaded and occupied eastern Poland, following the German invasion of Poland two weeks earlier which marked the beginning of World War II . The territories of Western Belorussia were annexed and incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR. The Soviet-controlled Byelorussian People's Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews, on 28 October 1939 in Białystok . Nazi Germany invaded
16109-636: The Supreme Council at the time and was largely opposed to political and economic reform, with allegations that some of the deputies opposed Belarusian independence. A national constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the President of Belarus . A two-round election for the presidency on 24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994 catapulted the formerly unknown Alexander Lukashenko into national prominence. He garnered 45% of
16290-548: The United States have all imposed sanctions against Belarus because of the rigged election and political oppression during the ongoing protests in the country. Further sanctions were imposed in 2022 following the country's role and complicity in the Russian invasion of Ukraine; Russian troops were allowed to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory. These include not only corporate offices and individual officers of government but also private individuals who work in
16471-508: The Wise of Kiev in 1022. It was captured by Yaroslav the Wise, according to various sources, either in 1042 or 1044, then by 1076 recaptured by King Bolesław II the Bold of Poland, but then lost again by his successor Władysław I Herman . Afterwards, it often passed between the principalities of Turov and Volhynia . In 1164, it was briefly captured by Lithuanians. In 1178, it was captured by Casimir II
16652-679: The administration of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine . The remaining municipal Jewish population (about 20,000) was sequestered in the Brest ghetto established by the German authorities in December 1941 and later murdered in October 1942. Only seven Jews survived the Nazi executions. The Germans also operated a Nazi prison, a forced labour "education" camp for men and women, a forced labour camp for Jews,
16833-465: The adoption of a new constitution in 1994, Alexander Lukashenko was elected Belarus's first president in the country's first and only free election after independence, serving as president ever since. Lukashenko heads a highly centralized authoritarian government. Belarus ranks low in international measurements of freedom of the press and civil liberties . It has continued several Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of
17014-770: The alliance against Ivan the Terrible to protect lucrative trade routes in Livonia, thus creating a new valid casus belli against the Russian Tsardom . On 22 January 1558, Ivan invaded the Baltic states and started the Livonian War , which lasted 25 years until 1583. Russia's eventual defeat in the war legally partitioned Livonia between Poland ( Latvia , southern Estonia ) and Sweden (central-northern Estonia). The Polish sector became subsequently known as Polish Livonia or Inflanty ; it
17195-531: The area by 1,000 BC. The Zarubintsy culture later became widespread at the beginning of the 1st millennium . In addition, remains from the Dnieper–Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine . The region was first permanently settled by Baltic tribes in the 3rd century. Around the 5th century, the area was taken over by the Slavs. The takeover was partially due to the lack of military coordination of
17376-632: The border crossing along Warsaw Highway (the European route E30 ). Belarus in Europe (dark grey) – [ Legend ] Belarus , officially the Republic of Belarus , is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe . It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an area of 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) with
17557-476: The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939, when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were reintegrated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland , and were finalized after World War II. During World War II, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about a quarter of its population and half of its economic resources. In 1945, the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of
17738-473: The care with which he controlled his nation. According to diplomats, everything went as Sigismund wished and he seemed to know everything in advance. He managed to obtain more funds from the Sejm than his father ever could, and at one of the parliament sittings he won the hearts of the assembled envoys by unexpectedly appearing in a simple grey coat of a Mazovian lord. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry with him
17919-399: The city became part of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic with the name simplified as Brest. Brest's coat of arms, adopted on 26 January 1991, features an arrow pointed upwards and a bow (both silver) on a sky-blue shield. An alternative coat of arms has a red shield. Sigismund II Augustus , King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, first granted Brest a coat of arms in 1554. As
