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72-656: Bruises are not to be confused with other similar-looking lesions . Such lesions include petechia (less than 3 mm (0.12 in), resulting from numerous and diverse etiologies such as adverse reactions from medications such as warfarin, straining, asphyxiation, platelet disorders and diseases such as cytomegalovirus ); and purpura (3–10 mm (0.12–0.39 in)), classified as palpable purpura or non-palpable purpura and indicating various pathologic conditions such as thrombocytopenia . Additionally, although many terminology schemas treat an ecchymosis (plural, ecchymoses) (over 1 cm (0.39 in)) as synonymous with

144-424: A hormone that causes narrowing of the blood vessel to minimize bleeding. As the endothelium is destroyed, the underlying von Willebrand factor is exposed and initiates coagulation , which creates a temporary clot to plug the wound and eventually leads to restoration of normal tissue. During this time, larger bruises may change color due to the breakdown of hemoglobin from within escaped red blood cells in

216-587: A non space-occupying lesion is simply a hole in the tissue, e.g. a small area of the brain that has turned to fluid following a stroke . Lesions may also be classified by the shape they form. This is the case with many ulcers , which can have a bullseye or 'target' appearance. A coin lesion as seen in an X-ray has the appearance of a coin sitting on the patient's chest. Brain lesions may help researchers understand brain function. Research involving lesions relies on two assumptions: that brain damage can affect different aspects of cognition independently, and that

288-415: A purpuric rash, that does not lose its color when pressed with a glass slide (" non-blanching ") and does not cause the classical symptoms of meningitis. This means the condition may be ignored by those not aware of the significance of the rash. Septicaemia carries an approximate 50% mortality rate over a few hours from initial onset. Other severe complications include Waterhouse–Friderichsen syndrome ,

360-516: A varicella zoster virus infection are called chickenpox . Lesions of the teeth are usually called dental caries , or "cavities". Lesions are often classified by their tissue types or locations. For example, a "skin lesion" or a " brain lesion " are named for the tissue where they are found. If there is an added significance to regions within the tissue—such as in neural injuries where different locations correspond to different neurological deficits—they are further classified by location. For example,

432-548: A bruise is always caused by internal bleeding into the interstitial tissues which does not break through the skin, usually initiated by blunt trauma , which causes damage through physical compression and deceleration forces. Trauma sufficient to cause bruising can occur from a wide variety of situations including accidents, falls, and surgeries. Disease states such as insufficient or malfunctioning platelets , other coagulation deficiencies, or vascular disorders, such as venous blockage associated with severe allergies can lead to

504-400: A bruise, in some other schemas, an ecchymosis is differentiated by its remoteness from the source and cause of bleeding, with blood dissecting through tissue planes and settling in an area remote from the site of trauma or even nontraumatic pathology, such as in periorbital ecchymosis (" raccoon eyes "), arising from a basilar skull fracture or from a neuroblastoma . As a type of hematoma,

576-407: A hard, fluctuating lump or swelling hematoma. This has the potential to cause compartment syndrome in which the swelling cuts off blood flow to the tissues. The trauma that induced the bruise may also have caused other severe and potentially fatal harm to internal organs . For example, impacts to the head can cause traumatic brain injury : bleeding, bruising and massive swelling of the brain with

648-546: A hypervirulent strain. This illustrates how hypervirulent strains can arise from non-pathgenic strains due to the high propensity of gene transfers and DNA uptake by N. meningitidis . A small amount of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is sent to the laboratory as soon as possible for analysis. The diagnosis is suspected, when Gram-negative diplococci are seen on Gram stain of a centrifuged sample of CSF; sometimes they are located inside white blood cells . The microscopic identification takes around 1–2 hours after specimen arrival in

720-401: A lesion in the central nervous system is called a central lesion, and a lesion in the peripheral nervous system is called a peripheral lesion . A myocardial lesion results from damage to the heart muscle, and a coronary lesion is a subtype that describes a lesion in the coronary arteries . Coronary lesions are then further classified according to the side of the heart that is affected and