18100-611: The city became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , and Grand Duke Gediminas stayed in the city in the winter of 1319–1320, preparing to capture Kyiv . In 1349, it was captured by King Casimir III of Poland , however, it was restored to Lithuania in 1352. Its suburbs were burned by the Teutonic Order in 1379. In 1385, it became part of the Polish–Lithuanian union . During the Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392) , in 1390,
18281-567: The city was administratively located in the Podlaskie Voivodeship . In 1566, following the decree of Sigismund II Augustus , a new voivodeship was created – Brest Litovsk Voivodeship . During the union of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Swedish Empire under king Sigismund III Vasa ( Polish–Swedish union ), diets were held there. In 1594 and 1596, it was the meeting-place of two remarkable councils of regional bishops of
18462-714: The city was captured by Nazi Germany during the invasion of Poland and then transferred to the Soviet Union per the German–Soviet Frontier Treaty . In 1941, it was retaken by the Germans during Operation Barbarossa . In 1944, it was retaken by the Soviet Red Army during the Lublin–Brest offensive . The city was part of the Byelorussian SSR until the breakup of the USSR in 1991. Since then, Brest has been part of independent Belarus . Several theories attempt to explain
18643-419: The city was captured by Polish forces of Władysław II Jagiełło . In 1390, Brześć became the second city in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (after the capital Vilnius ), and the first in the lands that now are Belarus, to receive Magdeburg rights . Given its proximity to Poland, it was a significant centre for trade with Poland. In 1409 it was a meeting place of King Władysław II Jagiełło , Grand Duke Vytautas
18824-515: The country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991. Stanislav Shushkevich , the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in Białowieża Forest to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States . In January 1992,
19005-426: The date for said referendum was delayed by six months. However, with no evidence to suggest such, the Supreme Council rejected the petition on the grounds of massive irregularities. Elections for the Supreme Council were set for March 1994. A new law on parliamentary elections failed to pass by 1993. Disputes over the referendum were accredited to the largely conservative Party of Belarusian Communists , which controlled
19186-475: The daughter of Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł . The marriage was announced by the king himself on 2 February 1548 in Piotrków Trybunalski . The young and beautiful Barbara was despised by Queen Bona, who attempted to annul the marriage at any cost. The agitation was also abundant at Sigismund's first Sejm (parliament) sitting on 31 October 1548 where the deputies threatened to renounce their allegiance unless
19367-421: The day Sigismund and Barbara met, she complained of poor health, particularly stomach and abdominal pain. After the coronation her condition deteriorated rapidly. She was tormented by strong fever, diarrhea, nausea and lack of appetite. After careful observation by hired medics, a lump was discovered on her stomach filled with pus. Sigismund Augustus gravely despaired and sent for doctors and even folk healers from
19548-736: The days of the Russian Empire , and the Russian Tsar was usually styled "the Tsar of All the Russias", as Russia or the Russian Empire was formed by three parts of Russia—the Great , Little , and White . This asserted that the territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian; in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the Russian people. After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917,
19729-419: The defending Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army , under the leadership of Szymon Zabiełło , and the invading Imperial Russian Army fought a battle near Brześć. On 19 September 1794, the area between Brest and Terespol was the site of another battle won by the Russian invaders led by Alexander Suvorov over a Polish-Lithuanian division under General Karol Sierakowski . Thereafter, Brest was annexed by Russia when
19910-404: The economy, with inflation reaching 108.7%. Around the same time the 2011 Minsk Metro bombing occurred in which 15 people were killed and 204 were injured. Two suspects, who were arrested within two days, confessed to being the perpetrators and were executed by shooting in 2012. The official version of events as publicised by the Belarusian government was questioned in the unprecedented wording of
20091-547: The end of his life, the king was losing teeth and vigour, possibly due to tuberculosis . Antonio Maria Graziani recalls that Sigismund was unable to keep standing without a cane when greeting Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Commendone . During spring 1572, Sigismund Augustus became feverish. Untreated tuberculosis made him feeble and impotent, but he was able to travel to his private retreat in Knyszyn . While at Knyszyn, he corresponded with his diplomats and nobles, highlighting that he