792-579: A limb or the feeling of liquid under the skin may indicate life-threatening injury and require the attention of a physician. Increased distress to tissue causes capillaries to break under the skin, allowing blood to escape and build up. As time progresses, blood seeps into the surrounding tissues, causing the bruise to darken and spread. Nerve endings within the affected tissue detect the increased pressure, which, depending on severity and location, may be perceived as pain or pressure or be asymptomatic . The damaged capillary endothelium releases endothelin ,

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864-420: A locally damaged brain functions identically to a normal brain in its "undamaged" parts. Sham lesion is the name given to a control procedure during a lesion experiment. In a sham lesion, an animal may be placed in a stereotaxic apparatus and electrodes inserted as in the experimental condition, but no current is passed, and therefore damage to the tissue should be minimal. Humans with brain lesions are often

936-436: A massive, usually bilateral, hemorrhage into the adrenal glands caused by fulminant meningococcemia, adrenal insufficiency , and disseminated intravascular coagulation . Not all instances of a purpura-like rash are due to meningococcal septicaemia; other possible causes, such as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP; a platelet disorder) and Henoch–Schönlein purpura , also need prompt investigation. N. meningitidis

1008-403: A neighboring cell and integrates this DNA into the recipient's genome by recombination . In N. meningitidis , DNA transformation requires the presence of short DNA sequences (9–10 mers residing in coding regions ) of the donor DNA. These sequences are called DNA uptake sequences (DUSs) . Specific recognition of these sequences is mediated by a type IV pilin . In N. meningitidis DUSs occur at

1080-427: A recent upper respiratory infection, smoking, and complement deficiency . The incubation period is short, from 2 to 10 days. In susceptible individuals, N. meningitidis may invade the bloodstream and cause a systemic infection , sepsis, disseminated intravascular coagulation , breakdown of circulation, and septic shock . In 1884 Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli first observed the bacterium inside cells in

1152-544: A significantly higher density in genes involved in DNA repair and recombination (as well as in restriction-modification and replication ) than in other annotated gene groups. The over-representation of DUS in DNA repair and recombination genes may reflect the benefit of maintaining the integrity of the DNA repair and recombination machinery by preferentially taking up genome maintenance genes, that could replace their damaged counterparts in

1224-418: A size of 2,188,020 bp, and the average GC content is 51.5%. The chromosome is predicted to possess 4 rRNA operons, 163 insertion elements (IS), 59 tRNAs, and 2,462 ORFs. There is a public database available for N. meningitidis core genome Multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST). Available at: Neisseria typing Genetic transformation is the process by which a recipient bacterial cell takes up DNA from

1296-467: A suspected or culture-proven meningococcal infection before antibiotic susceptibility results are available. Clinical practice guidelines endorse empirical treatment in the event a lumbar puncture to collect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for laboratory testing cannot first be performed. Antibiotic treatment may affect the results of microbiology tests, but a diagnosis may be made on the basis of blood-cultures and clinical examination. N. meningitidis

1368-403: A treatment for some health problems. The methods vary widely and include cupping, scraping, and slapping. Fire cupping uses suction which causes bruising in patients. Scraping ( gua sha ) uses a small hand device with a rounded edge to gently scrape the scalp or the skin. Another ancient device that creates mild bruising is a strigil , used by Greeks and Romans in the bath. Archaeologically there

1440-459: A week more for serotyping. Growth can and often does fail, either because antibiotics have been given preemptively, or because specimens have been inappropriately transported, as the organism is extremely susceptible to antibiotics and fastidious in its temperature, CO 2 and growth medium requirements. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests where available, mostly in industrialized countries, have been increasingly used; PCR can rapidly identify

1512-421: Is a Gram-negative diplococcus since it has an outer and inner membranes with a thin layer of peptidoglycan in between. It is 0.6–1.0 micrometers in size. It tests positive for the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase . N. meningitidis is a part of the normal nonpathogenic flora in the nasopharynx of up to 8–25% of adults. It colonizes and infects only humans, and has never been isolated from other animals. This

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1584-464: Is a medical emergency and immediate medical assessment is recommended. Current guidance in the United Kingdom is that if a case of meningococcal meningitis or septicaemia (infection of the blood) is suspected, intravenous antibiotics should be given and the ill person admitted to the hospital. This means that laboratory tests may be less likely to confirm the presence of Neisseria meningitidis as

1656-547: Is a major cause of illness, developmental impairment and death during childhood in industrialized countries and has been responsible for epidemics in Africa and in Asia. Every year, about 2,500 to 3,500 people become infected with N. meningitidis in the US, with a frequency of about 1 in 100,000. Children younger than five years are at greatest risk, followed by teenagers of high school age. Rates in

1728-407: Is an excitotoxic lesion, which can be caused by excitatory amino acids like kainic acid that kill neurons through overstimulation. Lesion size may be specified as gross , meaning it is visible to the unaided eye, or histologic , meaning a microscope is needed to see it. A space-occupying lesion , as the name suggests, has a recognizable volume and may impinge on nearby structures, whereas

1800-505: Is another function of porins. Ability to translocate into host cells and modulate reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis is made possible by porins, as well. Strains of the same species can express different porins. At least 8 complete genomes of Neisseria meningitidis strains have been determined which encode about 2,100 to 2,500 proteins. The genome of strain MC58 (serogroup B) has 2,272,351 base pairs. When sequenced in 2000, it

1872-458: Is indicated in those with impaired immunity, such as nephrotic syndrome or splenectomy . In June 2012, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a combination vaccine against two types of meningococcal diseases and Hib disease for infants and children 6 weeks to 18 months old. The vaccine, Menhibrix , was designed to prevent disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis serogroups C and Y, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). It

1944-465: Is key to the pathogenesis of N. meningitidis , and is, therefore, important as a potential vaccine candidate. Porins are also an important factor for complement inhibition for both pathogenic and commensal species. Porins are important for nutrient acquisition. Porins are also recognized by TLR2 , they bind complement factors ( C3b , C4b , factor H , and C4bp (complement factor 4b-binding protein)). Cooperation with pili for CR3-mediated internalization

2016-556: Is no precedent for scraping tools before Greek archaeological evidence, not Chinese or Egyptian. The word ecchymosis ( / ˌ ɛ k ɪ ˈ m oʊ s ɪ s / ; plural ecchymoses , / ˌ ɛ k ɪ ˈ m oʊ s iː s / ), comes to English from Neo-Latin , based on Greek ἐκχύμωσις , ekchymōsis , from ἐκχυμοῦσθαι , ekchymousthai , 'to extravasate blood', from ἐκ- , ek- (elided to ἐ- , e- ) and χυμός , chymos , 'juice'. Compare enchyma , "tissue infused with organic juice"; elaboration from chyme,

2088-426: Is ongoing. It is spread through saliva and other respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, and chewing on toys. Inhalation of respiratory droplets from a carrier which may be someone who is themselves in the early stages of disease can transmit the bacteria. Close contact with a carrier is the predominant risk factor . Other risk factors include a weakened general or local immune response, such as

2160-462: Is responsible for septic shock and hemorrhage due to the destruction of red blood cells. Other virulence factors include a polysaccharide capsule which prevents host phagocytosis and aids in evasion of the host immune response. Adhesion is another key virulence strategy to successfully invade host cell. There are several known proteins that are involved in adhesion and invasion, or mediate interactions with specific host cell receptors. These include

2232-450: Is thought to result from the bacterium's inability to get iron from sources other than human transferrin and lactoferrin . Disease-causing strains are classified according to the antigenic structure of their polysaccharide capsule. Serotype distribution varies markedly around the world. Among the 13 identified capsular types of N. meningitidis , six (A, B, C, W135, X, and Y) account for most disease cases worldwide. Type A has been

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2304-473: The African meningitis belt were as high as 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 100 before introduction of a vaccine in 2010. The incidence of meningococcal disease is highest among infants (children younger than one year old) whose immune system is relatively immature. In industrialized countries there is a second peak of incidence in young adults, who are congregating closely, living in dormitories or smoking. Vaccine development