20272-527: The entire country. He personally tended to his sick wife despite her foul smell and dedicated himself when necessary; the king hoped to take Barbara to the hunting castle at Niepołomice and ordered to demolish the small city gate so her carriage could pass freely. However, Barbara died on 8 May 1551 in Kraków after continuous pain and agony. It was her dying wish that she'd be buried in Lithuania, her homeland. The body
20453-552: The epileptic attacks on 15 June 1545 at the age of 18. From the outset of his reign, Sigismund Augustus came into collision with the country's privileged nobility , who had already begun curtailing the power of the great families. The ostensible cause of the nobility's animosity to the King was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession to the throne, with the Lithuanian , Calvinist and former mistress, Barbara Radziwiłł ,
20634-460: The faster we shall build communism." Between Stalin's death in 1953 and 1980, Belarusian politics was dominated by former members of the Soviet partisans, including First Secretaries Kirill Mazurov and Pyotr Masherov. Mazurov and Masherov oversaw Belarus's rapid industrialisation and transformation from one of the Soviet Union's poorest republics into one of its richest. In 1986, the Byelorussian SSR
20815-705: The final defeat in the Livonian War would result in the country's incorporation into the Russian Tsardom . Furthermore, the Poles were reluctant to aid Lithuania without a quid pro quo . The most vocal opponent of the union was Sigismund's brother-in-law, Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł ( Lithuanian : Radvila Rudasis ), who viewed the agreement as "peaceful annexation of Lithuania" by Poland. He also resisted polonisation policies which forced ethnic Lithuanians to change their names and native language to Polish or Latin . As another war with Russia loomed, Sigismund Augustus pressed
20996-537: The first regular Polish postal service operating from Kraków to Venice , thus establishing Poczta Polska (Polish Post). All maintenance costs were borne by the Crown and the post was mostly managed by Italians or Germans. Additional couriers travelled between Kraków, Warsaw and Vilnius. Since 1562, the postal route also encompassed Vienna and cities in the Holy Roman Empire, which enabled continuous correspondence with
21177-424: The former lands of Kievan Rus' , including the territories of modern-day Belarus and Ukraine . On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers . This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , created in 1569 by the Union of Lublin . In
21358-486: The initial euphoria demonstrated by royal subjects, the marriage was unsuccessful from the very beginning. Sigismund Augustus did not find Elizabeth attractive and continued to have extramarital affairs with several mistresses, the most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł . Elizabeth was also known to be timid, meek and apprehensive due to strict upbringing. The young and garrulous king was also repulsed by Elizabeth's newly diagnosed epilepsy and subsequent seizures. Only Sigismund
21539-400: The king had venereal disease which caused him to be infertile . At 16, he also contracted malaria which further contributed to his inability of producing any offspring. By 1558 Sigismund had gout and since 1568 he also suffered from kidney stones , which triggered immense pain. He employed numerous medics, healers or even quack doctors and imported expensive ointments from Italy. By
21720-481: The land in the Brest rail yards remains contaminated due to the transhipment of radioactive materials here since Soviet days. However, cleanup operations have been taking place. The local airport, Brest Airport (code BQT), operates flights on a seasonal schedule to Kaliningrad in the Russian Federation and seasonal charter flights to Burgas and Antalya . HC Meshkov Brest is the most successful team of
21901-550: The last Master of the Order, was granted the newly established Duchy of Courland and Semigallia . Wilhelm was restored to his former position as archbishop on Sigismund's demand, with the Lutheran church order being enacted. The incorporation of Courland into the Polish sphere of influence created an alliance which threatened Russia's plans of expanding into the Baltic coast . Sigismund directed
22082-629: The legitimate president of Belarus and the Lithuanian government has allotted a residence for main opposition candidate Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya and other members of the Belarusian opposition in Vilnius . Neither is Lukashenko recognized as the legitimate president of Belarus by the European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom or the United States. The European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom, and
22263-465: The main arsenal of the crown. Sigismund Augustus was a passionate collector of jewels and gemstones . According to nuncio Bernardo Bongiovanni's relation, his collection was cached in 16 chests. Among the precious items in his possession was Charles V 's ruby of 80,000 scudos ' worth, as well as the Emperor's diamond medal with Habsburgs Eagle on one side and two columns with a sign Plus Ultra on