2376-508: The cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). In 1887 Anton Weichselbaum isolated the bacterium from the CSF of patients with bacterial meningitis. He named the bacterium Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis . Components from Neisseria meningitidis are being harnessed in biotechnology. Its Cas9 enzyme is a useful tool in CRISPR gene editing because the enzyme is small and has distinct targeting features to

2448-507: The meningococcus , is a Gram-negative bacterium that can cause meningitis and other forms of meningococcal disease such as meningococcemia , a life-threatening sepsis . The bacterium is referred to as a coccus because it is round, and more specifically a diplococcus because of its tendency to form pairs. About 10% of adults are carriers of the bacteria in their nasopharynx . As an exclusively human pathogen, it causes developmental impairment and death in about 10% of cases. It causes

2520-444: The navel (belly button) with severe abdominal pain suggests acute pancreatitis . Connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome may cause relatively easy or spontaneous bruising depending on the severity. Spontaneous bruising or bruising with minimal trauma in the absence of other explanations and together with other minor or major criteria suggestive of vascular Ehlers–Danlos Syndrome (vEDS) suggests genetic testing for

2592-466: The 1970s and is the only meningococcal vaccine licensed for people older than 55. MPSV4 may be used in people 2–55 years old if the MCV4 vaccines are not available or contraindicated. Two meningococcal conjugate vaccines (MCV4) are licensed for use in the U.S. The first conjugate vaccine was licensed in 2005, the second in 2010. Conjugate vaccines are the preferred vaccine for people 2 through 55 years of age. It

2664-743: The Type IV pilin adhesin which mediates attachment of the bacterium to the epithelial cells of the nasopharynx , surface-exposed Opa and Opc proteins which mediate interactions with specific host cell receptors, and NadA which is involved in adhesion. Pathogenic meningococci that have invaded into the bloodstream must be able to survive in the new niche, this is facilitated by acquisition and utilisation of iron (FetA and Hmbr), resisting intracellular oxidative killing by producing catalase and superoxide dismutase and ability to avoid complement mediated killing (fHbp). Meningococci produce an IgA protease, an enzyme that cleaves IgA class antibodies and thus allows

2736-526: The ability to study lesions in specific body parts of the subjects, allowing them to quickly acquire a large group of subjects. An example of such a study is the lesioning of rat hippocampi to establish the role of the hippocampus in object recognition and object recency. Diabetes-associated lesions Bone lesions Brain lesions Skin lesions Gastrointestinal lesions Endodermal lesions Misc. disease-associated lesions Meningococcus Neisseria meningitidis , often referred to as

2808-514: The adverse effect of causing ecchymosis. The presence of bruises may be seen in patients with platelet or coagulation disorders, or those who are being treated with an anticoagulant . Unexplained bruising may be a warning sign of child abuse , domestic abuse , or serious medical problems such as leukemia or meningoccocal infection. Unexplained bruising can also indicate internal bleeding or certain types of cancer. Long-term glucocorticoid therapy can cause easy bruising. Bruising present around

2880-428: The antibiotics will dramatically lower the number of bacteria in the body. The UK guidance is based on the idea that the reduced ability to identify the bacteria is outweighed by reduced chance of death . Septicaemia caused by Neisseria meningitidis has received much less public attention than meningococcal meningitis even though septicaemia has been linked to infant deaths. Meningococcal septicaemia typically causes

2952-475: The area and preventing internal bleeding. Rest and preventing re-injury is essential for rapid recovery. Very gently massaging the area and applying heat may encourage blood flow and relieve pain according to the Gate control theory of pain, although causing additional pain may indicate the massage is exacerbating the injury. As for most injuries, these techniques should not be applied until at least three days following

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3024-560: The bacteria to evade a subclass of the humoral immune system. A hypervirulent strain was discovered in China. Its impact is yet to be determined. Factor H binding protein (fHbp) that is exhibited in N. meningitidis and some commensal species is the main inhibitor of the alternative complement pathway . fHbp protects meningococci from complement-mediated death in human serum experiments, but has also been shown to protect meningococci from antimicrobial peptides in vitro . Factor H binding protein