22444-409: The members of parliament (Sejm) for the union, gradually gaining more followers due to his persuasive abilities and auspicious diplomacy. The potential union agreement would lead to the eviction of Lithuanian landowners who opposed the transition of territory from multi-ethnic Lithuania to Poland. Such terms were causing an outrage among the most renowned members of Lithuanian upper classes, but Sigismund
22625-462: The most beautiful of his countrywomen, Barbara Giza and Anna Zajączkowska but was unable to impregnate either of them. The Sejm was willing to legitimize, and acknowledge as Sigismund's successor, any male heir who might be born to him; however, the King remained childless. The King's marriage was a matter of great political import to Protestants and Catholics alike. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would divorce and remarry and thus bring about
22806-658: The name "Belarus". Despite significant efforts, the state ceased to exist, primarily because the territory was continually dominated by the Imperial German Army and the Imperial Russian Army in World War I , and then the Bolshevik Red Army . It existed from only 1918 to 1919 but created prerequisites for the formation of a Belarusian state. The choice of name was probably based on the fact that core members of
22987-526: The nation, often distrustful of the Germans . He also avoided serious complications and skirmishes with the powerful Turks. During Sigismund Augustus' reign, Livonia was in political turmoil. His father, Sigismund I, permitted Albert of Prussia to introduce the Protestant Reformation and secularize the southern part of the Teutonic Order State . Albert then established Europe's first Protestant state in
23168-419: The naturally regenerating forest 2% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 16% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership . Belarus borders five countries: Latvia to the north, Lithuania to the northwest, Poland to
23349-571: The new bride. The treaty was renewed on 16 June 1538 in Wrocław by Johannes Dantiscus and the betrothal ceremony took place on 17 July 1538 in Innsbruck . Bona continued to lobby against the marriage and instead proposed Margaret of France to potentially form an alliance with the French against the Habsburgs . On 5 May 1543, Elizabeth's escorted convoy entered Kraków and was greeted with enthusiasm by both
23530-404: The new king repudiated Barbara. The nobles portrayed Barbara as an opportunistic prostitute that charmed the king for her own benefit. That perception was shared with Bona Sforza, who decisively eliminated all her rivals by any means to stay in power. The young monarch even considered abdicating . By 1550, when Sigismund summoned his second Sejm, the nobles had begun to be in his favor; the nobility
23711-402: The newly formed government were educated in tsarist universities, with corresponding emphasis on the ideology of West-Russianism. The Republic of Central Lithuania was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania to the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 following
23892-400: The nobility. To avoid an armed rebellion, Sigismund was forced to form an alliance with his former father-in-law, Emperor Ferdinand I. This allowed for Barbara's coronation as Queen of Poland on 7 December 1550 by Primate Mikołaj Dzierzgowski . Queen Bona eventually succumbed to her son's demand and accepted the marriage sending a messenger in 1551 who informed Barbara of her decision. Since
24073-407: The nobles and the townsfolk. The same day 16-year-old Elizabeth married 22-year-old Sigismund Augustus, whom she met for the first time shortly before marriage vows. The ceremony was performed at the Wawel Cathedral and the wedding continued for two weeks. Bona began to plot against the new queen. As a result, the newly wedded couple decided to reside in Vilnius , far from the royal court. Despite
24254-404: The origin of the city's name. The name could originate from Slavic root berest ' elm '. It could likewise have come from the Lithuanian word brasta ' ford '. Traditionally, Belarusian speakers called the city Берасце ( Bieraście ), similar to the Ukrainian name Берестя ( Berestia ). Once a center of Jewish scholarship, the city has the Yiddish name בריסק ( Brisk ), hence
24435-405: The other hand, she was ambitious, intelligent, perceptive and had an exemplar taste in fashion. She always wore precious pearl necklaces when sitting for portraits. The mutual admiration between Sigismund and Barbara made the relationship "one of the greatest love affairs in Polish history". While still married to Elizabeth, Sigismund Augustus ordered the construction of a secret passage connecting
24616-471: The other side. In 1571, after the death of his nephew John Sigismund Zápolya , he inherited the Hungarian Crown used by some Hungarian monarchs. A Swedish Crown was also made for him. The Polish king treated those crowns as a family keepsake, and kept them in a private vault in the Tykocin Castle. He had also a sultan 's sword of 16,000 ducats ' worth, 30 precious horse trappings and 20 different private-use armours . The king's possession included
24797-416: The principalities of Kievan Rus' , and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . From the Late Middle Ages , the city was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which later became a part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569. In 1795, it was incorporated into the Russian Empire with the Third Partition of Poland . After the Polish-Soviet War , the city became part of the Second Polish Republic . In 1939,
24978-453: The proposed union would lower their rank and status to an equivalent with petty nobility rather than wealthier Polish aristocracy. On the other hand, the unification would provide a strong alliance against Russian (Muscovite) attack from the east. Lithuania was ravaged by the Muscovite-Lithuanian Wars which endured for over 150 years. During the Second War , Lithuania lost 210,000 square miles (540,000 km ) of its territory to Russia, and
25159-435: The return to Orthodox Christianity of Belarusian Uniates . Belarusian language was banned in schools while in neighboring Samogitia primary school education with Samogitian literacy was allowed. In a Russification drive in the 1840s, Nicholas I prohibited the use of the Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications, and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under
25340-591: The southeastern regions) was affected by radiation fallout. The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137 . In Belarus forest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 8,767,600 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 7,780,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered 6,555,600 hectares (ha), and planted forests covered 2,212,000 hectares (ha). Of
25521-414: The staged rebellion of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division of the Polish Army under Lucjan Żeligowski . Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , Vilna ( Lithuanian : Vilnius , Polish : Wilno ), for 18 months the entity served as a buffer state between Poland , upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area. After a variety of delays,
25702-414: The state split into independent principalities. The Battle on the Nemiga River in 1067 was one of the more notable events of the period, the date of which is considered the founding date of Minsk . Many early principalities were virtually razed or severely affected by a major Mongol invasion in the 13th century, but the lands of modern-day Belarus avoided the brunt of the invasion and eventually joined
25883-552: The status of an independent ' city state '. 11 Polish privateers sent by Sigismund were eventually executed, which greatly angered the king. Poland then joined Denmark against Sweden for Baltic domination. The war ended as status quo ante bellum in 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin , which was signed by Bishop Martin Kromer on behalf of Sigismund Augustus. However, the ineffective conflict did have its input in establishing Poland's first registered naval fleet (Naval Commission) in 1568. Sigismund's most striking legacy may have been
26064-413: The stern and majestic Sigismund I the Old . Sigismund II possessed to a high degree the tenacity and patience that seem to have characterized all the Jagiellons , and he added to these qualities a dexterity and diplomatic finesse. No other Polish king seems to have so thoroughly understood the nature of the Polish Sejm and national assembly. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to
26245-407: The term "Brisker" used to describe followers of the influential Soloveitchik family of rabbis . Brest became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1319. In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth formed in 1569, the town became known in Polish as Brześć , historically Brześć Litewski (literally: "Lithuanian Brest", in contradistinction to Brześć Kujawski ). Brześć became part of
26426-476: The term White Russia caused some confusion, as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks. During the period of the Byelorussian SSR, the term Byelorussia was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In western Belarus under Polish control, Byelorussia became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period. The term Byelorussia (its names in other languages such as English being based on
26607-496: The town and castle were captured by the Swedish Army during its invasions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . Then, in an attack from the other direction, on 13 January 1660, the invading Streltsy of the Tsardom of Russia under Ivan Andreyevich Khovansky took the Brest Castle in an early morning surprise attack, the town having been captured earlier, and massacred the 1,700 defenders and their families (according to an Austrian observer, Captain Rosestein). On 23 July 1792,
26788-433: The town was captured by the Imperial German Army under August von Mackensen on 25 August 1915, during the Great Retreat of 1915 . Shortly after Brest fell into German hands, war poet August Stramm , who has been called "the first of the Expressionists " and one of "the most innovative poets of the First World War," was shot in the head during an attack on nearby Russian positions on 1 September 1915. In March 1918, in
26969-443: The two had close contact and he assisted the monarch at most important occasions, including military maneuvers in Lithuania in 1567. Kochanowski was also present during the signing of Lublin Union in 1569. Sigismund was fond of foreign craft-makers and employed Italian goldsmiths, jewellers and medalists, very much like his father. One of the more renowned figures brought to Poland was Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio . In Italy, Caraglio