3096-412: The condition. During an autopsy , bruises accompanying abrasions indicate the abrasions occurred while the individual was alive, as opposed to damage incurred post mortem. Bruise shapes may correspond directly to the instrument of injury or be modified by additional factors. Bruises often become more prominent as time lapses, resulting in additional size and swelling, and may grow to a large size over

3168-631: The course of the hours after the injury that caused the bruise was inflicted. Bruises can be scored on a scale from 0–5 to categorize the severity and danger of the injury. The harm score is determined by the extent and severity of the injuries to the organs and tissues causing the bruising, in turn depending on multiple factors. For example, a contracted muscle will bruise more severely, as will tissues crushed against underlying bone. Capillaries vary in strength, stiffness and toughness, which can also vary by age and medical conditions. Low levels of damaging forces produce small bruises and generally cause

3240-452: The days following the injury. Hematomas can be subdivided by size. By definition, ecchymoses are 1 centimetres in size or larger, and are therefore larger than petechiae (less than 3 millimetres in diameter) or purpura (3 to 10 millimetres in diameter). Ecchymoses also have a more diffuse border than other purpura. A broader definition of ecchymosis is the escape of blood into the tissues from ruptured blood vessels. The term also applies to

3312-430: The definition of a lesion is so broad, the varieties of lesions are virtually endless. Generally, lesions may be classified by their patterns, their sizes, their locations, or their causes. They can also be named after the person who discovered them. For example, Ghon lesions , which are found in the lungs of those with tuberculosis , are named after the lesion's discoverer, Anton Ghon. The characteristic skin lesions of

3384-465: The diameter of the artery in which they form. If a lesion is caused by a tumor , it can be classified as malignant or benign after analysis of a biopsy . A benign lesion that is evolving into a malignant lesion is called "premalignant". Cancerous lesions are sometimes classified by their growth kinetics, such as the Lodwick classification, which characterizes classes of bone lesions. Another type

3456-424: The extracellular space. The striking colors of a bruise are caused by the phagocytosis and sequential degradation of hemoglobin to biliverdin to bilirubin to hemosiderin , with hemoglobin itself producing a red-blue color, biliverdin producing a green color, bilirubin producing a yellow color, and hemosiderin producing a golden-brown color. As these products are cleared from the area, the bruise disappears. Often

3528-415: The following carbohydrates : maltose , sucrose , and glucose . N. meningitidis will ferment glucose and maltose. Finally, serology determines the subgroup of the N. meningitidis , which is important for epidemiological surveillance purposes; this may often only be done in specialized laboratories. The above tests take a minimum of 48–72 hours turnaround time for growing the organism, and up to

3600-944: The formation of purpura which is not to be confused with trauma-related bruising/contusion. If the trauma is sufficient to break the skin and allow blood to escape the interstitial tissues, the injury is not a bruise but bleeding, a different variety of hemorrhage. Such injuries may be accompanied by bruising elsewhere. Bruises often induce pain immediately after the trauma that results in their formation, but small bruises are not normally dangerous alone. Sometimes bruises can be serious, leading to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, such as when associated with serious injuries, including fractures and more severe internal bleeding . The likelihood and severity of bruising depends on many factors, including type and healthiness of affected tissues. Minor bruises may be easily recognized in people with light skin color by characteristic blue or purple appearance (idiomatically described as "black and blue") in

3672-455: The formative juice of tissues. Lesion A lesion is any damage or abnormal change in the tissue of an organism , usually caused by injury or diseases . Lesion is derived from the Latin laesio meaning "injury". Lesions may occur in plants as well as animals. There is no designated classification or naming convention for lesions. Since lesions can occur anywhere in the body and

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3744-487: The immune system. An invasive N. meningitidis strain of serogroup C broke out in Nigeria in 2013 – the strain was a new sequence type, ST-10217 determined by multilocus sequence typing . It was determined that a commensal strain of N. meningitidis acquired an 8-kb prophage, the meningococcal disease-associated island (MDAΦ), previously associated with hyper-invasiveness; and the full serogroup C capsule operon, thus becoming