27150-402: The unification act on 4 July, and henceforth governed one of the largest and multicultural countries of 16th-century Europe. In comparison to his staunchly Catholic father, Sigismund Augustus paid little attention to the matters of faith and religion. Having a large number of mistresses before, during and after being married, he was viewed by the clergy as an adulterer and libertine . Sigismund
27331-471: The upper classes as it promoted democratic freedoms and called for rebellion against absolutism , which the privileged Polish nobility favoured. During the 1555 Sejm session in Piotrków , the nobles intensively discussed the rights of priests in the newly proposed Polish Church and demanded the abolition of celibacy . Some Catholic bishops were supportive of the concepts and acknowledged the need for uniting Poland, Lithuania, Prussia and their vassals under
27512-547: The vote in the first round and 80% in the second, defeating Vyacheslav Kebich who received 14% of the vote. The elections were the first and only free elections in Belarus after independence. The 2000s saw some economic disputes between Belarus and its primary economic partner, Russia. The first one was the 2004 Russia–Belarus energy dispute when Russian energy giant Gazprom ceased the import of gas into Belarus because of price disagreements. The 2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute centered on accusations by Gazprom that Belarus
27693-445: The war and even more so by events and developments in Central and Eastern Europe . During 1918, the city became a part of the Volhynia Governorate of the Ukrainian People's Republic as a result of negotiations and own treaty between the delegation of the Ukrainian Central Rada and Central Powers. On 9 February 1919, Polish troops entered the city, and it returned to Poland , which regained independence three months earlier. During
27874-484: The west, Russia to the north and the east, and Ukraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, and Belarus ratified a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border in 2009. Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007. Sigismund II Augustus Sigismund II Augustus ( Polish : Zygmunt II August , Lithuanian : Žygimantas Augustas ; 1 August 1520 – 7 July 1572)
28055-404: The word derives from the Old Prussian name Gudwa , which, in turn, is related to the form Żudwa , which is a distorted version of Sudwa, Sudovia. Sudovia , in its turn, is one of the names of the Yotvingians . Another hypothesis connects the word with the Gothic Kingdom that occupied parts of the territory of modern Belarus and Ukraine in the 4th and 5th centuries. The self-naming of Goths
28236-416: The years following the union, the process of gradual Polonization of both Lithuanians and Ruthenians gained steady momentum. In culture and social life, both the Polish language and Catholicism became dominant, and in 1696, Polish replaced Ruthenian as the official language, with Ruthenian being banned from administrative use. However, the Ruthenian peasants continued to speak their native language. Also,
28417-404: Was Gutans and Gytos , which are close to Gudija. Yet another hypothesis is based on the idea that Gudija in Lithuanian means "the other" and may have been used historically by Lithuanians to refer to any people who did not speak Lithuanian. From 5000 to 2000 BC, the Bandkeramik predominated in what now constitutes Belarus, and the Cimmerians as well as other pastoralists roamed through
28598-412: Was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania , the son of Sigismund I the Old , whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548. He was the first ruler of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the last male monarch from the Jagiellonian dynasty . Sigismund was the only son of Italian-born Bona Sforza and Sigismund the Old. From the beginning he was groomed and extensively educated as a successor. In 1529 he
28779-415: Was inaugurated as Grand Duke of Lithuania and the ceremony was held in the Vilnius grand ducal palace . In 1530, the ten-year-old Sigismund Augustus was crowned by Primate Jan Łaski as co-ruler alongside his father, in accordance with the vivente rege law. Sigismund the Old hoped to secure his son's succession to the throne and maintain the Jagiellonian dynasty 's position in Poland. The move
28960-473: Was a tributary state of the Polish Crown, Sigismund Augustus, a Catholic, was forced to intervene in favour of Protestant Albert and his brother Wilhelm. In July 1557 the Polish forces left for Livonia. The armed intervention proved to be successful; the Catholic Livonians surrendered and signed the Treaty of Pozvol on 14 September 1557. The agreement placed most Livonian territories under Polish protection and de facto became part of Poland. Gotthard Kettler ,
29141-493: Was also affected as the trade route from the Baltic ran through Gdańsk and along the Vistula river to the southern province of Lesser Poland . Gdańsk, which was privileged with its own army and government, resisted against Sigismund's order of sending privateers and creating the first Polish Admiralty in their city. Most of the deputies in the city council were merchants and tradesmen of German descent or Protestants who were either politically leaning towards Sweden or fighting for
29322-529: Was also reasonably tolerant towards minorities and supported nobles of different faith and nationality to be part of the national assembly, the Sejm. He continued his father's policies, but was more accepting of the Protestant Reformation in Poland (only to the status of a minority religion). Several magnates converted to Calvinism or Lutheranism during the Reformation started by Martin Luther and John Calvin , most notably Stanisław Zamoyski , Jan Zamoyski , Mikołaj Rej , Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski , Johannes
29503-406: Was chosen Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1446, a meeting of Casimir IV, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Polish senators regarding the political affiliation of Volhynia took place in the city, and in 1454 Casimir IV met with Lithuanian nobility to convince them to participate in the Polish–Teutonic War on the side of Poland. In 1500, it was burned again by Crimean Tatars . From 1513,
29684-400: Was contaminated with most (70%) of the nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant located 16 km beyond the border in the neighboring Ukrainian SSR . By the late 1980s, political liberalization led to a national revival, with the Belarusian Popular Front becoming a major pro-independence force. In March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of
29865-495: Was crowned vivente rege while his father was still alive. Sigismund Augustus continued a tolerance policy towards minorities and maintained peaceful relations with neighbouring countries, with the exception of the Northern Seven Years' War which aimed to secure Baltic trade. Under his patronage, culture flourished in Poland; he was a collector of tapestries from the Low Countries and collected military memorabilia as well as swords, armours and jewellery. Sigismund Augustus' rule
30046-418: Was crucial to silence the members of nobility who were against the Jagiellons and viewed the action as a step towards absolutism . The law was officially abolished by the Henrician Articles , or the new constitution adopted between the nobles and the newly elected King Henry of Valois in 1573. Sigismund Augustus began his reign as the Grand Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1544 and initially opposed
30227-521: Was decisive and ruthless in this matter. Moreover, the personal union between the two countries created by the marriage of Jadwiga with Jogaila in 1385 was not entirely constitutional. Being the last male member of the Jagiellons, childless Sigismund sought to preserve his dynasty's legacy. The newly proposed constitutional union would create one large Commonwealth state, with one elected monarch who would simultaneously reign over both domains. The initial Sejm negotiations on unity in January 1569, near
30408-421: Was declared the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia (SSRB) for just two months, but then merged with the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) to form the Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia (SSR LiB), which lost control of its territories by August. The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) was created in July 1920. The contested lands were divided between Poland and
30589-403: Was feeling well and hoped to recover. Great Marshal Jan Firlej denied these claims and reported that the king was bleeding severely due to consumption and was troubled by pain in the chest and lumbar . Sigismund died in Knyszyn on 7 July 1572 at 6 in the afternoon, surrounded by a group of senators and envoys. The official cause of death given by the medics was consumption. His body placed on
30770-405: Was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey , who was known for his close contacts with the Russian royal court. During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used the term to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The term Belorussia (Russian: Белору́ссия , the latter part similar but spelled and stressed differently from Росси́я , Russia ) first rose in
30951-1841: Was laid waste by the Mongols in 1241, and was not rebuilt until 1275. Possibly since the 1270s, the city was contested by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia . [REDACTED] Kievan Rus' (1170–1178) ∟ Principality of Volhynia (1170–1177) ∟ Principality of Minsk (1177–1178) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Poland (1178– c. 1179 ) ∟ Duchy of Masovia (1178– c. 1179 ) [REDACTED] Kievan Rus' ( c. 1179 –1182) ∟ Principality of Minsk ( c. 1179 –1182) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Poland (1182– c. 1217 ) ∟ Principality of Galicia–Volhynia (1199–1205) [REDACTED] Principality of Galicia–Volhynia ( c. 1217 –1246) [REDACTED] Golden Horde (1246–1319) ∟ Principality of Galicia–Volhynia (1246–1253) ∟ Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia (1253–1319) [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1319–1320) [REDACTED] Golden Horde (1320–1321) ∟ Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia (1320–1321) [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1321–1349) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Poland (1349–1351) [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1351–1569) [REDACTED] Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) [REDACTED] Russian Empire (1795–1812) [REDACTED] French occupation (1812) [REDACTED] Russian Empire (1812–1915) [REDACTED] German occupation (1915–1918) [REDACTED] Second Polish Republic (1918–1919) [REDACTED] SSR Byelorussia (1919) [REDACTED] Second Polish Republic (1919–1939) [REDACTED] Soviet occupation (1939–1941) [REDACTED] German occupation (1941–1944) [REDACTED] Soviet occupation (1944–1945) [REDACTED] Soviet Union (1945–1991) [REDACTED] Belarus (1991– present ) In 1319,