3816-467: The individual to feel minor pain straight away. Repeated impacts worsen bruises, increasing the harm level. Normally, light bruises heal nearly completely within two weeks, although duration is affected by variation in severity and individual healing processes; generally, more severe or deeper bruises take somewhat longer. Severe bruising (harm score 2–3) may be dangerous or cause serious complications. Further bleeding and excess fluid may accumulate causing

3888-430: The initial damage to ensure all internal bleeding has stopped, because although increasing blood flow will allow more healing factors into the area and encourage drainage, if the injury is still bleeding this will allow more blood to seep out of the wound and cause the bruise to become worse. Folk medicine , including ancient medicine of Egyptians, Greeks, Celts, Turks, Slavs, Maya, Aztecs and Chinese, has used bruising as

3960-547: The laboratory. The gold standard of diagnosis is microbiological isolation of N. meningitidis by growth from a sterile body fluid, which could be CSF or blood. Diagnosis is confirmed when the organism has grown, most often on a chocolate agar plate, but also on Thayer–Martin agar . To differentiate any bacterial growth from other species a small amount of a bacterial colony is Gram stained and tested for oxidase and catalase . Gram negative diplococci that are oxidase and catalase positive are then tested for fermentation of

4032-531: The most prevalent in Africa and Asia, but is rare/practically absent in North America. In the United States, serogroup B is the predominant cause of disease and mortality, followed by serogroup C. The multiple subtypes have hindered development of a universal vaccine for meningococcal disease. Lipooligosaccharide (LOS) is a component of the outer membrane of N. meningitidis . This acts as an endotoxin and

4104-410: The nasophanrynx. Gene transfer can occur within and between genomes of Neisseria species, and it is the main mechanism of acquiring new traits. This is facilitated by the natural competence of the meningococci to take up foreign DNA. The commensal species of Neisseria can act as a reservoir of genes that can be acquired; for example, this is how capsule switching can occur as a means of hiding from

4176-505: The only form of bacterial meningitis known to occur epidemically , mainly in Africa and Asia. It occurs worldwide in both epidemic and endemic form. N. meningitidis is spread through saliva and respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, chewing on toys and through sharing a source of fresh water. It has also been reported to be transmitted through oral sex and cause urethritis in men. It infects its host cells by sticking to them with long thin extensions called pili and

4248-515: The organism, and works even after antibiotics have been given. All recent contacts of the infected patient over the seven days before onset should receive medication to prevent them from contracting the infection. This especially includes young children and their child caregivers or nursery-school contacts, as well as anyone who had direct exposure to the patient through kissing, sharing utensils, or medical interventions such as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation . Anyone who frequently ate, slept or stayed at

4320-482: The participating countries. Persons with confirmed N. meningitidis infection should be hospitalized immediately for treatment with antibiotics. Because meningococcal disease can disseminate very rapidly, a single dose of intramuscular antibiotic is often given at the earliest possible opportunity, even before hospitalization, if disease symptoms look suspicious enough. Third-generation cephalosporin antibiotics (i.e. cefotaxime , ceftriaxone ) should be used to treat

4392-639: The pathogen to evade the immune system of the host. The genome size of strain H44/76 is 2.18 Mb, and encodes 2,480 open reading frames (ORFs), compared to 2.27 Mb and 2,465 ORFs for MC58. Both strains have a GC content of 51.5%. A comparison with MC58 showed that four genes are uniquely present in H44/76 and nine genes are only present in MC58. Of all ORFs in H44/76, 2,317 (93%) show more than 99% sequence identity. The complete genome sequence of strain NMA510612 (serogroup A) consists of one circular chromosome with

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4464-505: The pathogen. A number of vaccines are available in the U.S. to prevent meningococcal disease. Some of the vaccines cover serogroup B, while others cover A, C, W, and Y. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends all teenagers receive MenACWY vaccine and booster, with optional MenB. MenACWY and MenB are also recommended for people of other ages with various medical conditions and social risk factors. A meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV4) has been available since

4536-497: The patient's home during the seven days before the onset of symptom, or those who sat beside the patient on an airplane flight or classroom for eight hours or longer, should also receive chemoprophylaxis . The agent of choice is usually oral rifampicin for a few days. Receiving a dose of the meningococcal vaccine before traveling to a country in the "meningitis belt" or having a booster meningitis vaccine, normally five years apart could prevent someone from getting an infection from

4608-484: The potential to cause concussion , coma and death. Treatment for brain bruising may involve emergency surgery to relieve the pressure on the brain. Damage that causes bruising can also cause bones to be broken , tendons or muscles to be strained , ligaments to be sprained , or other tissue to be damaged. The symptoms and signs of these injuries may initially appear to be those of simple bruising. Abdominal bruising or severe injuries that cause difficulty in moving

4680-416: The recipient cell. N. meningititis colonizes the nasopharyngeal mucosa , which is rich in macrophages . Upon their activation, macrophages produce superoxide (O 2 ) and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). Thus N. meningitidis is likely to encounter oxidative stress during its life cycle. Consequently, an important benefit of genetic transformation to N. meningitidis may be the maintenance of

4752-443: The recombination and repair machinery of the cell that removes oxidative DNA damages such as those caused by reactive oxygen . This is consistent with the more general idea that transformation benefits bacterial pathogens by facilitating repair of DNA damages produced by the oxidative defenses of the host during infection. Meningococci population is extensively diverse genetically, this is due to horizontal gene transfers while in

4824-659: The subcutaneous discoloration resulting from seepage of blood within the injured tissue. Bruise colors vary from red, blue, or almost black, depending on the severity of broken capillaries or blood vessels within the bruise site. Broken venules or arterioles often result in a deep blue or dark red bruise, respectively. Darker colored bruises may result from a more severe bleeding from both blood vessels. Older bruises may appear yellow, green or brown. There are many causes of subcutaneous hematomas including ecchymoses. Coagulopathies such as hemophilia A may cause ecchymosis formation in children. The medication betamethasone can have

4896-420: The subjects of research with the goal of establishing the function of the area where their lesion occurred. A drawback to the use of human subjects is the difficulty in finding subjects who have a lesion to the area the researcher wishes to study. As such, transcranial magnetic stimulation is often used in cognition and neuroscience-related tests to imitate the effect. Using animal subjects gives researchers

4968-709: The surface-exposed proteins Opa and Opc and has several virulence factors . Meningococcus can cause meningitis and other forms of meningococcal disease. It initially produces general symptoms like fatigue , fever, and headache and can rapidly progress to neck stiffness , coma and death in 10% of cases. Petechiae occur in about 50% of cases. Chance of survival is highly correlated with blood cortisol levels, with lower levels prior to steroid administration corresponding with increased patient mortality. Symptoms of meningococcal meningitis are easily confused with those caused by other bacteria, such as Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae . Suspicion of meningitis

5040-426: The underlying tissue damage has been repaired long before this process is complete. Treatment for light bruises is minimal and may include RICE ( rest , ice , compression , and elevation ), painkillers (particularly NSAIDs ) and, later in recovery, light stretching exercises. Particularly, immediate application of ice while elevating the area may reduce or completely prevent swelling by restricting blood flow to

5112-418: Was found to contain 2158 open reading frames (ORFs). Of these, a biological function was predicted for 1158 (53.7%). There were three major islands of horizontal DNA transfer found. Two encode proteins involved in pathogenicity. The third island only codes for hypothetical proteins. They also found more genes that undergo phase variation than any pathogen then known. Phase variation is a mechanism that helps

5184-948: Was the first meningococcal vaccine that could be given to infants as young as six weeks old. In October 2014 the FDA approved the first vaccine effective against serogroup B, named Trumenba , for use in 10- to 25-year-old individuals. In 2010, the Meningitis Vaccine Project introduced a vaccine called MenAfriVac in the African meningitis belt . It was made by generic drug maker Serum Institute of India and cost 50 U.S. cents per injection. Beginning in Burkina Faso in 2010, it has been given to 215 million people across Benin , Cameroon , Chad , Ivory Coast , Ethiopia , Ghana , Mali , Niger , Mauritania , Nigeria , Senegal , Sudan , Togo and Gambia . The vaccination campaign has resulted in near-elimination of serogroup A meningitis from

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