31132-420: Was met with Sigismund the Old's strong disapproval, who hoped for a lineage of Sigismunds on the Polish throne. Consequently, it was established that the child would bear two names to settle the conflict. The tradition of adopting Augustus as a second or middle name was also observed during the coronation of Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski who became King Stanisław II Augustus in 1764. In 1529, Sigismund Augustus
31313-418: Was one of the first reproductive printmakers . In Poland, Sigismund tasked him with the production of cameos , medallions, coins and jewellery. Numerous medals and roundels from this period feature the last members of the Jagiellonian dynasty . When Sigismund's mother Bona died in 1557, Sigismund had to collect his inheritance from the Italian estates. On 18 October 1558, the king granted the right to arrange
31494-633: Was poisoned. Sigismund finally wedded Catherine of Austria , but remained childless throughout his life. Sigismund Augustus was the last male member of the Jagiellonian dynasty . Following the death of his sister Anna in 1596 the Jagiellonian dynasty came to an end. Sigismund Augustus was born in Kraków on 1 August 1520 to Sigismund I the Old and his wife, Bona Sforza of Milan . His paternal grandparents were Casimir IV Jagiellon , King of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria . Sigismund's maternal grandparents, Gian Galeazzo Sforza and Isabella of Aragon , daughter of King Alfonso II of Naples , both ruled
31675-406: Was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts . An alternative explanation for the name comments on the white clothing the local Slavic population wears. A third theory suggests that the old Rus' lands that were not conquered by the Tatars (i.e., Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Mogilev) had been referred to as White Rus' . A fourth theory suggests that the color white was associated with the west, and Belarus
31856-424: Was rebuked by Marshal Piotr Kmita Sobieński , who accused them of attempting to unduly diminish the legislative prerogatives of the Polish Crown. Furthermore, Bona was removed from Wawel and sent to Mazovia where she established her own small courtly entourage. Unlike her predecessor, Barbara was disliked by the royal court and led a more secluded life with Sigismund Augustus, who was deeply in love with her. On
32037-407: Was settled with colonists from Poland proper resulting in systematic polonisation of these lands. When the Kalmar Union between Sweden and Denmark was disbanded in 1523 due to Swedish resentment of Danish tyranny, Baltic trade became threatened. The port city of Gdańsk (Danzig), Poland's wealthiest city, faced difficulties due to ongoing conflict on the sea and piracy . The capital, Kraków ,
32218-441: Was siphoning oil off of the Druzhba pipeline that runs through Belarus. Two years later the so-called Milk War , a trade dispute, started when Russia wanted Belarus to recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and through a series of events ended up banning the import of dairy products from Belarus. In 2011, Belarus suffered a severe economic crisis attributed to Lukashenko's government's centralized control of
32399-512: Was the western part of Rus' in the 9th to 13th centuries. The name Rus' is often conflated with its Latin forms Russia and Ruthenia , thus Belarus is often referred to as White Russia or White Ruthenia . The name first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature ; the chronicles of Jan of Czarnków mention the imprisonment of Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother at " Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto " in 1381. The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus
32580-408: Was then involved in several relationships with mistresses, the most famous being Barbara Radziwiłł , who became Sigismund's second wife and Queen of Poland in spite of his mother's disapproval. The marriage was deemed scandalous and was fiercely opposed by the royal court and the nobility . Barbara died five months after her coronation, presumably due to ill health, however, rumours circulated that she
32761-411: Was transported to Vilnius Cathedral , where she was finally buried on 23 June next to Elizabeth of Austria. Her death was a major blow to Sigismund; he often attended her coffin on foot while being transported to Vilnius in hot weather. Sigismund also became more serious and reserved; he avoided balls, temporarily renounced his mistresses and dressed in black until his death. The cause of Barbara's death
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